World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup

September 2019

2 World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup:

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Authors:

Dr Katherine Kramer

Joe Ware

World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup: 3

Contents

Summary 4

5

7

10

1. Pacific rugby: a sinking feeling

2. Climate change and the Pacific islands

3. Some of the main culprints are playing at theWorld Cup

4. A victory for all? 13

Leaders of Pacific nations gather in Tuvalu in August 2019 (Photo: Pacific Islands

Forum)

Cover: A man wearing a Fijian rugby shirt wades through floodwater in downtown Nadi, Fiji.

Photograph: Cometstyles https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nadi_town.jpg

4 World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup:

Summary

The effects of climate change are already hitting around the world and

the Pacific islands are among the worst affected. But unless

greenhouse gas emissions fall, the consequences in the coming

decades will be far worse than anything seen so far.

Fiji, Samoa and Tonga face an onslaught as the world warms. Hotter

and more acidic oceans, due to higher levels of carbon dioxide, kill

coral reefs upon which fish populations depend, while rising sea levels

will swallow land, increase flooding and salinate water supplies. The

region is also likely to experience more category 3 to 5 storms, such

as last year’s Cyclone Gita which was the strongest tropical cyclone

to hit Tonga since records began. Together these climate change

impacts threaten to undermine the islands’ economies, deter tourists,

making life increasingly tough and driving young people away, putting

strain on the countries’ ability to field competitive rugby teams.

Researchers warn of mass migration from the islands as a result of

climate change in the coming decades.

Alongside the Pacific island countries at the Rugby World Cup are

some of the countries most responsible for the climate crisis. Major

greenhouse gas polluters like the US, Australia, the hosts Japan,

Russia, Canada, South Africa and the European nations will play at

the tournament, to the tune of a world in union. But few, if any, of the

most polluting competitors have credible plans to cut their emissions

to safe levels - suggesting the World Cup’s theme song is just an

empty promise.

It is not too late to prevent dangerous climate change and to save the

future for the Pacific islands, and the rest of the world. But it requires

immediate action to cut emissions.

Samoan-born England and Lions international, Manu Tuilagi (Photo: Mitch

Gunn/ Shutterstock.com)

World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup: 5

1. Pacific rugby: a sinking feeling

Pacific Island names are a familiar sight on rugby

team-sheets. The power, pace and skill of players with roots in Fiji, Samoa and Tonga are one of the glories of the modern game, and account for an estimated 20% of all professional players in terms of heritage.1

Tongan winger Lesley Vainikolo became the first Pacific Islander to

wear the Red Rose in 2008. Now no-one thinks twice when

Polynesian players turn out for England - or in the case of Talupe

Faletau - Wales and the Lions.

These small islands in the Pacific have grown men who have

revolutionised the game. Think Jonah Lomu - the Tongan All Black

who shredded defences at the 1995 World Cup. Think Kevin

Mealamu - born in New Zealand to Samoan parents - with 122 All

Black caps - one of a rich seam of Islanders to wear the silver fern.

Think too Tana Umaga, Olo Brown, Jerome Kaino, Mils Muliaina and

the blistering speedster Joe Rokocoko. Or the great Sir Michael

Jones, the Samoan All Black number 7 who dominated the 1980s.

England’s World Cup squad included four players of Pacific Island

heritage - Manu Tuilagi, Joe Cokanasiga, Billy Vunipola, Mako

Vunipola. They are part of rugby’s rich cultural fabric which has

embraced hundreds of players from Pacific shores across all major

leagues.

Likewise, no-one was surprised when Australia’s Wallabies fielded a

34-strong squad in June 2017, 19 of whom had Pacific Island

heritage.

For all these islands have given the game of rugby, there is an

increasing sense they are receiving precious little in return. Recently

World Rugby grudgingly backtracked on a 12-team Nations Cup that

would have excluded Pacific teams. But this was merely the latest

slight.

If the public adore Pacific players, major Unions appear indifferent.

Ahead of an England v Samoa game in 2017 it became evident that

while the home team would pick up handsome payments for the

game, their opponents would earn virtually nothing.2 Very few

internationals are ever played in the Pacific. No Pacific teams have

been invited to join the major Southern Hemisphere competitions.

If rugby’s moral crisis when it comes to the Pacific islands is self-

evident, its ignorance of the deeper climate crisis is marked. The

6 World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup:

future of three of its major countries is at stake - the UN reports that

beaches in Fiji once used for training are now being swallowed up by

the ocean.3 The culture of Pacific Island rugby is at risk of sinking

under rising tides and increasingly severe storms. The response

from global authorities to this has been weak and slow. World Rugby

recently signed up to a global sustainability charter,4 yet has been

lamentably quiet on the climate crisis.

Rugby's major nations have a role to play in tackling this crisis.

Europe, the US, Australia and Japan are all major coal users.

Players of Pacific Island origin will proudly pull on the shirt of many

of them at the 2019 Rugby World Cup. Just as the world marvelled

at Fiji’s historic 2016 Olympic Sevens Gold medal, so it should note

the power and pace of the climate crisis. That or one day face a

World Cup without any of those famous nations. Former Samoan

rugby international Eliota Fuimaono-Sapolu is clear where the blame

lies: “Greed is destroying the planet and in my mind, it’s destroying

rugby”.5

Two Fijian players struggle to tackle Australia’s Julian Huxley while his Fijian-

born teammate Lote Tuqiri watches on (Photo: Paolo Bona / Shutterstock.com)

World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup: 7

2. Climate change and the Pacific islands

Human emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon

dioxide are increasing global temperatures and

making weather patterns more extreme.

Scientists project that, unless these emissions fall rapidly, changes

over the coming decades will cause increasing damage to people,

economies and nature.6 While these changes have already started

hitting people around the world, including those in rich countries, the

Pacific islands are among the worst affected.

Sea-level rise means loss of land

As global temperatures increase, the world’s oceans are rising as a

result of melting ice and the expansion of sea water as it warms. Sea

levels have already risen by more than 20cm since the Industrial

Revolution and, unless emissions fall, they will rise increasingly

quickly over the coming decades.7 Scientists project that, without

emission cuts, global sea levels will rise by about 34cm by 2050, by

about a metre by 2100 and by about 1.8m by 2150.8

The Pacific islands are particularly vulnerable to the consequences of

sea-level rise. Sea levels do not rise at the same rate worldwide, and

the oceans around some of the islands, such as Suva in Fiji, have

been rising roughly three times higher than the global average.9 One

study has shown that eleven islands across the northern Solomon

Islands have either totally disappeared over recent decades or are

currently experiencing severe erosion.10 Since much of the islands are

near sea level, the rising oceans will mean the loss of land to regular

flooding and to being permanently swallowed by the waves. Much of

the Pacific islands’ population and infrastructure are near the coast

(for example, 70% of the Samoan population is in low-lying areas)11

and so are particularly vulnerable to flooding and erosion of land.12

The climate crisis has already forced some residents of Fiji, Samoa

and Tonga to move from their homes.131415 Among the land being lost

is at the Fijian village of Namatakula, home to some of the country’s

top players.16

Salination of water supply threatens livelihood and agriculture

The loss of land is not the only reason sea-level rise is a threat to

islands like Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. With higher sea levels, water

supplies more often become contaminated with salt, meaning

residents may be unable to rely on the water for drinking, washing and

cooking.17 This would be a particular problem for people on the smaller

islands within these countries.18

With continued climate change, coastal erosion and contamination of

groundwater by saltwater intrusion risk making soils unusable for

8 World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup:

agriculture. This would mean that the islands would be increasingly

unable to grow food for their own use and for export. Agriculture is

currently a major employer and export earner in the islands. Alongside

the problems caused by saltwater intrusion, climate change leads to

increased temperature and more extreme rainfall in the islands,

making soils less fertile.19

Climate change threatens fish populations

Fishing is a major source of food and income for the islands, yet fish

populations are directly threatened by climate change. Across the

region, 47% of people living near the coast earn an income from

selling seafood or shells.20

But rising sea temperatures and more acidic oceans - both caused by

climate change - are already damaging coral reefs, and this is

expected to worsen with further emissions.21 If emissions do not fall

rapidly, coral reefs would be at risk of severe degradation by 2050.22

The loss of coral reefs would cause far-reaching damage to on the

survival of fish that depend on them. Reefs provide home and

protection to over 25% of fish in the ocean and up to 2 million marine

species.23 In parts of the region, the amount of fish available could

halve by 2050 as a result of climate change.24

Reliable food supplies are under threat

The combined effects of climate change on the islands mean that

people living on them risk being less able to reliably access enough

nutritious food. This is because of the combination of damage to

domestic agriculture, the loss of fish populations, and the

consequences of climate change for people’s income, which could

make it harder for them to buy imported food. According to a 2010

study, “climate change puts at risk the very basic and universal need

for people in the islands to have access to sufficient, safe, and

nutritious food at all times”.25

More powerful storms threaten people and tourism

Increasingly powerful tropical storms, driven by climate change, are

already wrecking infrastructure in the region. Cyclone Pam set the

record for the area in March 2015, only to be beaten within a year by

Cyclone Winston in February 2016. In Fiji, for example, cyclones and

floods already cause damage worth 5% of GDP per year.26 Cyclone

Winston - the strongest storm ever recorded in the Southern

Hemisphere - seriously damaged Fiji’s infrastructure in 2016, causing

damage and losses equivalent to an estimated 31% of Fiji’s GDP.27 In

2018, Tonga was hit by Cyclone Gita, the country’s worst storm since

records began. The buildings destroyed included the parliament

building.28

This is likely to intensify because of climate change: warming oceans

allow storms to become more powerful and to intensify more quickly,

and storm surge increases with higher sea levels. The damage from

World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup: 9

storms and floods in Fiji, for example, is expected to increase by much

more than 50% if emissions do not fall rapidly, according to a World

Bank study.29

As well as the direct effects on residents of the islands, increasingly

destructive storms are potentially disastrous to tourism, one of the

major economic sectors in the Pacific region (for example, 20% of

Samoa’s GDP comes from tourism).30 Flooding and other damage to

beach-front hotels and other tourist infrastructure would hurt the

islands’ reputation among holidaymakers. Combined with the damage

to coral from ocean warming and acidification, the effect could be

significant. One study found that Fiji alone could lose 18% of tourism

revenue by 2030, because of climate change.31

Extreme heat would harm people and agriculture

The direct effects of rising temperatures are putting people at risk

across the Pacific islands, with the elderly, women, children and

labourers the most likely to suffer.

The islands are in the frontline of this threat. Fiji would face near-

permanent heatwave by the end of the century, if emissions don’t fall

- projections suggest the number of heatwave days could rise from 25

a year to 350 by 2100.32 With lower emissions, Fiji would face

heatwaves for less than half the year. As well as the direct effects of

heat, high temperatures could increase the spread of diseases like

dengue fever.33 The 2019 dengue emergency in the Philippines has

been linked to climate change.34 Fiji suffered a major outbreak of the

disease in 2013-14.35

Increased heat will also affect agriculture on the islands. With

projected temperature increases, crops may reach the threshold of

their heat tolerance, which could lead to heat stress, wilting and crop

failure, threatening food supplies on the islands.36 High temperatures

would also cause problems for agricultural workers, which could mean

that productivity is reduced as workers have to avoid being outside

during the hottest part of the day.

The combined result of these climate change impacts will be for many

people to leave their Pacific islands homes. One study suggested that

up to 1.7 million people could move from their homes in the region as

a result of climate change in 2050.37 There will be only eight more

Rugby World Cups by that date: fewer than the nine that have already

been played.

10 World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup:

3. Some of the main culprits are

playing at the World Cup

Fiji, Samoa and Tonga may be among the countries

least responsible for the climate crisis, but when

they play at the Rugby World Cup they will compete

with some of the countries whose greenhouse gas

emissions pose such a threat to their homelands.

A ranking of the countries playing in the World Cup by their emissions

of carbon dioxide shows that other competitors are responsible for

hundreds or even thousands of times as much climate pollution as the

three Pacific island nations:

Country Emissions of carbon dioxide per capita (tonnes per person)

Total emissions of carbon dioxide from fossil fuel use (thousand tonnes)

Canada 16.9 617,301

Australia 16.5 402,253

US 15.7 5,107,393

Russia 12.3 1,764,866

Japan 10.4 1,320,776

South Africa 8.2 467,654

Ireland 8.2 38,914

New Zealand 7.8 36,795

Italy 6.1 361,176

UK 5.7 379,150

France 5.2 338,193

Argentina 4.7 209,968

Georgia 3.0 11,558

Uruguay 2.0 6,930

Namibia 1.7 4,299

Fiji 1.6 1,440

Tonga 1.3 136

Samoa 0.7 147

Source: EDGAR38

World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup: 11

Not only are most of the World Cup competitors major carbon emitters

at the moment, few of them are taking significant steps to cut their

emissions and prevent the climate crisis from escalating. According to

evaluation of the competitors’ climate plans by Climate Action

Tracker, a consortium of climate and energy research organisations,

all of the 12 top polluters playing in the tournament have insufficient

plans for cutting emissions:

Critically

insufficient

Highly insufficient Insufficient 2°C compatible or

better

Country US

Russia

Japan

South Africa

Argentina

Canada

Australia

EU (UK, Italy,

France, Ireland)

None of the major

emitters

Source: Climate Action Tracker39

To achieve the Paris climate agreement’s goal of limiting average

global heating to 1.5ºC and prevent dangerous warming, greenhouse

gas emissions need to fall rapidly. But the plans of the major polluters

playing at the tournament would not achieve this:

While Canada has pledged an emissions cut, its emissions remain on

course to still be above their 1990 level in 2030.40 Australia’s

emissions are increasing and are expected to continue to grow,

despite its pledge that emissions will fall.41 They are already 7% higher

than they were in 2005 and remain one of the highest per capita levels

in the world.

The United States produces almost more CO2 than all other Rugby

World Cup nations combined, and Donald Trump has announced

plans to pull out of the Paris climate agreement while seeking to undo

regulations to limit emissions. These changes could increase the US’s

annual carbon dioxide emissions by 400 million tonnes, on top of their

current level of around 5 billion tonnes a year.42 Russia’s current plans

would lead to a 6-14% increase in emissions by 2030. 43

The hosts, Japan, are far from cutting their emissions sufficiently to

prevent dangerous warming. Japan’s plans to build more coal stations

mean coal could supply a third of the country’s electricity in 2030,

while it is also funding more coal power stations overseas. The

country is already being bit by climate change, having suffered a

record-breaking 2018 summer heatwave in which more than 1,000

people died. Scientists found that this heat could not have happened

without human-caused climate change.44

12 World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup:

South Africa’s government has announced plans to move away from

coal use, but the country is still projected to release 82% more

greenhouse gas in 2030 than it did in 1990.45

The European Union’s emissions have largely not fallen since 2014,

although they are projected to start decreasing again.46 While the EU

has more ambitious climate targets than most of the other major

emitters playing at the World Cup, its targets are still insufficient to

prevent dangerous warming.

On top of this failure to cut their own emissions, many of the

competitors, like the UK and Japan, are still funding fossil fuel

infrastructure in other countries, increasing their climate impacts

beyond their borders. UK government backed export finance provided

£2.6 billion to support the energy sector between 2013 and 2018. Of

this, 90% (£2.4 billion) of it went to fossil fuel projects in low and

middle-income countries, thereby locking them into carbon-intensive

energy generation for decades rather than helping the transition to

renewables.47

The New Zealand All Blacks performing the haka. Photo: Marc48

World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup: 13

4. A victory for all?

It is impossible to imagine international rugby without

the Pacific island countries. But it is on course to

happen.

The onslaught Fiji, Samoa and Tonga face from climate change will

make life on the islands increasingly difficult. More and more people

will consider leaving the islands altogether, while those who are left

will face ever-greater challenges from extreme weather, rising sea

levels, salinated water supplies and the other consequences of

climate change.

Some of the countries most responsible for this catastrophe will play

alongside the Pacific island players, to the tune of a world in union.

For that phrase to be more than just an empty slogan, the worst

polluters must clean up their act.

And yet it is not game over. Some of the worst polluters at the World

Cup are due to make major decisions about their emissions. As part

of the Paris climate agreement, countries are expected to review and

strengthen their emission-cutting commitments by 2020. Over the

coming months, governments of the high-emitting countries must

show leadership if the world is to prevent dangerous warming. The

future of the World Cup, the Pacific islands and indeed the whole

world depends on it.

Children playing rugby in Fiji. Photo: Tomas Maltby49

14 World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup:

End notes

1 Pacific Island players set to vote on Rugby World Cup boycott, Gerard Meagher, The Guardian, 2019

https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/mar/01/pacific-island-players-vote-possible-rugby-union-world-cup-boycott

2 Unions should be ashamed for turning their backs on Samoa, Stephen Jones, The Sunday Times, 2017 https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/unions-should-be-ashamed-for-turning-their-backs-on-samoa-08tc7s6tx

3 Climate change is wiping out the secret to Fiji’s international rugby success, UN Environment Programme, 2018 https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/climate-change-wiping-out-secret-fijis-international-rugby-success

4 Rugby and Sustainability, World Rugby, 2018 https://www.world.rugby/sustainability

5 Rugby should be ashamed of how it treats Pacific Islanders, Ed King, 2017 https://medium.com/@edking_CH/rugby-should-be-mortified-at-how-its-treating-samoa-e877b4314f1a

6 Special report on global warming of 1.5C, IPCC, 2018 https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/

7 Sea Level Change, Fifth Assessment Report, IPCC, 2014 https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WG1AR5_Chapter13_FINAL.pdf

8 Climate science special report, Fourth National Climate Assessment, U.S. Global Change Research Programme, 2017 https://science2017.globalchange.gov/downloads/CSSR2017_FullReport.pdf

9 Is sea level rising?, National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2019 https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/sealevel.html

10 Interactions between sea-level rise and wave exposure on reef island dynamics in the Solomon Islands, Albert et al, Environmental Research Letters, 2016 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/17

48-9326/11/5/054011

11 Samoa, Climate change adaptation, UN Development Programme https://www.adaptation-undp.org/explore/polynesia/samoa

12 Effects of Climate Change Relevant to the Pacific Islands, Howes et al, Commonwealth Marine Economies Programme, 2018 https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/1_Climate_change_overview.pdf

13 In Fiji, villages need to move due to climate change, Loes Witschge, Al Jazeera, 2018 https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/fiji-villages-move-due-climate-change-180213155519717.html

14 Solosolo village relocating - climate change, Talamua Online https://www.thecoconet.tv/the-ocean/climate-change/solosolo-village-

relocating-climate-change/

15 People fleeing climate change should have refugee status, says Tongan MP, CBC Radio, 2018 https://www.cbc.ca/radio/thesundayedition/the-sunday-edition-july-22-2018-1.4754841/people-fleeing-climate-change-should-have-refugee-status-says-tongan-mp-1.4754887

16 Climate change is wiping out the secret to Fiji’s international rugby success, UN

Environment Programme, 2018 https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/climate-change-wiping-out-secret-fijis-international-rugby-success

17 Republic of Fiji National Climate Change Policy, 2012 https://www.sprep.org/attachments/Climate_Change/Fiji-National-Climate-Change-Policy.pdf

18 Vulnerability of island countries in the South

Pacific to sea level rise and climate change, Nobuo Mimura, 1999 https://www.int-res.com/articles/cr/12/c012p137.pdf

19 Dangerous climate change in the Pacific Islands: food production and food security, J Barnett, Regional Environmental Change, 2011 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10113-010-0160-2

20 Pacific communities, fisheries, aquaculture and climate change: An introduction, Bell et al http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.458.9573&rep=rep1&type=pdf

21 Coral Reefs in the Pacific, NOAA Fisheries, https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pacific-islands/ecosystems/coral-reefs-pacific

22 Differential climate impacts for policy-relevant limits to global warming: the case of 1.5◦C and 2◦C. Schleussner et al, Earth System Dynamics, 2016 https://www.earth-syst-dynam.net/7/327/2016/esd-7-327-2016.pdf

23 Coral Reefs in the Pacific, NOAA Fisheries, https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pacific-islands/ecosystems/coral-reefs-pacific

24 Future marine ecosystem drivers, biodiversity, and fisheries maximum catch potential in

Pacific Island countries and territories under climate change, Asch et al, Marine Policy, 2018 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X17301409

25 Dangerous climate change in the Pacific Islands: food production and food security, J Barnett, Regional Environmental Change, 2011 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10

113-010-0160-2

26 Climate Vulnerability Assessment. Republic of Fiji Government, World Bank Group http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/163081509454340771/pdf/120756-WP-PUBLIC-nov-9-12p-WB-Report-FA01-SP.pdf

27 World Bank commits $50 million to support Fiji’s long-term Cyclone Winston recovery,

World Bank Group, 2016, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2016/06/30/world-bank-commits-50m-to-support-fijis-long-term-cyclone-winston-recovery

28 Tonga parliament building flattened by Cyclone Gita, BBC, 2018 https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-43039931

29 Climate Vulnerability Assessment. Republic of

Fiji Government, World Bank Group http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/163081509454340771/pdf/120756-WP-PUBLIC-nov-9-12p-WB-Report-FA01-SP.pdf

30 ENHANCING THE CLIMATE RESILIENCE OF TOURISM-RELIANT COMMUNITIES, Tourism for SDGs, 2018 http://tourism4sdgs.org/initiatives/enhancing-the-climate-resilience-of-tourism-reliant-

communities/

31 The impact of climate change on domestic and international tourism: A simulation study, Bigano et al, 2007, http://journals.sfu.ca/int_assess/index.php/iaj/article/view/248

32 CLIMATE AND HEALTH COUNTRY PROFILE, Fiji, World Health Organisation, 2015, https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/246138/WHO-FWC-PHE-EPE-15.35-eng.pdf;jsessionid=FF20C9CA85CDCE6D65F97EBD3FC258D1?sequence=1

33 The current and future global distribution and population at risk of dengue, Messina et al, Nature microbiology, 2019 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-019-0476-8

34 Dengue Outbreak in South Asia: Climate change the culprit?, The Daily Star, Al-Masum Molla, 2019 https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/news/dengue-outbreak-south-asia-climate-change-the-culprit-1777585

35 Using paired serology and surveillance data to quantify dengue transmission and control during a large outbreak in Fiji, Kama et al, eLife, 2018 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6092126/

36 CLIMATE CHANGE AND FOOD SECURITY IN PACIFIC ISLAND COUNTRIES, FAO, 2008, http://www.fao.org/3/a-i0530e.pdf

37 On the Front Line of Climate Change and Displacement Learning from and with Pacific Island Countries, Ferris et al, The Brookings Institution – London School of Economics, 2011 https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/09_idp_climate_change.pdf

38 Fossil CO2 emissions of all world countries - 2018 Report, Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research, 2018 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/fossil-co2-emissions-all-world-countries-2018-report

39 Climate Action Tracker, 2019 https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/

40 Canada, Climate Action Tracker, 2019 https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/canada/

41 Australia, Climate Action Tracker, 2019 https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/australia/

42 USA, Climate Action Tracker, 2019

https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/usa/

43 Russia, Climate Action Tracker, 2019 https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/russian-federation/

44 Scientific Online Letters on the Atmosphere, The Meteorological Society of Japan, 2019, https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/sola/advpub/0/advpub_15A-002/_pdf/-char/ja

45 South Africa, Climate Action Tracker, 2019

https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/south-africa/

46 EU, Climate Action Tracker, 2019 https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/eu/

47 UK Export Finance’s support for the energy industry, UK Parliament, 2019 https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201

World in disunion: Climate change and the Rugby World Cup: 15

719/cmselect/cmenvaud/1804/180405.htm#_idTextAnchor012

48 Photo by Marc, used under creative commons https://www.flickr.com/photos/sumofmarc/21608624713/in/photostream/

49 Photo by Tomas Maltby, used under creative commons https://www.flickr.com/photos/huygens/8405318/