BAB I WRITING1. WritingLike speaking, writing is a productive skill. It involves producing language rather than receiving it. Writing involves communicating a message. In order to write, we need to form letters and words, join these together to make words, sentences or a series of sentences that link together to communicate a message. Learning to write in a second language is not merely learning to put down on paper the conventional symbols of the writing system that represents the utterances one has in mind, but it is also purposeful selection and organization of ideas, facts and experiences. In other words, writing is a thinking process and is much more than just copying. Writing aims at compactness and precision in expression as well as grammatical, idiomatic and orthographic accuracy. Therefore, learning to write involves learning to use grammar with ease and present facts in a sequential order.Writing is required to communicate with other people, to understand them, talk tothem, read what others have written and to write to them. The sub skills of writing areplanning, forming letters, punctuating correctly, linking, using the appropriate layout, paragraphing and so on.Writing involves going through a number of stages, some of which are givenbelow: brainstorming (thinking of everything we can about the topic). making notes. planning (organizing our ideas). writing a draft (a piece of writing that is not yet finished, and may be changed). editing (correcting and improving the text). producing another draft. proof reading (checking for mistakes).It is important to have a message and the ability to communicate it successfully to other people, in writing. In order to do this, one should have enough ideas, ability to organize them well and express them in an appropriate style.

1.1 Defenition WritingWriting is a skill, and like other skills, it has to be acquired. Writing is important to convey ideas, give instructions, share and preserve knowledge and so on. Although writing is very important, in most cases, it is never considered as an important skill. Writing is not just about using correct spelling, organizing words and ideas and following grammar, it is much more than that. According to Nuryana (2012:1), writing is an essential skill that becomes complex skill to master for the learners becausewriting is a productive skill that deals with the way to generate arid organize the ideas. Writing refers to the process of expressing words/utterance and extracting meaning from written or printed language (Mc. Arthur, 1992:847). Writing means the process of extracting meaning from written or printed language (Mc Artur,1992:37). Widdowson (1978) describes writing as the use of the visual medium to manifest the graphological and grammatical system of the language. Flower (1985) in an interesting comment on the skills of reading and writing describes reading as the transferring of symbol into thought and writing as the transferring of thought into symbol. Lindemann(1987) calls writing an economic power because it creates impressions, adverse or otherwise, in ones professional field. In addition, it is a social necessity because it is an established form of communication. No transaction is considered official until it is done in writing. Writing is described as a complex thinking process involving meaning and printed symbol (Lowrey, 1995:45). According to Irmscher (1979), writing is important for personal development because it requires concentration, focus and discipline to represent thoughts in a graphic form. Sommer (1989) says, Writing is away of learning other subjects; it can be used in every discipline as a strategy for teachingand learning.In the words of Byrne (1979), writing comprises the use of graphic symbols or letters to form words which are arranged in a particular order and linked together to form sentences. It is essentially a reflective activity that requires enough time to think about the topic area and to organize background knowledge. So, writing practice is extremely important.Murray (1973) says that writing is a skill which is important (in college and after college) in a complex and changing society. More people are needed who can write, who can order, communicate information and experience. Writing for many students is the skill which can unlock the language arts. Writing is a complex skill progressing from the level of copying familiar words and phrases to developing an awareness of text structures, genres, the process of drapting and editing and writing for an audience (Pinver. 2006:74).The some experts define writing, according to Finocchiaro (19993:181), in teaching English as a second (foreign) language, writing means the carefully guided marks on paper that teachers assists students in making unless a teacher is teaching a course in advanced composition or creative writing for more advanced students.According to Ron White and Valerie Arndt (1991:5), writing is re-writing... re-vision seeing with new eyes has a central role to play in the act of creating text.According to Logan (1993:115), writing is a process that can be practiced and learned. It is a tool for thinking, learning, and sharing information with orders. In age of information expression of ideas is a key skill for everyone.Richard and Rodrigues (1989:14) stated that Writing is a way to explore material, a way to discover insight into subjects.Barli Bram stated (1995:7) that In principle, to write means to try to produce or reproduce written messages.Writing is an activity of writing, written or printed words (Oxford Learners Pocket Dictionary, 1995: 480).Writing is the representation of language in atextual medium through the use of a setof signsor symbol. Itis distinguished from illustrationsuch as cave drawing and painting and nonsymbolic preservation of language via non-textual media, such as magnetic tapeaudioDaniel (1990:3).According to Fergenson and Nickerson, (1992: 4)that writing is not acquired through studying butit needs regular practice andspecial training andit can not be required automatically. It meansthat the teacher has tobe continuously give thestudents more exercises until they usually write.In Peacocks (1986) view, writing is a struggle to compose ideas in the head and construct a visible and tangible form out of the models and images that are stored and organized in the mind. In this regard, Raimes (1984) opines that teaching writing helps to reinforce the grammatical structures, idioms, vocabulary, etc., which are taught to learners. Teaching writing also helps the learners to be adventurous and creative.Hedge (1988) feels that writing is not just the act of planning everything ahead of time and then putting it on paper, but a means for thinking, a method of developing ideas and fleshing them out on paper. Writing is not just communicating a message by putting it on paper, but it is a means to think effectively, use words, improve ideas etc.

1.2 The Importance of WritingBacon (1989) rightly said, Reading makes a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man. Writing is an important medium and it is used for different purposes. Writing performs many functions in a persons day to day life in different areas like academic, official, media, social, cultural and personal settings. Communication to a major extent is carried on through the medium of writing personal correspondence, telegrams, circulars, reports, memos, minutes of meetings, instructions, email messages, assessment reports, project reports etc. Knowing writing is important to access journals, magazines, books, bills, letters, etc. With the growing importance of English, the need to learn to write in English for academic and occupational purposes is increasing. In the field of education, writing plays a dominant role for writing projects, assignments, examinations etc. In the Indian educational system, assessing academic abilities is closely linked with proficiency in writing. In fact, writing is the only medium through which learners are assessed formally in schools, colleges and universities. Written tests are administered, even for job placements. Writing virtually has become the tool for survival today. Certain jobs related to writing (content writing, technical writing, editing, etc) are the highly paid jobs in India today.Writing also involves the reinforcement of other language skills like reading, grammar, vocabulary as they are employed in the act of writing. Reading for additional information strengthens writing skills. Reading for specific purposes strengthens vocabulary. Focusing on teaching writing is important to facilitate all the needs of the learners inside the classroom as well as in their day-to-day life. Hence, writing is an important linguistic skill.

1.3 Writing as a Complex SkillWriting requires a complex mental effort, since writers have to concentrate both on the meaning and on the production of ideas. It is a complex act because it is a solitary act. Harold Rosen (1972) in Tricia Hedge (1988: 5) says, The writer is a lonely figure cut off from the stimulus and corrections of listeners. He must be a predictor of reactions and act on his predictions. He writes with one hand tied behind his back, being robbed of gesture. He is robbed too off the tone, of his voice and the aid of clues the environment provides. He is condemned to monologue, there is no one to help out, to fill the silences, put word in his mouth or make encouraging noises. Hence, we can see how a writer suffers when he cannot avail all the devices, a speaker has access to. Learning to write is not just a natural extension of learning to speak a language. Therefore, the two processes, speaking and writing are not identical, though they are productive skills. The diagram on the next page shows the process involved in order to produce an effective piece of writing.

Figure: 1 Producing a Piece of Writing

THE WRITERSPROCESSgetting ideas,getting started,writing drafts,revising

CONTENTrelevance, clarity,originality, logic, etc.

SYNTAXsentence structure,sentence boundaries,Stylistic choices, etc.

AUDIENCEthe readersGRAMMARrules for verbs,agreement, articles,pronouns, etc.Clear, fluent, andEffective communication of ideas

PURPOSEthe reason for writing

MECHANICShandwriting,spelling,punctuation, etc.

WORD CHOICEvocabularyidiom, toneORGANIZATIONparagraph, topic andsupport, cohesion andunity

- Raimes (1983: 6)

BAB II CHARACTERISTICS; KIND; FORMS; TYPES; ASPECTS OF WRITING

2.1 Characteristics of WritingThe following are the characteristics of writing according to Robert Barrass (2005).

Characteristics of your writingImpression created

(a) DesirableClearly expressed Spelling correct Punctuation and grammar good Well presented Helpful

(b) Undesirable Badly expressed Spelling poor Punctuation and grammar poor Badly presented Handwriting illegible Favourable Clear thinkingWell educatedCompetentWell organizedConsiderate

UnfavourableInconsiderateLazyCarelessIncompetent Inconsiderate

- Robert Barrass (2005).

The following are the essential characteristics of a good piece of writing:

Explanation: The purpose of writing should be made clear. The title should be explained clearly. So writing should be informative.Order: A good piece of writing should be broken into separate steps, with each step distinct and arranged in the right order. Ideas should flow in an order to help the reader to comprehend the text.Clarity: Each stage of writing should be complete and carefully constructed. Unambiguous sentences lead to confusion and misunderstanding. So, clarity is essential.Relevance: Only the information needed to complete the task should be provided. Material relevant to the title or question should be included.Simplicity: Unnecessary words and bombastic language could be confusing. Therefore, simplicity in writing is essential.Completeness: If an essential idea is omitted, meaning-making becomes difficult. Careful attention is necessary to produce a clear and complete piece of writing.Accuracy: A good piece of writing should help the reader by conveying information and ideas clearly and pleasurably, without mistakes. Sufficient explanation, the orderly presentation, simplicity and completeness contribute to accuracy in writing.

2.2 Kinds of WritingThe different kinds or types of writing are as follows:a) Descriptive- of objects, people, events, processes, institutions, arguments, etc.b) Narrative - sequencing of events and happeningsc) Expository - giving an expose of a subject, setting it out for view - with definition, classification, examples etc.d) Argumentative - taking a point of view and supporting ite) Reflective - looking back on issues, events, activities and people and seeing how your opinions change.f) Persuasive - getting readers to change their viewsg) Interpretative - giving the writers perspective on an issue.Descriptive, narrative and expository kinds of writing are easier than argumentative and persuasive writing.

2.3 Forms of WritingThe different forms of writing are letter writing, essay writing, summary writing, paragraph writing, journal writing, story writing, picture writing, etc.

2.3.1 Summary WritingA summary is a brief account that contains the main points of a text. In a summary, first, the most important ideas are put, and then all the main ideas come in a logical order.2.3.2 Essay WritingAn essay is a short literary composition on a particular theme or subject usually in prose and generally analytic.

2.3.3 Paragraph WritingA paragraph is a write up on a short subject. It is a group of sentences that tell you about one idea. A good paragraph includes a topic sentence and detail sentences in a logical order.

2.3.4 Journal WritingJournal writing involves keeping a record of things that happened in your life. A journal can also have poems and stories that are collected or written.

2.3.5 Poetry WritingPoetry is formed by sounds and syllables combined in distinctive and sometimesrhythmic ways.

2.3.6 Letter WritingLetter writing is an art. A well written letter is clear, simple and short. Letters are directly addressed to readers.

2.3.7 Story WritingStory writing is a narration of an incident, a place, an imaginary character etc. A good story has a clear theme, characters, short time span, word count, a narrow subject line etc.

2.3.8 Picture WritingPictures are valuable resources in the ESL classroom. Drawings, photographs, posters, slides, cartoons, magazine advertisements, diagrams, graphs, tables, charts and maps contribute a lot to learning, specially writing in the ESL classroom. Pictures are valuable as they help to generate common vocabulary and common language forms. In addition, a single picture can be used for a range of activities like controlled compositions, sentence combining exercises, writing of dialogues, letters, reports, stories, essays etc. According to Ann Raimes (1984), a whole series of connected activities can be generated from the source of one picture.The Communicative Approach to language teaching demands the learners use of language in the classroom meaningfully. In order to increase learners motivation and use of language, and their involvement in learning, activities like group work, pair work, language games, information gap activities etc, can be organized based on picture writing.Humanistic approaches to learning stress on the centrality and independence of the learner. Maslows theory (1943) states that unless you enjoy what you are doing, you cannot succeed. Therefore, in order to involve learners in the process of learning and to give them hands on experience of learning, materials / resources like pictures, charts, maps etc should be used in the classroom. Hence, pictures are of great use in the language learning classroom. The uses of pictures are discussed in detail in the next section.

2.3.9 The Use of Pictures in the ESL ClassroomAll ESL writing teachers can find a valuable resource in pictures. The following are the uses of pictures in the ESL classroom: Pictures provide a shared experience for students in the class. As everybody likes to look at pictures, their use in the classroom provides a stimulating focus for students attention. Pictures bring the outside world into the classroom in a vivid and concrete way. Pictures generate interest for students in the classroom. Many types of pictures can generate whole class discussion, leading to writing. Group work with pictures provides a real communicative task to learners. Pictures broaden the imagination to visualize and be creative. Pictures stimulate learners to make inferences, predictions and suppositions about the world beyond the picture and the classroom. Sequences of pictures help learners to organize the text, where cohesion and coherence are easily learnt. Pictures are useful to generate vocabulary and a number of ideas. Pictures reduce the cognitive burden by providing a context, there by giving many opportunities for the use of linguistic ability. Pictures serve as a major source of motivation in the classroom.

According to Ms.Alka Macwan, the following are the simple ways of using pictures for English language teaching: Pictures of people to describe their physical features and appearance. Pictures of rooms for prepositions.

2.4 Types of WritingBrown (1994:327-330) summarizes five major category of classroom writing perfomance.a. Imitative or writingdown.At beginning level of learning to write students will simply write down English letter, word and sentences in order to learn the conventions of ortoghraphic codes.b. Intensive or controlled.This intensive writingtypically appears in controlled, written grammar exercise. This type of writingwould not allow much creativity on the part of the writer.c. Self writingThe most salient instance of this category in classroom is note taking, diary or journal writing.d. Display writingFor all language students short answers exxercises, easy examinations and even research report will involve element of display. 2.5 Aspects of WritingThere are three main aspects of writing, which are called PAF (Bochani (1. Purpose/Objective2. Audience/Readers3. Function1. Purpose / Objective:A text is always written with a purpose or objective. As a writer, one should be clear about the purpose or the objective of that writing.Am I writing with any special purpose?OrWhy am I writing?The answers to these questions will make the idea clear and can bring out a good piece of writing.2. Audience / Readers:Any communication is meant for expressing ideas from one to one. In case of writing, the audience is not present but at least if the writer wants, S/he can write keeping the target group in mind. So, "Who, is going to read?"Or" For whom am I writing?" has to be made clear.As a student also, one should be clear for the audience or the readers either they are teachers or students or any other because after all this decides the nature of writing.3. Function :The function decides the nature of writing. Am I going to write a report, a letter, or just a write-up etc.? - which can lead us to a good and coherent, piece of writing.

BAB III WRITING STRATEGIES

3.1 General Ideas When students engage in rapid writing at the beginning of a writing assignment, they access their prior knowledge, engage with content, review and reflect, and begin to set direction for writing letters, essays, and other subject-based assignments.3.1.1 Purpose Help students to start writing and ultimately to produce more writing. Encourage fluency in generating ideas for writing on any topic, in any subject area. Help students begin organizing ideas.3.1.2 PayoffStudents will: rapidly generate fresh ideas about topics in any subject area. write down ideas without self-editing. generate raw material for more polished work. complete writing activities on time, overcome writers block, and improve test-taking skills.3.1.3 Tips and Resources This strategy may be used in a number of ways, including: prewriting; brainstorming for a specific question; or writing for reflection, learning logs, mathematics journals, work journals, etc. This strategy may also be used as a pre-reading strategy, similar to a KWL. Use this strategy to review what students remember about classroom work. Use rapid writing regularly in the classroom, and have students select the days topic. Possible topics might include analyzing a science hypothesis, discussing proof for a mathematics word problem, or developing an opinion on a history or geography topic. Students can apply this strategy when writing tests or examinations, by scribbling down information they are afraid of forgetting just before they begin responding to the questions. Use the rapid writing drafts to give students practice in proofreading and reviewing their writing for flow of ideas. When students use this strategy at the computer with the monitor turned off, they will be amused by how many errors in proofreading they have made. Be prepared for some laughter in the classroom when using this approach. See Student/Teacher Resource, Tips for Rapid Writing.3.1.4 Further Support Write the topic on the board, and do not repeat it orally if a student comes in late. Instead, point at the board. This also reinforces the topic for visual learners and for students who have poor aural memory. Encourage students to use the rapid writing strategy to overcome anxiety for tests or assignments. Use timed writing for parts of a task - e.g., as many words as possible in three minutes, then as many more as possible in the next three min, etc. Vary criteria: some students may need to work in point form, or stop and break after three minutes. Save completed rapid writing samples to use later to teach writing conventions or organization of ideas. Vary the amount of time you give to students. Post the topic-related vocabulary in the classroom as an aid for struggling students.3.2 Developing and Organizing IdeasEffective writers use different strategies to sort the ideas and information they have gathered in order to make connections, identify relationships, and determine possible directions and forms for their writing. This strategy gives students the opportunity to reorganize, regroup, sort, categorize, classify and cluster their notes.3.2.1 Purpose Identify relationships and make connections among ideas and information. Select ideas and information for possible topics and subtopics.3.2.2 PayoffStudents will: model critical and creative thinking strategies. learn a variety of strategies that can be used throughout the writing process. reread notes, gathered information and writing that are related to a specific writing task. organize ideas and information to focus the writing task.3.2.3 Tips and Resources Strategies for webbing and mapping include: Clustering looking for similarities among ideas, information or things, and grouping them according to characteristics. Comparing identifying similarities among ideas, information, or things. Contrasting identifying differences among ideas, information, or things. Generalizing describing the overall picture based on the ideas and information presented. Outlining organizing main ideas, information, and supporting details based on their relationship to each other. Relating showing how events, situations, ideas and information are connected. Sorting arranging or separating into types, kinds, sizes, etc. Trend-spotting identifying things that generally look or behave the same. See Student/Teacher Resource, Webbing Ideas and Information.3.2.4 Further Support Provide students with sample graphic organizers that guide them in sorting and organizing their information and notes- e.g., cluster (webs), sequence (flow charts), compare (Venn diagram). Have students create a variety of graphic organizers that they have successfully used for different writing tasks. Create a class collection for students to refer to and use. Provide students with access to markers, highlighters, scissors, and glue, for marking and manipulating their gathered ideas and information. Select a familiar topic (perhaps a topic for review). Have students form discussion groups. Ask students to recall what they already know about the topic, and questions that they still have about the topic. Taking turns, students record one idea or question on a stick-on note and place it in the middle of the table. Encourage students to build on the ideas of others. After students have contributed everything they can recall about the topic, groups sort and organize their stick-on notes into meaningful clusters on chart paper. Ask students to discuss connections and relationships, and identify possible category labels. Provide groups with markers.

3.3 Revising and EditingWriters revisit their writing as they draft to add, delete and change ideas and information. There are specific strategies writers use to revise their writing. One strategy writers use is ARMS (add, remove, move, substitute). (Faigley and Witte, 1981)3.3.1 Purpose Identify different strategies for reorganizing content. Examine and determine effectiveness of sentence and paragraph order.3.3.2 PayoffStudents will: organize writing effectively for different purposes in different subject areas. organize ideas and information for clarity and emphasis.3.3.3 Tips and Resources Revising is the process of making sure that the writing says what the writer wants it to say. Most writers look for the biggest problems first and then tackle the smaller ones. For example, a writer may begin with the completeness of the content, accuracy and depth of supporting details and evidence, and the way the writing is organized, then look at style, grammar, spelling and usage. Sometimes it is helpful to consider reviewing the writing by looking at paragraphs, then sentences, and finally words and phrases. See Teacher Resource, Paragraph Compare.3.3.4 Further Support Have students select a section of a current writing task that they want to revise, and read it aloud to another student. The partner summarizes/paraphrases the content. The student author notes changes, misunderstandings, and omissions, and then clarifies the partners paraphrase. The partner asks questions about the content and the elements of style to clarify the writings content and organization. The student author uses the feedback to revise his or her writing. Provide students with opportunities to use the computer cut/paste/copy/delete functions to demonstrate their skills in using electronic technology to revise their writing. Encourage students to read their writing aloud, and then circle ideas that are confusing, put arrows where information or evidence is missing, and cross out repetitious information or words. This process can also be used to edit writing by circling words and phrases that they wish to improve or that have been overused.

3.4 Writing for a PurposeWhen students can get the picture of a form of writing in their heads, they feel more confident about creating the final product. A template or framework is a skeletal structure for a writing form that allows students to organize their thoughts and researched information in order to write a first draft. Essay maps are another type of template.3.4.1 Purpose Provide students with a template to scaffold their understanding of a form of writing and help them organize information before drafting the piece.3.4.2 PayoffStudents will: learn the common expectations for the form and components of a particular writing assignment. organize their writing and ensure that it meets the requirements of the assignment.

3.4.3 Tips and Resources To help students understand how to construct a writing assignment, they may first need to deconstruct an example of that assignment. The same template that is used for structuring student writing can be used initially to analyze examples of a writing form. For instance, before having students use the template to write in a specific form, give them an example of the same kind of writing and have them use the template to identify the examples main idea, supporting details, transitional sentences, etc.. Using the template to deconstruct a piece of writing before writing their own version gives students an exemplar from which to work when they begin their own writing. This activity can also be done in pairs or in small groups. Use examples from the Ontario Curriculum Exemplars. See the explanations and templates for writing in various forms, in the following resources:- Writing a Procedure- Template for Writing a Procedure- Writing a Report- Information Report Template- Information Report Template-Blank- Business-Style Report Template- Writing an Explanation- Template for Writing an Explanation.3.4.4 Further Support The template for any individual writing assignment can be revised to make the modifications or accommodations necessary for students with special needs. For example, reduce the number of paragraphs or supporting details, create differing expectations for research, or for the complexity of the main idea, etc.3.5 Posters for Instruction: WritingA series of communication posters is included in this resource document. They are intended to provide reminders for students when they are reading, writing or engaged in discussion in class. These posters can be displayed during instructional time or when students are practising the skills. While the posters appear as 8 x 11" size in this document, they can be enlarged to legal or ledger size paper using a commercial photocopier.In writing, the posters focus on generating ideas, organizing writing, and revising and editing.3.5.1 Generating IdeasBefore I begin to write, I? jot down everything I know about this topic. look at other texts and resources. ensure that I understand everything I'm supposed to do. add additional details or supporting ideas. check to see if everything is on topic.3.5.2 Organizing WritingTo make sure my writing makes sense I check that my introduction and conclusion make sense. each paragraph stays on topic. the connections between sentences and paragraphs are clear. my choice of words suits the audience and the topic.

3.5.3 Revising and EditingBefore my final draft, I check that I have written about what was requested. the ideas are connected (to one another). my verb tenses are correct and consistent. my point of view is consistent. my spelling is double checked. my punctuation is effective.

REFERENCES

Bacan, Francis. (1989). Bacons Essays. Oxford: OUP.

Barras, Robert. (2005). Students Must Write: A Guide to better writing in coursework and examinations. London and New York: Routledge.

Byrne, Donn. (1986). Teaching Writing Skills. Handbook for Language Teachers. Singapore: Longman.

Flower and Hayes. (1981). A Cognitive Process theory of writing. College English. 44, (765-772).

Hedge, Tricia. (1995). Writing: Resource book for Teachers. Oxford: OUP.

Hedge, Tricia. (1988). Writing. New Delhi. OUP.

Irnscher, F. William. (1979). Teaching Expository Writing. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Mc Arthur, Tom. 1992.The Oxford Companion to the Engliish Language.Oxford New York; Oxfford University Press.

Murray, D. (1985). A Writer Teaches Writing. (2nd edn). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Nuryana, Arif. (2012). Teaching Writing Using Picture Technique At The Fourth Grade Of Sdn Sirnarasa 2 Tanjungsari- Bogor. Bogor: STKIP Siliwangi Bandung.

Peacock, Colin. (1986). Teaching Writing. London: Croom Helm.

Raimes, Ann. (1984). Techniques in Teaching Writing, Cambridge: OUP.

Rosen, Harold. (1972). Language and Class: a critical look at the theories of Basil Bernstein. Bristol: Falling wall Press.

Sommer, Robert F. (1989). Teaching Writing to Adults: Strategies and Concepts for Improving Learner Performance. London: Jessey Bass Publishers.

Widdowson, H. G. (1978). Teaching Language as communication . New York : OUP.

EXERCISES ON PARAGRAPH WRITINGA) TOPIC SENTENCESThe topic sentence is the most important sentence of a paragraph. It states themain idea and introduces the reader to the topic.1. CHOOSING TOPIC SENTENCESChoose the best topic sentence for each group of supporting sentences. Write it on theline provided.Example: ___________b_____________. I usually go skiing every weekend in the winter even though it is expensive. I love the feeling of flying down a mountain. The views are beautiful from the top of a mountain and along the trails. Even the danger of falling and getting hurt cant keep me away from the slopes on a winter day.a) Skiing is expensive.b) Skiing is my favourite sport.c) Skiing is dangerous.1.) _________________________________________________. North Americans send cards for many occasions. They send cards to family and friends on birthdays and holidays. They also send thank-you cards, get well cards, graduation cards, and congratulation cards. It is very common to buy cards in stores and send them through the mail, but turning on the computer and sending cards over the Internet is also popular.a) Sending cards is very popular in North America.b) Birthday cards are the most popular kind of card.c) It is important to send thank-you cards.2.) _____________________________________________ . I enjoy summer sports like water skiing and baseball. The weather is usually sunny and hot, so I can go to the beach almost every day. Gardening is my hobby and I spend many summer days working in my garden. Unfortunately, the days pass too quickly in summer.a) I like to garden in summer.b) Summer is my favourite season.c) Summer is to short.3.) ________________________________________ . First of all, we need money to repair old roads and build new roads. We also need more to pay teachers salaries and to pay for services such as trash collection. Finally, more tax money is needed to give financial help to the poor citizens of the city. It is clear that the city will have serious problems if taxes are not raised soon.a) We should raise city taxes.b) City taxes are too high.c) City taxes pay for new roads.4.) _________________________________________ . For example, a person can have breakfast in New York, board an airplane, and have dinner in Paris. A businesswoman in London can instantly place an order with a factory in Hong Kong by sending a fax. Furthermore, a schoolboy in Tokyo can turn on a TV and watch a baseball game being played in Los Angeles.a) Airplanes have changed our lives.b) Advances in technology have made the world seem smaller.c) The fax machine was an important invention.5.) ___________________________________________ . One thing you must consider is the quality of the universitys educational program. You also need to think about the schools size and location. Finally, you must be sure to consider the universitys tuition to make sure you can afford to go to school there. a) It is expensive to attend a university in the United States.b) There are several factors to consider when you choose a university to attend.c) You should consider getting a good education.

2. WRITING A TOPIC SENTENCEWrite a topic sentence for each paragraph. Make sure your topic sentence expressesthe main idea of the paragraph.Example: Miami is the perfect place to take a vacation. It is always sunny and warm. The beaches are gorgeous, with soft white sand and beautiful water. There are many fine restaurants in the Miami area, and most of the hotels offer terrific entertainment nightly. Its no wonder that Miami is my first choice for a vacation destination.1.) ___________________________________________________ . He has collected stamps and coins ever since he was a child. He is very proud of his valuable collections. Paul also enjoys painting and drawing. Recently he has become interested in gardening. Out of all his hobbies, Pauls favourite one is reading. He usually reads at least one book every week. Paul keeps busy with all of his hobbies.2.) _________________________________________________ . I cant wait to come home from school and eat the delicious meals she has prepared. She is famous for her desserts like peach pie and chocolate souffl. She is always experimenting with new recipes and trying different ingredients. No one in the world can cook the way my mother does.3.) _________________________________________________ . It never starts in cold weather. The horn and the left turn signal dont work properly. Worst of all, the radio only gets one station and the CD player is completely broken. I wish I could get a new car.4.) __________________________________________________ . First and most importantly, the work is very interesting. I learn new things every day and I get to travel a lot. In addition, my boss is very nice. She is always willing to help me when I have a problem. I have also made many new friends at my job. Last, but not least, the salary is fantastic.5.) ____________________________________________________ . To start things off, my plane was six hours late. When I finally got to my hotel, I was very disappointed. It was small and dirty. On the third day, my wallet was stolen, and I lost all my credit cards. It rained very day except one, and on that day I got a terrible sunburn. All in all, it wasnt a vacation to remember.

B) SUPPORTING SENTENCESThe supporting sentences develop the main idea in the topic sentence. They add details to the topic.3. RECOGNIZING SUPPORTING SENTENCESRead the following paragraphs and underline the supporting sentences.1.) Use of the internet has grown very quickly. In 1983, there were 562 computers connected to the Internet. By the turn of the century, there were 72.3 million computers in 247 countries on-line. Experts say that the Internet is now growing at a rate of approximately 40 percent a year. As time goes on, the Internet is becoming more and more popular.2.) There are many reasons I hate my apartment. The plumbing doesnt work properly and the landlord refuses to fix it. I also have noisy neighbours who keep me up all night. Furthermore, there are so many bugs in my apartment that I could start an insect collection. I really want to move.3.) Vegetables and fruits are an important part of a healthy diet. First, fruits and vegetables are packed with the vitamins and minerals you need to keep your body functioning smoothly. In addition, they give you the carbohydrates you need for energy. Fruits and vegetables have lots of fiber to help your digestive system work properly. Finally, many scientists believe that the nutrients in fruits and vegetables can help fight diseases. If you eat a diet rich in fruits andvegetables, youll be on the road to better health.

C) IRRELEVANT SENTENCESEvery supporting sentence in a paragraph must relate to the main idea stated in the topic sentence. A sentence that does not support the main idea does not belong in the paragraph, thus such a sentence should be omitted. When a sentence does not belong in a paragraph, it is called an irrelevant sentence. Example: The students in the class come from many different party of the world. Some are from European countries, such s France, Spain, and Italy. Others are from Middle Eastern countries like Saudi Arabia and Israel. Still other students were born in Asian countries, including Japan and Korea. Korean food is delicious. The largest number of students is from Latin American countries like Mexico, Venezuela and Peru. The class is an interesting mix of people from many different countries.

4. RECOGNIZING IRRELEVANT SENTENCESThere is one irrelevant sentence in each paragraph that follows. Find that sentence and cross it out.1.) There are several ways people can conserve natural resources. One way is to turn lights off and appliances when they are not in use. Another way is to drive cars less. My favourite kind of car is convertible. People can also insulate their houses better. Finally, by reusing things like bottles and plastic bags, people can reduce the amount of waste. By practicing these simple guidelines, we can save our natural resources. 2.) Cats make wonderful house pets. They are very loving and friendly. Cats are also clean. They dont eat much, so they are not expensive. Unfortunately, some people are allergic to their hair. Cats look beautiful and theyre fun to have in your home.3.) The capital city of a country is usually a very important city. The government offices are located in the capital city and political leaders usually live there nearby. There are many different types of governments in the world. The capital may also be the centre of culture. There are often museums, libraries, and universities in the capital. Finally, the capital city can serve as a centre of trade, industry and commerce, so it is often the financial centre of the country.4.) The Japanese automobile industry uses robots in many stages of its production process. In fact, one large Japanese auto factory uses robots in all of its production stages. Some Japanese universities are developing medical robots to detect certain kinds of cancer. Another automobile factory in Japan uses them to paint cars as they come off the assembly line. Furthermore, most Japanese factories use robots to weld the parts of the finished car together.5.) The packaging of many products is very wasteful. Often the packaging is twice as big as the product. Packaging is used to protect things that are breakable. Many food items, for example, have several layers of extra packaging. Most of these extra layers could be eliminated.

D) CONCLUDING SENTENCESSome paragraphs end with a concluding sentence. This sentence states the main idea of the paragraph again using different words. It summarizes the main points of the paragraph, or makes a final comment on the topic. Concluding sentences are not always necessary. In fact, short paragraphs that are part of longer pieces of writing often do not have concluding sentences.5. WRITING CONCLUDING SENTENCESWrite a concluding sentence for each paragraph.1.) There are many reasons why I like wearing a uniform to school. First of all, it saves time. I dont have to spend time picking out my clothes every morning. Wearing a uniform also saves money. Its cheaper to purchase a new uniform than to go out and buy lots of school clothes. In addition, I dont have the pressure of keeping up with the latest styles. Most importantly, wearing a school uniform gives me a sense that I belong. I really think that it adds to the feeling of school spirit and community. _______________________________________.2.) There are many reasons why I am against wearing a school uniform. For one thing, I dont like they style of the uniform. The navy blazer and plaid skirt are too conservative for me. Secondly, the uniform isnt comfortable. I prefer to wear baggy pants and a sweater instead of a skirt and a jacket. Finally, I want the freedom to express my individuality through my style of dressing. ____________________________________ .3.) Credit cards have a lot of advantages. First of all, credit cards are convenient because you dont have to carry a lot of cash around. You can buy the products and services you need even if you do not have cash in your pocket. In addition, credit cards are very helpful in emergencies. Finally, you can become a better money manager as you learn to use credit cards responsibly. ______________________________________ .

THE KEY:1. CHOOSING TOPIC SENTENCES: 1a, 2b, 3a, 4 b 5 b.

2. WRITING A TOPIC SENTENCE:Suggested answers:1.) Paul has many hobbies. (Instead of many you can use: a lot of, several)2.) My mother is great cook. (Instead of great you can use similar adjectives:very good, fantastic) , also: My mothers cooking is very good.3.) I have (got) problems with my car. Also: I have difficulties / troubles withmy car.4.) I have (got) a great job. (Also: I have (got) a fantastic / perfect / a very goodjob.5.) My holidays / vacations were a disaster. (Also: My vacations / holidays weredisastrous / terrible.)

3. RECOGNIZING SUPPORTING SENTENCES1.) Use of the internet has grown very quickly. In 1983, there were 562 computers connected to the Internet. By the turn of the century, there were 72.3 million computers in 247 countries on-line. Experts say that the Internet is now growing at a rate of approximately 40 percent a year. As time goes on, the Internet is becoming more and more popular.2. There are many reasons I hate my apartment. The plumbing doesnt work properly and the landlord refuses to fix it. I also have noisy neighbours who keep me up all night. Furthermore, there are so many bugs in my apartment that I could start an insect collection. I really want to move.3.) Vegetables and fruits are an important part of a healthy diet. First, fruits and vegetables are packed with the vitamins and minerals you need to keep your body functioning smoothly. In addition, they give you the carbohydrates you need for energy. Fruits and vegetables have lots of fiber to help your digestive system work properly. Finally, many scientists believe that the nutrients in fruits and vegetables can help fight diseases. If you eat a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, youll be on the road to better health.

4. RECOGNIZING IRRELEVANT SENTENCES1.) My favourite kind of car is convertible.2.) Unfortunately, some people are allergic to their hair.3.) There are many different types of governments in the world.4.) Some Japanese universities are developing medical robots to detectcertain kinds of cancer.5.) Packaging is used to protect things that are breakable.

6. WRITING CONCLUDING SENTENCESSuggested answers:1.) I am happy that we have to wear a uniform to school. (Answers can vary.)2.) I am not keen on wearing a uniform to school. / I dont like to wear a uniform to school. / I am not fond of wearing a uniform to school. (Answers can vary.)3.) Credit cards are my favourite means of payment. / Credit cards are the best means of payment. (Answers can vary.)

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