'?hi8 papar i r not f o r plb:dcatica, The viwra u e those of the author8 and not n w e s w i l y those of the Bank.

-is t h e t M n l I n a . r r i e 8 of psp8rr fkw~ thestudy of the matltutiaa of Labar and -pet in Civil Conatmotion. This st* -oa resurch in 8 - d countrLe8 t o eotd l leh the toelmica f ~ d - bllity of altamatlva techacilgier involving W.grqrt caarblnatiae of . labor mad aplpmt8 .ad in turn to r r l a t a them t a c W d U y SeWhle sol- tiaar to r.2.tiva faator prim ro that the ~ n d c a l l y opthum t.cbniqru cm ba d m a d in .rq g l v n aare. A sqjxw fm+-ii#%e optimum tochow in labor .kmd.nt manieo.

The p r u a t rrport -st8 of three volumeat

Pol- I : I(dn01port Volume 11 : Callactlon and h a l ~ d r of Pro&actlvity Data Volow flI t ?Idd Procedur.8 far Data W e c t i m

Val- I prarid.8 m wamlr a d of the which rbould be wta fm the g r r d rerdr. Other rrsur~hmr* vl?l -3 t: -c7_ix;

ma o a c data and uUnrtlg m q a a t i a ~ d d v d In Vol\as 11. Volume III cawtitutu a f io ld mmal for thoor imdlrod Fa aolloetion of privq data an p & m t i t i t q ratma througb obra-mtiocrr of ango- aonrtnrotioa mt i r i t i aa ; t h i r t l U r r P z r u l i a b d n g t r r i n d m d @ o d u t h e . t ~ ~ W .

Tbla ~ h r b o a p r p u a d J o I n t l y b y r t a a Tmaqn&aCia and Urban Prqjata &partma, Rwurah Di Ei""" d o a a d tha om- dtig f b m & ht t Wlmn Urkptriak ad P.rtnrrr (bawlon). C l d l 0. ttuT.l r l d W f l . W & r a d i n o t d t b e r k r d f u n & t h r g n u r 3 m a o f

S -, f o r r m ~ eMlr of tha R.nuah Uvidon. ma aamaltantr

r l rmdr t& dlmetlaa of X,O.V. J m u &+a bd nrpoodb i l l tq for dmV- of flold pmarbua ad aollmtlar of &tam )(re Ibu Ylllimr OS tho IBU) Olritopmt R- Caks LoxmUted the r t r t leaal lodrlr wad foF utia8fig prodaatitity for tha .trr9 b r b o a proddad f t a the ='l'fep8* BRD Reruroh *Moia (RPO appc* 226).

tC.W. Jaw J.4. Oa;dJ' and 0. Lit t le ( b t t mom Kirkpatride ed Pm-tncrI

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CHIPrPL I TB15 CHOICK OF 0PTI)IUH TQCHNOmY IN CIVIL WRlB CONSTRUCTION

A. Introduction

B. Factors lVfecting the m i c e of Technology

C. UaQl Forrmlation lnnrr 2.1 hflnition of Variables and Li&

tionr for Linur Pxugrra- &Vd* xn O O ~ J ~ ~ D T ~ Q ~ AWD A ~ U L ~ S ~ S Q R-rnc~nm MA

Be W d r urd Evaluation of Data Collated in P&H I *a Publirtud & m a r

Db h a l y d a and Evaluation of ProQlotirity Data

CEURIB Iv FINIIMClS OF THE ANdLgSgS 35

B. Principal Pindings of the Base Cases 35

Annex 4.2 Variation of Bquipsnt Cost dth CapacFty .

CHlPTW V lUIR4TUL RS R4PLOYPaBJrs, (=REITION IN ROAD CONSIRUCTIOlr CASE OF INDIA 58

A. Introduction 58

B. Fourth Pla Out1 y s far Hlghuy I k v e l ~ p ~ t Program 59

C. hplaywat mtaltial of the ?amth Plrn PTogrm 61

c*-z, .;: 9 ---.., 9-,- -.----- -.--.-,-."- me- - - U a A &I & L U n u A A A 1 3 A A b U I . L P l l cl C UI

INPWM'I)I) TEE CHOICE OF TBCHNOID3Y 69

- iii - TAB=

2nl mi& B I U of Quantities

2.2 Construction Kethoda for Bulk mava t ion

CaPlp.riacm of Labor Rodic t iv i t l es for Different Pagarsnt Hsthoda

The Effect of Differart : evela of S u p d s i o n on Ibwurce Product ie t ies

The Bffect of Mutance and S l o p on Labor Roductivity in E a l b g and Unloadiq Activit ies (Sol, 6101)

C-mn of Ra#rurce Productiritf us for ZrtZferunt m e # of Work

'ProdWAn Vectors f o r Altsrrreti7e Veckrs fo r Eulk Excavatian in Buthvorka (-9) 25 m haul p a I,MO m3

R o d CanutrucUon Project8 QUMtitiea of Taws

Conprrimon of gu tha ted Actual Coats U a i n g Tradi2Foml b r - f n t m u i v e Kethodo Veraua L e a s t Cost Construction HotM

L ~ i a * . r r r w i Cuobu or mp~oyUlg MdAtional Labor

Coat Capariaon of the R e e m t l y U e d Labor-Intanrive Hotboda d t h L o a h Cost Method8 for M f f e r m t Wags Rater mad Bxc)rPnga R A ~ S

m c o r Operating Coats of &pipent

WI Fourth PZUI Cktlt~(s for Highway I)welopaart

RoQlotfm 18oqunte for Rord CqM&hbar Wc pm 1,000 lh

baare ?ranmiax- ~ o r t os ~ a i n g b * ~ n t m r i ; i ~ c n r t r u ~ t i o n nethodr O Y ~ the op~osil n e t h a for Patrth Pla Wghwv Construction Propam

mplqmat Po tan th l of Parrth Plan Road Construction orci V p g m m g Ropm

Rurkin(t of Conrtructlon Method. fo r W 3 Teak by U n i t W m t r 25 Hotor Hrul

3 Smultirity to Unskilled Wage Rater of Alternative Hatbob. of BCavatLrg, hading, H A u n g , Unlo¶dhg, .nd 3prrouMng in Hard Solla 47

b*b Bffoct of -pat UtiUzationRater an Costa 50

b.5 Capdtq Pmtor V o r m Co& Factor for Catsqories of Ikmimmt 57

5.1 ProQrotion Iroqurnte for Road CaDldntdion in India 6 2 .*

)CuV have made silpliflcant contributions t o t h i s study, In India, Xr. 3. N. .9Cn)u, fomerly Mrector Osneral, Cgltral Roads K i n g (CRV), Hidstrg of Shipping and Transport and Mr. S. K. Jain of the C ~ t r a l Water and Pwer CaPdedon usre inst lunmtal i n securFng the coapsmtion of various &.ate Public Works and =rang% for aecoabtmt of n e c m q f i e l d M f . nr. S. L. Kathuria (w) MU to the oecessvy a r r rnggsnts vlth aadmm efflcisncy.

In Icdonesia Hr. 3, Tlnkemn, Director of Planning and Construction for Bina Harga; C o l a T. ktyohrdi, Oaroral Hanager and Hr. A. &ti, A s d W t for 3peaLal Affairs of PtrOSfDIj Md Hr. S. &urtas~+Fre4Li.dd~t Mrrnto~wf PROSINAT were most halprul and cooparatiive in making the nect.s,uury w r w p rats fo r vidting t h e d t e r md h~ the swm3nant of staff to the studp.team.

Mr. H m Oatw of Canstrtction Bstineting, Inc. (~lmwood, CcnneckLcut) brought Mr e g l d v e aper iance in the construction irrdu~rtry t o b a r in rsvlmdng r u l a u s cost e;r*,iprotes, particularly for squiprart opsrations, urd ma y a y helpful in f i l l i n g i n missing gaps. Proferaor A. A. ViLtors of t h e Iandon School of E e o n a c s p. ovided helpf'ul camomts <\n t h e farmrulation of -id models and the i n i t i a l s t a t i s t i ca l rsmlta.

The t g l p ~ r W y seoancbmt t o the sku@ of the sWf l l s t ed ba lm p g a i t t e d the f l d d studlo8 to be exec~ted In both countries uith minim:. d d a y . b. 9. Vmk~tr.ren vhn .r-tpR .I - - ' - - I-,--.-, -v.-*. &crrULU A W A L1LJ A A t l L U

studies in India f w t h ~ . aadlet3d i n assenblqe and malyda of f ield rhto. Mrs. Botty h a t e r to& great pains i n editing several rsrsions of th i s w o r t and i n puttinu together the work of sevorI1 authors.

II. W. Wigrroro Om L. L i t t l e 3. Valk8torra Jo 0. I.V~O r. r. Oupk 0. C. toma

e * * -

(1. L a Li t t le D. Jo* Bibit Rqj i tno Damon0 Ostero Poernamddilc Badla Olntings

1. I n c r w i a g attention has been paid i n r a c m t years t o the quest ion of appropr ia ta tecbnolow f o r conetruct ion aDd manufact wing i n developing countria.. T t n p r inc ipa l isrur of concam is t o find r u i t a b l a technologies which vwld u t i l i x a SO tho m u - a t m t tha abundant s u r p l w of labor ava i l - a b l e in u n y of t h u e c a n t r i e r . The World Bank h u sought t o d n e t h i s problem in a r tudy of t ha a u b r t i t u t a b i l i t y of labor and equipment in c i v i l cormtruction. TYO p h e s of t he r tudy have bean caplo- ted. This report s t m m r i z u tt. ruult. of t h e e f f o r t thua f a r usd artltaes d i r ec t i on f o r fu tu re uork.

2. Th. study i a a t t a p t i n g t o as tab l i r i r tho technica l f o m i b i l i t y of a l t e n u t i v a civil w m t r u c t i o n technologiar u t i l i z i n g d i f f e r e n t coabiaatione of l abor and q u i p m a t rod in turn t o r e l a t e thara technica l ly f e m i b l e s o l u t ~ o ~ t o r a l a t i v e f a c t o r rcarcitfer 80 t h a t tha e c o n d c a l l y opt- technology can ba da ta r r ined in any given m a . Tba coo^ sf 4eLsp-:a project- execution a r e included rod p r a c t i c a l p r o b l w in tba o r g m i r a t i o n & manggeb nucnt of coaatnrct ion pro jec t . a r e hetag e x a ~ i n d - ~ intarrelatioanbf+wk= tvaen choica of tachnolow and pro jac t d u i g n a r a a l s o b a h g invest igated. The study a p h m i z e s tho developmat of e f f i c i e n t tachnologier which not only y ie ld g r e a t e r apl-t bu t d r o highar labor p r d u c t i v i t i e r .

3. P h u a I of t ha s tudy f o c u r d on a survey of u i r t i n g l i t a r a t u r a and p r o b l a fornula t ion f o r road corutructfon. It8 finding8 warm t b a t the s u b r t i t u t i o n of l abor f o r equipment i r t a d m i c a l l y f a u i b l a f o r a v ide rang. of construction activltiu f o r road8 of var iour q u l i t i a r . Hwaver, a conadc f e a s i b i l i t y dapuuir on r a l a t i v a f u t o r p r i c u a d f u t o r p roduct iv i t i e r d e r d i f f e r e n t condition#. Ua fo r tuo r tdy , engineerin# da t a normally ava i lab le are r~appropriacmAy acruccurea or coo poorly d e f l n d wicb reapact t o s p e c i t i c anvirmamancal c o d i t i o m t o p e m i t r quan t i t a t i ve a r u l y r i r of the r u b r t i t u t i o a i b i l i t a Spoci f ic mv l ro r rwa ta l p a r r a t a r m a r a c r i t i c a l l y important, includiag tha phyr ica l mvirommc, the r i r a o r r u l a of t h r p ro jac t and tha t i u a v a i l r b l a to c a p l a t a it, work inceutivom, or8 .a i ra t ion and u u q a e n t , PO^ h e a l t h and n u t t i t i o m 1 r t u i d u h of &a l abo r i 0 r c a . y

* . I

4 Tha P h u a SS r tudy tharafora h u focwad oo d i r a c t f i a l d obrarva- tiom of o a 8 o i a ~ corvtruction a c t i v i t i a r t o obtain th. production relation- rh ip batwarn varyin8 input . of c a p i t a l j q u i p m m t ) and l abor and t h r output of d i f f a r a a t tub of c iv l l c o ~ t r u c t f o u . Obaarrationa hava been t h a t r a v r r a l road, do ad i r r i a a t i o n uml%owtructioa r i t u in India , Indoneria a d Nepal. Ihr ou tp r t r of each activltj; tha input. of l abor , e q u i p a n t and mater ia l ; ad Lb. urocfa td 8ntimarrrt.l p r r . w t a r a b.*a boon c r r a f u l l y racordad. I n r o b o a u i a , a rubrtudy v a t w n d u c t d to d e t r m i n a t h a e f f a c t ol he and nuc;r i t ioaal rt.od.r& on productive p o u o t i a l of the YP l abor forca.,

- a,SfucQ of tho Sh.titutian of L.bor md kplprrt in R o d Constmation:

r a I nil ~sprfft" ((ktoba. 1971; Wti~th). Wutri t ion .rd H U t h of 1nQnoal.m C m t m c t i o n Workurn: Bxhrance and

XkVU) 8 W f Working Paper No. 152 (April 1973).

5. Pirrdingr t o da t e of the study are :

(a) Teclmiqum current ly in uae i n c i v i l construction a r e e i the r highly labor-inteasiva o r highly equipment-intensive ; no s igni f - icaat "intermediate" techniques a r e practiced. Where attempt8 hsva bear r d a t o combine t r a d i t i o n a l labor-intens ive methods v i t h modern equipment operatione, the r e su l t ing "mixed" aetbod obtain8 ouch ine f f i c i en t use of the equipment tb t it i n f a c t requires more c a p i t a l than a f u l l y equipment-iotamive operation and is highly ine f f i c i en t .

(b) Tradi t ional labor-intensive techniques cur rent ly i n uae a r e not ecowaica l ly ccmpetit5ve with modern capi tal- intenrive cechni- q u u , rvcll in labor abundant economies when labor is "shdov priced" a t a f r ac t ion of ourkt wagm. Thin is because ( i ) e r i s t i n g labor- intaarive techniquer a r e employed in an atmosphere where p r t a u y empbuir ir on employment creat ion ra ther than ebfQcYT6.n~ rua of labor , art (ii) axiet ing methodb are p r i h i t i v e and & pot

rrplq elemental mechanics e f fec t ive ly , i f a t a I I . Tliera frar;aeo. r u u l t in extremely lw labor prodwtlwit tes , - ,

(c) Managemeat and aupervirion of la rga labor forcer requ?.rer spec ia l rkillr, upariazrce and organization, qu i t e d i f f e ren t from equip- m n t - i n t u u l v a operatiom. Labor-intenrive amthodo rhould not be a t t a p t e d without careful advance p lamiag , organization a d t r d n i n g , pa r t i cu la r ly t a regions where there method6 have not been c m o n l y prbcticed.

(d) Even in labor abundaat couat r ies there a r e frequently rhortager of labor a t d i f f e r e a t times and places: inrlt=t=R t h e e,-ec-' c c c t ~"OLUCQOW V ~ U I " ) of labor f luc tua ter Widely with reamon and loca- t ion. U d a o m coar tmct ion a u t h o r i t i s r a r e prepared t o pay higher v q e r during pea& periodr (8.0. the harverting r r u o a ) , projectr m y r u f f e r coa t ly Interrupt iotu. "Shdou value" correct ion of u r k a t prfcer becomer a ccmpl lc~ted proporitlon, and app l i ca t io~ l of a s ing le mrr could lead t o harmful r e r u l t r .

L

(8) Hulth .nd n u t r i t i o n atradardm have a r i p i f i c a n t impact on productivity of tha labor force. Anomla, induced by a combina- tion of paramitic i n f u t a t i o n .ad die tary de f i c imcy , k u been rhoun to be widupread, of ten in revere rcager m a g q l e coa- r t t u c t i o n worlurr in a t l-t one country. bparimentg rumea t t h a t program of i a p r w d n u t r i t i o n u h have a a i g n l f i p n t Upact on labor productivity in there carer.

8 -

6. The c o ~ c l w i o n r of the study c l e 8 t l y ind ica te t h a t labor-intensive coas t ruc t ion technique8 t r a d i t i o d l y pract iced fn many developing countr ies tre no t econarical ly competitive v i t h equipmeat-intenrive technology under nut conceivable f ac to r price# a d c n v i r o m e n k l c o d i t i o n r . Yet, there i r a pressing problem faced by r o r t due lop ing c a m t r i e s of c rea t ing productive a p l o y l e n t opportuni t ies f o r l a rge a a v t r of unemployed AWI uaderuployed population. It i. re-ed that in fu tu re work ~ j o r mz,:1wir be placed on developwnt and demonstration of more e f f i c i e n t labor-inrenaive and inter- mediate c i v i l construct ioa t echno log iu a p p r o p r i ~ t e t o labor abundant, c a p i t a l scarce e c o n d e s . The labor market, vhich t o a l a r g e = ta t vill determine t h e e c o d c v i a b i l i t y of labor- inkru iva h t e r r e d i . t e technologies needs fnvestigatiorr. Ckmerment policy h t r u m e n t s to achieve the soc i a l ly optirum choice of technology sbauld be studied.

'LBg a i O I C E OF O P I I W H TEQM0UX;Y I# CIVIL WOBYS CONSTWCTION

A. Introduction

1. It i r a t m h w tha t leas developed countries a r e characterized by a chronic d a n r t i l i r r t l b n of human rerourcer. To provide i r p r w t d a tandarb of l i v i cg for a rir* population all available resourcar ehould be ut i l ized u f u l l y d ef f i c iau t ly o pcmeible. I f , however, technology ir laflexfble rod r u o u r c a u e noz mal l ab l e in appropriate proportiom, *ore factor8 m y r a d a u d e r ~ t i l i r ~ a d . V&n l a b ~ r ir t& eurplur factor, thme vithout vork conalder fAnaa l eu d m i d an equitable rhara i n tho. psaltidt a d are LiluLp to becow d i r r a t i r f i d with the po l i t i ca l , ecoaolic, a d ,rwial r t ructurer of chair a u n t t i o r . ihr, d u p i t e growth ie per capita inaaar&wi ri-, productivity lm& io root cowstrier, coneera vhat i r aar c a l l 4 th a p l o p e n t problem Iw been Lncruring greatly.

2. C i v i l w ~ r b conmttuctioa comt i tu te r a large a d v i r ib le portion of tho t o t a l inrumeat proarm of nauy couatrier and it i r o d y natural tha t it rhal ld be considered u an i n r t ~ n t for ruo lv icq rome of the p rob l su of uwmpluyuat. With tJ. azception af a f w countrier, the c i v i l vorkr construc- tion p rocu r i n rocmt y e u r bu become inc rur ing ly equipeat-intearive. m i g n r t d a r d a have r h o fac rsued i n rerpoara to the lower coat, a d faatar coartruction period8 40 porrible by tho ura of wuipaeat.

3. Io hi& boy, capital-abundant a c o n a i r r them davelopment a re obriourly qrpropr iak. l a w v e t , them d w e l o p a r t r may me be rpproptirto t o hbor abundant u o n o d u vhera low loemor aot only Pllu labor-intearive wtbodr of corutructfon l u r cort ly, but a b o roduce the r ignificurcr of cer- t a i n h f i U uoocla tod with h1gh.r r t d a r d o , ouch am t r ave l ti.. raving# and " e a f o r t and r idabi l i ty" aapectr of higher rt.adrrdo in roadr. I n a feu -', h o t d l y India, the loverammat baa intervared t o ret rtacd.tda rnd rpeclfy tb rrrbod o t co#truction ro u to . u L i t e the we of l a b ~ r rrd d n l l s e tba uu ot q u i p a n t , but h u uot, heretofort undertaka large-sulo - - r-ch to deteraitrr o p t h wthodr .ad rtaadatdo. -1

9 - * ir * Ib. Covrra~rot of Iodfa and the her81 Road Roaurcb f ru t i tuc ) (Nw h l h i ) - ar* currmtl7 c o r u i d e t l a ~ a proporal t o uadertdce a proarm of r u u r c h on

UrrsWq d-im rtrrd.r& in conjunctloo v i t h the C u u d h n I n t e r n a t i d Develop- r n t krocfatllon. A rmmll proarm of research a d developwnt on modified lrbor-int8mi*r .ad i ~ t o r w d i a t . wtbodr of coartructioa purrurrrt t o the recorrrod- .ti- of th i . at* hu already be= in i t i a ted i n c o n j ~ c t i o a v i t h tbe Govern- lvot of W a , Bordrr bd. Organfution.

4. I n order t o determine whether or not the technology cur ren t ly Leing employed in developing countr ies is the m e t appropriate, the Bank i n coopera- t i o n vith many of i t 8 h e r countr ies bas undertaken t o study t h i s prnhlea. ihir paper reports on the r e s u l t s of Phaet I1 of t h i s e f f o r t . 2/

5. P h u e I of the study focused on a reviev of ex i s t i ng l i t e r a t u r e and data. It v m found t h a t v h i l e the s u b s t i t u t i o q of labor fo r equipment is undoubtedly technical ly f e a s i b l e f o r a v ide range of c i v i l construction actlvitier, l i d t a t i o n 8 of ava i lab le engineering data do not permit a sound a ~ l y s i s of t he econoric p r o f i t a b i l i t y of such subs t i tu t ion . E c o n d c pro- f i t a b i l i t y depends on r e l a t i v e fac tor pr ices and fac tor p r o d u c t i d t i e s u d e r d i f f e r e n t c d i t i w . Existing enginter ing data on product ivi t ies , pa r t i cu l a r ly -'

tha product ivi ty of labor- intmsiva methods, ware very l i n i t e d . Much of the in fo r r a t ion a v d l a b l e v u inappropriately s t ructured for the purposes of t h i r rtudy o r too poorly defined v i t h re rpec t t o inpor tme enviromneatal p a r a ~ t e r r . 6. P h u e 11 of the study h m therafore foeused on direr&.fisl&ee\+ex: o r t i o m of ongoing co lu t ruct ion a c t i v i t i e s t o obtsia t h e necersarp information, rod on fu r the r developwnt and applicat ion of the ana ly t i ca l too ls t o determine th. technica l .Dd ocoabaic f u s i b i l i t y of a l t e rna t ive methodr. Emphaeir h a h e n on the co l lec t ion of primary &ta on proGuctivity r a t e r of l abo r - in tma iv t r r h o d s .ad tha i n f lu race of d i f f e r m t envi romenta l parameters thereon. Obrarvatioru mre taken a t t h i r t y road, dam, and irrigation canal s i t e s i n Imlia md I d o n e r i a . I n Nepal a sapara te rtudy of the ex i s t i ng records of ooa project financed by tha lK wra analyrad in addi t ion t o the product ivi ty d a t a generated by severa l p ro jec ts r p o ~ o r c d by the Chinese goventmeat.

. Factor8 Affecting the Choice of Technology

7. Before the advent of modern c i v i l engineering e q u i p a r c , to&&, urulr and o the r major c i v i l ~ o ~ ~ c r u c t i o n wrlu vet. b u i l t by labor a s s i s t ed by h a d tool.. Prom a purely technical mpec t , such wrlu can d @ t e d l y b e b u i l t by hand M o t , although i n t e r t i i h proceasar, pa r t i cu l a r ly compacting and f i n i s h h ~ , higher qua l i t y mcuxlar& can be ro ra r u i l y achieved v i t h equip- mt. Technical f r u i b i l i t y i r not the p r o b l r ; the problea i r the econamic f u r i b i l i t y vhich ( f o r @van r e l a t i v e pr icac of the d i f f e r r n t input,) dependr on: i) r e l a t i v e produc r i t i a r of tha variour k p u t r under d i f f e r en t condi- t i o r u l i i ) p ro j r c t d u including d u i g n st.odar& an4 tha r i r e of th.

4&pt.d.

a. projec t ; md i i i ) p ro jes t ret-up c o r t r u m c i a t o d v i t h tha coar t tuc t ioa wthod - *

I

8. P m d u c t i v i t i u of various f ac to r s of production a r e s t rongly af fected by specific physical, r o c i d and aanagerial c o d i t l o n e under which the pro jec t is executed. )loreover, fac tor product iv i t ie r varg with varying proportions of input factor8 (d i f f e ren t method6 of conotruction) used. A major i ssue fo r r r u a r c h in the prameat r tudy i r the extent t o which various paramatere a f f e c t the productivity of labor rod equiprent dbff erent ly. These parameters a r e discu88ed in the l a t t e r p a r t of t h i a chapter. Parameters whfch a f f e c t labor rod e q u i p a n t cqur l ly a r e of l ens s ignif icance for the purpose of t h i s s t - d y .

Pro jec t Derign

9 . Project design include8 the issuea of design standards and p ro jec t scale . Tbre a r e policy var iab les which may influence the optimm choice of - technology. Higher design r t a d a r d a f o r roads i n ce r t a iu t ~ w - c f ear-data imply grea ter e a r t h v o r b a d material quant i t ies -aab abrmdly g s a u e r haolqjct di r turce . Zb. comparative cos t advantage of equipmrdt-intensive methods i n haulage a c t i v i t i e r ( m e chapter I V ) and potentJa1 ea~amihY of s a l e atry favor equipment-intauive method8 f o r proje'ctn of higher design a:radards. Higher q d i t y a t d u d s may a b o favor equipment In a few a c t i v i t i e r such a8 ccrpacting md f inishlag.

10. 1-7, d u i g a rtandardr should be cloaelg linked r:, the r e l a t t v e f ac to r ra rc i t iu of oh. iaputa (labor and quipaont ) wed 1 r t h e cottstruction p r o c u r a r well aa tha d u i r e d qua l i ty of output. Hauever, conrtruction costa a r e o a t the oaly coasideratioxu. There a r e invariably economic cost8 aesociated v i t h the we of the project which m u t be considered. I n the c u e of highway* l m r d a i g u rtmdard8 vhich may f m t uee of labor-intensive methods. w i l l 1 1 . I ' r ( ...--. ,. Aupi U U L 4 1 ~ rnrriutanence cosce. A o l j o r rtudy i r ;adenfay- t o determine appropriate denign standards and iaoiotenloce o t r s t e g i r r f o r road# ia drrr lopin& countrier. 2/ In ecoaai.9 whore c a p i t a l i r scarce and l abor ab\rrd.rrt, project d u i g a r t ~ n d a r d s and maintmabce ,tratrgLer baed to b. r e - u d n e d .

11 . Projec t r p l e may influence optimum choice of technology i f tilere a r e di, 'beroatial e c o b a a i u o r ~~~~~~~ier of s a l e aarociatod with ce r t a in wthods , t c o o a i u o t reale, wbothor equipnoat-1ot.nrive o r labor-intanrive wtboda a r e w a d , a r e ia par t a tuact ion of the e c a a i _ c and r o c i a l anviroanmt in rrbich tbe project taker place. Ure of equipmat r i r e s ce r t a in overhead or f ixed f r i l i t i u which & a o t v a q in proportion to ? ha sire of a project .

3 4r ?. lbavt!nudoh, e t a l . "Highway Dorign ~ t a n d a r d ; ~ t u d ~ , f i u e I: The k.1, "DID Staf f Itorking Paper No. 96 (Janrury 1911). Final m m r a on tiw irruoa of higbuay doaign and u i n t . r u n c a rtandardr w i l l not be porr ib le u n t i l co l lec t ion of a d d i t i o ~ l m p i r i c a l in fomat ion current ly i tader~ay i n Kanya (md proporod ier India and Brar i l ) i s completed. See "liinhva~ Derinn J t ~ d a r d s study, Phue 11: Inception Roport ," ~ r a a r p o r t and R&crtch- Laboratory 4 X I I R D 01.1 1971).

Thus the large: the pro jec t , the lcwar un i t costa. The extent t o vhich t h i s type of coat r d o c t i o n is pormible u8ually depend8 on the need t o overcome the cocrstralnt. iapoaed by the cnvirormmt by in t e rna l i z ing i n the project c e r t a i n functions. I f , f o r example, the pro jec t s i te is i n a rernote o r iao la ted a rea it v i l l b e necessary to set up ce r t a in maintenance f a c i l i t i e s regardless of pro jec t eize. On the o t h e r had, i f the pro jec t s i t e is i n an a rea where such P a c i l i t i u a r e readi ly ava i lab le , no economier w i l l be achieved by increasing pro jec t r i ze .

12. E C O Q ~ ~ S of s d e in aquipment-intensive techniques a r e a l so obtained becausa of i n c r w e d spec i a l i za t ion cf equipment possible i n l a rge s c a l e pro- jects. W r e la rge q u a n t i t i e r of vork a r e involved, equipment s e t -up cos t s k c a e secondary t o operat ing cost8 and it may become e c o n d c a l t o employ tha m a t e f f i c i e n t equipment f o r u c h of the iildividual activities of construc- t ion , e.g. accavatfng. loading and sprmding.

13. For l a b o r - i n t ~ ~ . i v e ~ t h o d e there are more l i k e l y t o be dieeconaniee of r d e r a the r than e c o k a l e s of rca le . Large projecta, .par,tkuJarly i f they a r e conctctrated in an area , v i l l face a rising-supply p r h ut labe&, &Lsr mat be bid w a y from competing cpploymurt with increasingly h2gher oppor tuni t r caa ta , and/or be r ec ru i t ed from labor surplur are&= rlbcuhkre wick &4i'cF@pal cU8ta of t ransport and r t c r u i t m u ~ t . D i f f i cu l t i e s i n r e c r u i t i n g labor combined vi:h a rial113 supply p r i ce oftem l m d t o longer periods of conrtruction f o r l lbor - ln tcur ive project.. Thia i n c r w e e the e c o n a i c coat8 of the pro jec t a8 benef i t8 a r e deferred.

2 m j e c t Set-Up coat.

14. Depending on the construction trchnique employed, there a r e c e r t a i n pro jec t coata which are f h e d a d generally independent of the fac tor pro- . . . , . . . - - - --. 2- U ~ ~ A , A ~ . I , L L I ~ D C I . . ~ Y L D m y P A S O vary w i t h the e i ze and e c a l e of the project resulting i a economlar or d i r e c o n ~ i e e 01 s c a l e cu discusred ur l ter , Mobilization cor: of oquipuurt and labor i a one p a r t of theae coata , Equipment m b i l i r a t i o n co r t i a a @@act ion of the loca t ion of the r i te and the type of t e r r a in over which equipw. . har t o be t ransfarred. Labor mobilization c68tr a r e affected by the l x a t i o o of the pro jec t and the s i z e of the labor

, fqrcm t h a t is t o bo rued, Whmro l a rge projeerr a r e involved, f inanc ia l L

idcent iver my be n e c u r a r y t o a t t r a c t h b o r t o the conrtruct ion r i t e .

Project. anploying l a rge labor forcer may r q u i r e er:abliahmurt of fo r tho wotkorr. On very l a rgo projoctr thare labor c u p 8 h c l u d e

water ruppl iea, r an i t a t i on , heal th , feeding and recrea t ion f a & f l i t i e r , together with rupportinl( r t r f f required fo r t h e i r ordration. While i t u y be e w a a i c t o p r w i d r f ac i l . i t i e r on ~ u c h a r c a l e fof a large pro jec t ru th u a dam, they a r e seldom enccuntored on road p r o j e c t r l h i d cover a v ide r a rea and involve f a r umaller work I'orcar,

16. Of prime -z:ance in equiprent- i n t m s i v e pro j e c t s a r e the maintenance f u l l i t i u , both th-• provided by the equipment m&nufacturers' loca l d i s t r ibu to r s - md t h o u u t a b l l a h e d on r i t e - 6 p8rt of the project , as v e l l as others i n the uur vhich can br r e l i e d oa for suppart. Major equipment-intensive projects can v a r r r a t c a p r e h e ~ ~ i v e uork~~bopr rad l a rge s t o c k of spare parts. However, meh ar rangarmts un soldom be justified fo r smaller project3 which tend t o r e l y an csntrrLLrcd f r i l i t i u . Cbnmcquently, the u t i l i r a t i o n tha t can be a p o c t e d from equipment uould r w r u l l y be less fo r a m a l l projects.

17. ?!re a r e o t h a r me8 of fixed cos ts which a r e spec i f i c t o the techaology &opt& and tha l i re md locat ion of the projeet . It is d i f f i c u l t t o geueral lze W e fo r all c iv i l works; t h e i r e f f e c t m the decision of choice of ttctnrology w i l l vary drprrrding arrr their re l a t ive importance vis-a-vis f ac to r p r o d a c t i o i t l u . Ibis is a p r o b l a of evaluation vhich is haadled i n the study by UI analytical model (see Chapter 11). I n the present rtudy v h i l e f o r a l l the d i f f e r a r t p r o j c c u studied, data hrve been collected for set-up c o s t , the focor of the e f f o r t hu been t o oollact labor and e q u i ~ t productivity data.

C. Par-tor8 A t f a t i n g h o d & t i v i t y of &bar m d Equipment

18. ?hy f e r n l i t o u t tbb p m d m c u ~ t y of labor urd aqui~lglt. lot .11 u m ouy to lbrrw, lot &ow quaaw. In U s study an a t m t ham beon rrde to quantw, dmj-8 possible, the r r j o r factors o r p- affecting factor p m r i t y . ihbae pamauteuYl are clu. i i iad Pld.r tht.. r j o r c a k g r ? u r

1. Physical 2. b a r g e r i a l 3. Socia l

19. Ib. pbyr icr l parmters are deffnad in terw of c l i u t e , vegetation t w r a p h y , gaology and roilr, .a of vhicb a r e iaterre1ated~l;w~raphicrlly. Ib.H p a r a n t e r r d f w t tba productivity of equipment .ad labor i n d i f f e r ing uzyr .Id a i r impact v a r i e r vich tb nature of the a c t i v i t y o r job t o be dona. Coaditioar oabQlaivo to biab pi-r productivity may ba lerr than L d u l fo r M o t , .ad rice van.. - 20.

9 O f cbr d i u t i c fac tor r , r a f n f a l l 8mera l ly has the most influence

om ptoduct iv i t ia r o f both labor .ad equipment, thau8h t o d i f f e ren t extents. W f d l i. parci*arly LporCaat in u r t h o v i n g opera t iom where it can

0

r e s t r i c t work by its e f f e c t s on the engineering prope.rties (and subsequent zrerm) of the s o i l s befng roved. Of equal importance is the time vhich must dapse a f t e r r a i n f a l l before equipmeat can be used without causing excessive damage t o works in place. This period is frequently muzh longer than the r a i n f a l l period and this fac tor u n d i c t a t e the pa r t i cu l a r type of equipmeat t o be selected. Labor methods of crrzavotion may be a f fec ted t o a smaller ex ten t by atremee in moistpre content, as, for example, labor ganga can normally r e tu rn t o w r k socner a f t e r heavy ram than can motor scrapers; hauever, labor p r o d a c t i d t i c s a r e probably pore af fec ted by the r e l a t i v e l y small s h i f t s in moisture a m t c n t in excavation of moils under mraal dry conditions than a r e rechanized u t h o d e . Ihi. i m r c c a r t u a t ~ by the f a c t t h a t machines cu t more quickly t o greater depths where m i s t u r e contents of t he s o i l a r e na tura l ly higher, thus w i n g exu*atioa, vbcreas 6lawer manual methods permit mre of t he na tu ra l moieture content t o evaporate as the work procee4e.

21. Extrar. c l imat ic comiitions invariably increase the wear and t e a r on labor and equipment and place grea te r demands on r e s t and maintenance. Iaigtnous people a r e uccu to r sd t o working i n t h e i r normal c l ~ t i c conditions, and m y adapt their working hours t o a v ~ i d . . e s t r z a e ~ in tcnperatures i n d i f f a r c n t semons. Thr e f f e c t of c l imate and a l t i t u d e an capacrzr-& !ze -. mkh more pronouncad i f labor were reg- ired to work i n unfawiliar c I m f c e o d i t o n a .

22. Geology tuu m obvious e f f e c t on a l l earthvork operations influencing the d i f f i c u l t y of excavation. Labor-intensive methods of excavation a r e p a t t i c u l a r l y affected by the hrrdnclrr of s o i l s . In some caeee it may be necumary t o r e s t r i c t exutratfon to period8 l m e d i a t e l y follaviEg ra ins , d t b o u g b chi. would involve a coat of interrupZion arvl project delay which should be coaaidered.

Managerial Parameters

23. T?te a tnagc r i a l enviro-t on a project can ba described in term of the p a r t i c u h r form of o r g m i r a t i o n and levelm of u e u g m e n t a d superviriop: i ncmt ivea (or lack thereof) t o w t i v a t e the a f f i c i r n t use of l h o r and equip- wnt; l i v ing condit ioru a t the mite; workshops, s tocks of spar-d and equipment m i n t u u n e e po l i c i e s pursued; and the r o l e of ex is t ing t r ade unioam and t h e i r r a l a t i o p h i p with managmaat. , ,

24. Orgmization, rrrrrrgaroc u u l supervision of the job rite a r e c r i t i c a l p a r t e r m in the e f f i c i m t u e c u t i o o of c i v i l construction works, f roa advance pl.nrrirr8 a w l p o b i l i u t i o a thtou* ruponrim'loa of the f i n a l works. The pro- d u Q t i v 1 t i u of labor a d equipment are deplbdrat oa supervision a t a11 levelm, f r a the gur8.r o r o v e n e e r lnaurlag t h a t h b o r h m proper too l r a d is pro- duct ively rplotd, t o tbe higber l e v e l r d m n a g a u r t i n t e g r a t h g the work

m

of h q e bodlea of labor. Aho, the t o t a l voltme of acLivit ies , ltrch M

rutczfala M l l n g md r d m d l f n g , d th. amount of iCle hours of labor and equQment, doped on site organlaation, 8equarcfng and integrat ion of a c t i d t i - and tbr ad-y of rrif.iarrnre faci l i tL+s. is m y of the developlng carot r iea cawing oat dvil ~eoortruction by force account rcthoda, i t is mot: n o d t o &It tJm pruject 85th r m l l r t i c h i r e duma for equipment. Thin often l u d s t o lar prodrtctirity s ~ o the true co8t of i d l e e q u i p a t i n aot iamdiate ly apparent t o tba profttct rrmsgen. For labor-intmrivo ope ratio^ marugeaeut skiXlm ara required vhich dif f o r s ignif icantly f rum thwa required for equip- r m t - i n t a u i v o operatious, the former requiring tha leadership qua l i t i e s neeurary t o m t i v a t e lame aroupr of h- bel tgs w e r long period.^.

25. 'Lh. rrrLa incentive for labor t o work is the s t ructure of rragw, not only in t o m of abmolnto s m a received, but the r a t e In re la t ion t o tha t Web otber workers receivm. To control the performace of large bcxIier of -or i t is e8.sntF.l to relaze oatput t o wages, e i the r by a trclk or: a pieccuork n y r t a , Taskwork is slmplrr to u h i n i r t o r but the bear f i t to the workers is 8 0 l d y i n t o m of t f u w e d ard this may aot bo af great value t o them. Piocsuotk is m n capliuted t o administer but h u the ~ d v a n t l g o that both Ubor .md mmt shur in the benefi ts from Lncr#r.d ~ p r a b k t z w o ~ - ~ i a t a m of higlrer wag- or reduced unit rat-.

26. Prwls ioo of cortrSn f r c i f i t i e 8 lite hauing, recreat ioa, health, etc. uy i n f l u a c e vorker productirity by inducing higher mra lc . Hwaver, their ciffect on productir i ty is d i f f i c u l t to quaatify. On larger project8 tlun Cacilitiu may be roqufred to a t t r a c t labor t o tha rite, Ln which c u e it is c m ~ i d e r e d A part of the f i x d c#tse

27. I n general, ttn soeirl parrreterr may be divided i n t o two uro t r~n : t h d ~ e # , f fdpt lnS the e n - - - * - - . ., Y L - r AYUYA ' ;A.L. FIY&DA. CaLe of O U I ~ ~ ) 4 1 d tho88 which r . f f r t tbe perfot rmce of labor (i.e. actual output), Ihe rcopr for lncrruiq productivity by mudifylng tba capacity pararterr ir l a q r l y n r t r i c t d to 2ompterl r u u r o a . P u - t a r o-7 affoctiog capacity b e l a c rtrobr- oL dtritioo uid b u l t h ; traditioarrl rkillr, method. a d tool.; c w t o u r y vorlins barn uid bolldays; and h u u n adaptability. Tbo social factor@ c a a o n l y d f e e t l n g hbOt?.porforu~ce (in addition to thr ~ o r l . l par-ten dl.curwd in preceding mactbna) u o tho vork a t t i tudaa of tbo ~wpbt loo, particularly tauard "blue collar'' vork rrd physical labor, which al!foct tba callbar and parforuaco of proplo a t t r ac ted t o the k d u r t n r rupolrioorr a d ay ioyra , u wall u tba n a l h b i l i t y and parformanee t f makllltd labor in umal mrk. - - 28. It hu beat hypotbuized t h a t oo. of tho l o a t inportant factors ; Influarcin8 the produgivi ty of h b o t i r tb. health and n u t r i t i o m l r t a t u r , of tb. work force. la moat d m l o p i n 6 esuotries, ulrplr:tition, malaria,

f i l a r i a z i a , hoobrorm, gor t ro- in tes t ina l i n fec t ioa r , and other d e b i l i t a t i n g d i s e u e s ace endcnic. They a r e cawed i n pa r t by Inadequate or f au l ty ~ u r i r b e n t , p r o r non-axirtant hea l th prac t ices , h o s t i l e environments and poor nanirat ion. Sore of tha d i r e c t uympta~s a r e not s o appgrent, such t h a t the e f f e c t . of there dire.se8 on product ivi ty a r e of ten underes tha ted .

29. A ntudy in India by the In t e rzz t iona l U o u r Office, 41 i den t i f i ed the d n rerson f o r the cons i s t e r t l y higher output r a t e s of member6 of the H.l.bari t r lben engaged on earthworks a s being the higher nu t r i t i ona l s tandards enjoyed by them. I n connection v i t h the present study an invent igat ion was rmdettaken in I d o n e r i a t o de t e r r ine i f poor hea l th o r d i e t a ry deficiency Y 4" a f f ec t ing worker capacity a t th ree c i v i l construct ion s i t e s in Went Java. 1 'Lht finding8 ind ica t e tht prevalarce of i ron deficiency, a n d . and hookwonn i n f e s t a t i o n i r extrtr~rely high arid t he re is a s ign i f i can t cor re la t ion between s n d a and reduced pbyrical endurance as mersured by the tlarvard Step Test. F u r t h e m o n , in takes of a amber of nu t r ien t8 a r e extremely l o w and a r e evidenced by c l L o i 4 rigam of nu t r i en t \ '%ficiencien; in fec t ions a r e alno c m o n and u e c l e a r l y mmxiatd with the poor n u t r i t i o n a l s t a tu s . 61

30. Productivity of both labor aad equipmat crp o t w be r e r t r i c t e d by eh. a t t i t u d e 8 of t r ade unions uad o ther labor o r g a n i z a t i ~ c o p ~ t p ~ d v l t h *roving the l i v l n g r tawiards of workern. Socirl .qgd ~ l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e 8 t a t a r d comt ruc t ion work can a h 0 be a f ac to r in deteml?qElng t?bwwp41t-& a t p u t r of vorkarr m g u a d fa coustruct ion ac t iv i ty . I n m y soc i e t i e s , 9 . ~ ~ 1 labor i r cousidered i n f e r i o r ; there i r comequently l i t t l e pride ia vork and product ivi ty r u f f e r r accordingly. There f ac to r s vary considerably from country to country md m a g regionr of the 8-8 country. Their a f f e c t on product ivi ty ir d i f f i c u l t to quant ify a d i t h u not been a t t r p t e d fa chi. rtudy.

31. In r a e count r ia r , c e r t a in t r i b e s o r rocial groups by long n tmding c w t a apply theme lve r to pa r t i cu l a r type8 of vork aod t h i r work v i l l not be mdertaken by otherr . Such ~rad i t i o r r r r l r k i l l r garera l ly r e r u l t in a m c h higher p taduct iv i ty and need t o be considetwl i n pcrmner+o* - - - J * ~ C ~ ~ - - J * J - - - - . a ~ r r h t l y , mechanical rxperlence, ap t i t udes a d a d ~ ~ t a b i l i t ; of labor a r c h p o r t m t daterminurta of the capacity and perfomanca of local17 t rained

- ~ r t t o r r .ad r c h a n i c r ur8d i n a q u i p m t - i n t e a r i v 8 mthodr. QImgiog a t t i t . d e toward c e r t a i n typaa of work o r developing new t y p a of skill8 is gmerally a long-tern a4.a~-e t o i n c r m a e labor capacity and/or paforuance . bmr, it ia difficult to quantity the affect oi th.m . a p r s r r t s t a on output.'

I/ Who Ibre Houateius, Itaport of rh. h a r g t w n t Development .nd .Productivity nirrion to India , 1963. - I/ D. b r y a d i m d S. Bart., "Nutrit ion and R u l t h 1ndeneri.n Conrtruction W-rr: W u r w e and Anemia," IIRD S t a f f Yorkina g p e r No. 0 2 (April 1973).

Ibid. k t e r u l t of t h i r i n i t i . 1 r tudy, an intervent ion r tudy to m a r u r e - tb. e f f e c t of iroa r u p p l . u n t a t i o n on p h y a i u l endurance, labor productfvi ty , uad in fec t ion8 war i n i t i a t e d . Ruultr of t h i r at* w i l l be r;,mrred i n a s e p ~ r a t e publication.

32. per year , have a d i r e c t impact on

o v e r d l output. D d l y vorking hours a r e oftem governed by c w t a o o r decree. Output f o r the yaar ir affected by absenteeism f o r various cawes , including r e l l g i a u +ad other holidayr. I n Wslem countr ier output may be a££ ecced du r ins the .nn.lrl f r s t i n g period, i f it i r observed by the laborers.

33. I n o m - , a vfde range of f ac to r s a f fecs the capacity and perform- rnca of labor d equipment, and v a r i a t i o m in productivy a r e therefore t o be a p e c t e d , U t u of output u n vary c o ~ i d a a b l y under normal c o d i t i o ~ a d can be a t r a a l y lw iLI very d i f f i c u l t environmento. Since the physical e n r i m m e a t can vary r i g n i f i u n t l y on a s i n g l e project s i te and ce r t a l a ly vafies widely from r i t e t o r i te, f l e x i b i l i t y is an i m ~ o r t u r t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of d i f f e r e n t mthodr, L d o r i r inherently more f l e x i b l e t h rn equipment and UP be urim t o a l t e r u a t i v e task8 when the weather in ibc2ereae.; deb :her& '

arm r r t e r i i l 8hortagem o r o ther interrupt ion6 t o r p e c i f i c work a c t h i t f e u . Ilmever, tbir .d+ant.~r .y b. l o r t where tha1.e a r a ree t lcF .gvt work pr-eiae o r t m c e r t a i n t i u in labor supply. For equipaunt methods it 18 w u a l l y ir- p r u t i u b l e t o prorid. rpecial izad p h n t f o r erch b u i c a c t i v i t y , a d equip- wt i m oft- r e q u i r d t o perform ope ra t iom f o r which it v u not rpec i f i ca l ly d u i g r s d . C a t a h type8 of equipment a r e . o re f l ex ib l e than othare, and the oruall raquir-to of a pro jec t m y lud t o the se l ec t ion of ruch a q u i p e n t i n p re fe ra rc r t o p h t of a more r p r c i a l i u d nature.

? P 4- . i r r or&& ro u a r a d o e cam opciP.1 technology for a c5viL work. pro- ject, m o r u j o r a r e u of r u e a r c h have barn i d r o t i f i d i n t h i r rtudy;

I) m u u r a a t of productfvl t ier of d i f f e r en t fac tor8 of production w e d in varyins rixu f o r various cowt ruc t ion tub under d i f f e r e a t rotiromental paramotarr; a d

1

11) &valog.art of M uulytiul f r a e u o r k vhich m y be wed t o i n t q r r t o d i f f o r r o t tub Lo project and t o de t e r r ine the optimal t acb r ro lq i r r cowide r lns p a r a r t e r r ruch rr project

z darign and arterorl costm. ' 9

35 L

f ac to r r o r p r n e t e r m inf lueace productivity of both equipment - .od mobor d th0 choice of opt- t ~ h o l o g y 1. A l a rge a d c a ~ l e % problem., I t bq, not barn pooriblo t o adequately quantify the e f f e c t of a l l parameters , i n d) c i rc r tu taaeer . In carer experience and JudQInent. had t o be sub- r t i t u t e d f o r h u d f r t r * ~ o r t u n a t e l y the r e w l t r ate r o b w t and do not change won crb.8 a wide va t f a t ion ln there Judpemte Ir accepted.

36. Ib report hae been organized in three volumes. Volume 1 constit.uter, the aaln report. I n the present chapter the problem of choice of e f f i c i en t technology md the d i f ferent parametera vhich af fec t the choice have been ducr ibed . Ch.pter 11 ac t s out the analyt ica l frnnevork employed i n t h i s scudy t o melecc the .oa t e f f fc icn t tcrcbwlogy for a construction task and/or prc- j ec t , vh i l e Ch.pter 111 provides an overal l asseasfneat of the produc:ivir,y data base for d i f ferent a c t i v l t i u rod dif ferent technolagiea as i t ata;da a t the ad of ?ham 11. 'Ih resul ta of the study-in t a m of comparative economic u u l y & a of alternative techniques af15 t h e i r i rpl icat iouo - for emplo~l.ent-are - proomtad in Chapters I V and V, r apec t i v s lym Chapter VI: explores rater- native pollc~ iLlbtmmmta mailable to govemmmt and Iemding inst?.tutions to help affect tho d e v d o p c ~ t a d w e cf appropriate technology. Finally, Chapter VII p ~ a t s the c a c l U a o a s and r o c ~ d r t i o n s of the e.tudym

37 . Vol- 11 p r u a r t s a d e t d l d a ta temat , of Qu r e q u i c a r n t r and mvri t ib i l i t ioa , ineldfng an evaluation of a i a c in8 aowcm-cra; re23 'a8 aarrlya& .rd finding, of th P b e I1 effort . Volume 111 provides a betd2.sd descrfption o f f i e ld p r o c d u r u developad dur- P h u e XI of t b fo r col&aAm 'or' p r i u r y data on productivitiea of labor a d e q u i p r a t .

1. T h b c h p t e r describa, the d e l developed t o analyze the choice of r l t enmt i - cau t ruc t ioo :,dnlquea, the i-ct of d i f ferent resource coat. om tha t choice, and the bes t m e of limited reaourcea . The basic problem f m to daterdm hou to torutruct a given c i v i l works project (or a rpsci f ied s e t of rrrh projectr u d g h t be contained i n a national prograd a t dnirr r c d c coot rubject t o a p u t i ~ u l u country's reaource avail- a b u t l a and available tuchaologl. Ihe e@m8ir is on issues involved i q t h s &ice mq d t e r n a t i r e rrtboda imol$.ag d i f f a t t a b 0 4 m s t a - ot I a 6 o r ' md crgit.1.

2. The coa r tn r t i on wtbod to be epploysd I8 dependent on fwo mnin itrr: (1) prodwtivf t icr of different ruourcsr , which i n turn a re 6.pmdtnt ca t.rrlotm environmt.1 para~e te ra ; and ( f i ) t h e p r i c u and a v d h b l l i q of raourcea i n the cotmtry. In addition, w e may v b h t o corufder the effect8 of fixed lldtr o r c o a r t n i n t r on cer ta in ruourccu, I/ rtrch aa a m l d u lk i t on the a v m t of equipment, or a ddan UP1t on the uotmt of labor. Kither rocfa l accotnrting price8 o r rarket p r i c u my b e dmt dependlug on the purpose of the part icular ana ly rb . -tic .ad fare igr e x c h n e caporunt8 u e reparately accounted.

t . * m - 4 - 1 !-.:rrL'I :' ti. 'LL L ; ~ ~ L ~ A r l l a ~ y r a m e cnoice ot mthod for I given r a t of rwource productiritien and pr icm . Chapter IV f o l lw ing (r.d Cbpte r I V of O o l u r 11) d a c r i b e the derivation of rerource produc- t f r l t i e e .ad the e f f ec t 02 enrlrommt.1 pa r rw t r r r thereon, and project d u P p rt.n&rda.

- 8

Be -finition o t the problem; Act id t i - , T u b and Metho&

4. A coartruction project cm be defined u a met of wotlr-q&titlw to ba pa fo t a rd and u c h ita of..uot'r cm ba perforwd by a a r i r t j % f r t w r . The f i r r t apptorch - tend on an e d a u t i o n of the typical mgiruur2.tq - %Ill of qumatMow much u rhorn i n Table 2.1 for a road project. - hmy oprmticnr, hagrrr, w r e f o d to be c o r P n to r ~ r a i " b i l l i t e m f and t he U f e r e n t qrntfoar c a q a r f w the individusl b i l l item could b j a f f ec t ed differenrly by @e rrriou ewiraauorrl pa r an t e r r . Ihw, i t w u d e t r d a r d tht a different , w r e detailed d i r a ~ r e ~ t i o n of the c o l u t ~ c t i o n proceaa m. reqtdred.

Ruou rcu a n defined here i n a very detirllrd reme , including different equipmnt, g.r.orrae1 . ad c o n a r b l a u t e r i a h , A lbt of the r u o u r c u is gf .0 in Voluw 111, Ann- A.

I I

-1 2-

W 24.1 Typiaal RUl of Qumtities

I t s 100. Description O u a n t i t ~ Unit

Site Clearance 1 . S i t e cloa.r~!ke for persranmt works

(a) R e l i d ~ r 7 20. wide ha (b) A d d i t A o n a l ha

2. Site clearance for b o m v areas ha Darthwrks

3. Rssnval of eurface so i l , average dspth

I 8 ) 1- m 2

b) 3M- m 2

h. Repantian of -hard. uubgrades 2 I

5. &cavation in a l l n t e r i i l o

I 8) m crttinga 3

b) Beneath aebuahalta 5 (a) To fona bsnchfng (d) Of ovarkrrdar I n b o r n areas (e) Pdr drainago ditch-

3 (f) For rtmct- a

6 . KO. 1- 5 for mck a? 7. Moporal of ummtod excavated makriilr 8. Bportod g a e d NU 9. IjlpOfu

:: n & - I - - 9

4 r , u r * u - L L ~ AUJFI.~ u i n L u x c u v a t ~ Id arteri.ls used for fil l- )cA

1 1 . Plaaiq a d a01plathg

ZEEr'fi 12. Surface miling d (nrring L. m

3 2

Roulmrlu 330 Preparation of fonrtioar n 2

1 k. C n u h d (nvo l m-o, thickneor I Hot aa- 1- [ Ba- I*, but ryt

Id =a-8 3a- I?

f 5. CrUmhd gravel b u o 1- h e k A 2

16. Seal mrta n 2

17. Sttrfauing R 2

5. The uys t e m developed -lays chree basic concepts: "act i v i ties, " " m d "methods." An activitg is t h e moat de t a i l ed o r disaggregated

?_/ of work t o be done e.g. loading, hauling o r mloading a mferl.1 under a rpec i f i ed met of cor.ditions. A p& is a piece be h e colulstirrg of one o r more re la ted a c t i v i t i e s , e.g. the task h r been defined t o include excavating, loading, hauling,

and r p r u d i n g a c t i v i t i m . A method i r a way of performing an taak v i t h a pa r t i cu l a r combination of labor, equipment and con-

1e aterials. The posr ib le methods f o r doing a mingle a c t i v i t y may f roa a l l lrbor and no equiplacat t o la rge piece8 of equipment v i t h feu

lab erm, and the re b e intermediate methods q l o y i n g varying mixes of -3 lab* .nd e q u i p r a t . Table 2.2 llsta dlf fe ren t method8 f o r t h e f i v e activities 1uvo1ved i n t he bulk earthrrorlrr task.

6. It m o l d be isqosrlbla to c o l l e c t e a p i r i c a l da ta f o r a l l tnsk, rat d m d parameter combiartiolrs. Disaggregation t o t h e a c t i v i t y leve l pe 3 tr u e of the data col lac ted i n t h e synthes i r of ~ c t h & . m t - ~ b s e r ~ t d . For jxaqle, l f the h u l l n g d i m a c e i r changed ib an earthwotks ta&, t he

.. a c t i v i t i a rem8ln cosutant, and only the resources required bL t h e hal ng a c t i v i t y nard b e a l t e r ed ( r s r d n g tha t t he BufmWe between lording and '"1 uliog a c t i v i t i a l s r i n m i a t d by increaming resources devoted t o h u l d n g l .

7. B o u m r , i n c e r t a i n corutruct ion tarlu, pa r t i cu l a r ly earthmoving oper./tioru car r ied oot o q d p m n t , diraggregation t o much a de ta i led l e v e l u q e a c t i v i t y im not n e c w w r y o r m ~ a i n g f u l . l o r example, t h e mcraper

(rthod A of Table 2.2) combiner t h e a c t i v i t i o of axcavatinfl, t m k d i l y uad r p r u d i n g . Similarly with labor-ietensive

and l o d i n g a c t i v i t i c a , urd the unloading and r p r a d - in^ . p 2 t f o i t i ~ Rre o f t a r lr t icd mt c l f I T I t ! I t # n ~ ; ~ l y . Vf n n 7 7 n , c h n r r 4 - - fu r thk r in te rac t ion bemeen ron 8 q w n t i . l a c t i d c i a , e.g. the mthod of haul t- whather h u d h r k e t , vhoalbarrou, or truck -- ~ i v u rime t o d l f f r r e n t loadi 8 h d @ u and corroapoodiry lordin8 r a t u . I t i8 therefore n e c u r a r y f o r p rpoao of c o q a r i r o n to coarider a c t i v i t i a i n u r o c i a t e J coabirrrrtionm, i.e.)ks. I n thb fra-k. a c q l e t e c m t r u c t i o n pro jec t ir defined b7 8 et of urka uhich c o a r t i t u t u 8 r e g r o u o i n ~ of t he t r ad i t i ona l engineer- . 1 Ul of qorat i t i r

8 The m d e l f r r r rvo rk r l l e c t e d to aaa ly t e the choice of technique giveu d o i g r r u n d r r d ) 3J L linur p r o g r a n ~ . k n y y y r r of

h v a prodded l vide r e l ec t ion of power h n d l i n a l a rg r problem expeditiously. A

deta i led c l u r i f i c a t l o n l L m t of coamtructlon a c t i v i t i e r i r glvan i n

a n ba u u l y t e d through u e of o ther modal8 i n techniqur model. l o r example, ree P. Ho.vent.deh,

Study, P h u e Ir The Hodel," IBRD Staf f Work-

I

2.2: Conatmction Methods for Bulk Excavatioll 4

opmtbn Conatzuction Hsttrod fo r Activity 1 Hothod b a v a t i n g b*g H d l n g Udloadlng spreading - -

A S-per Scraper Scraper Scraper Scraper

B At do- Shovel into Tmck Tipped fm Grader track ( W P ~ ) truck

C n n n n Labor

D n Shovel into Tractor & Tipped frtm Grader t r a i l e r t ra i le r trailer

E n n n n Labor

F Labor Labor into b e e t T3ppuU fnrm Labor b k e t bask&.- -

G n Labor into w- Tipped froor Labor rrheelhrrow bamou u t a e e l b u r o w

H Labor n I) n Order

J I) Labor into Bulloak Labor bulloak car t O a r t

Labor

K n h b o r in to Tractor & Tipped from & - - J 7 -- I . .? 1 1 . . . . .. Labor - - '--- *--"I * A - P A

n N Labor into h k Tipped tm Labor b u c k (tipper) truck . I

N i4 n n n Orader

0 N h b o r into T m k Labor h b o r - - t r w k ( f l a t )

P ! n n ~ m a k Labor Labor * - ( a r t )

~ d e l h a been fo rmla ted which employ8 such an algorithm to search quickly ovwr the different method8 t o deteraiae an optiaal coabinatim of speci f ic labor, aqu ip rn t and r t e r t . 1 inputs. The opt-1 eolution gives the ninimn coat necessary to accoqAi8h the dealred taslts (projects o r grozpa of projects) vithha specified time period8 wing available t+chmlogy and subject to 8pceified rarource constraints. Usually econoatlc coot of the corntry is taken M the objective, but f inaacial cost my a l so be computed v h a e i n desired. In India, it was found that supply of labor had an increasing c w t . Iha U n u r programing model w e d in th i s 8cudy h s the feature that c w t r a i n t s cm be placed on the amtatit of labor available a t a given vage, v ieh further i n c r c r n t t ~ of labor requiring rwcensively higher v a p a and/or Fncurring a h i r ing (set-up) c a t . Pot equipment, the costs h ~ v e bear cmsidered t o be conatant since there is no c q i r i c a l ewLdawe t o the cou~t ry .

9. Provisions u e av.ilable to require that cer ta in raaourcer be wed i n integer or W c r e t a quurtiti-; othenrhe, the normal solution could raltct f ract ional pieces of the rost af f i c icn t large rquipumtt, -Ustic. Thara f u t u r u can be wed to incarporate uaen t t .1 f u t u r u of ec&ameE mule. U l t i r t e t y , the lirvrr programing framework vlre ~cceg ted vtrea i t vas determined that the existence of acoaor ia of vcale would be e x t r r u l y - ' d i l t a l y t o revetre the arrrcltrionr of the p w m t study u w i l l be d iscuaed i n Q.pter LV.

10. Linear p r o g r a r y m d d s do not incorporate a ti- d l w ~ i o n directly; i n e f fec t e v e r y t h i ~ is m s u r d to take place v i th in one tima period. Clowmr, t h e ti- dlmawion is u j o r factor i n cauiderfng choice of technfque i n civil c o ~ t r u c t i o n . b l a y s i n c o q l e t i o n of large civil vol;ks projects u n be extremdy c ~ b t l ~ i n t o r of deferred b e w f i t r m d cap i ta l t ied rp i n M n t o r l , of mrcorpleted worlu. Therefore, a ti- dim- 8 h I8 provided 80 tht a con~truct ion prolcct cnn hr r l l v l 4 * 4 l n c n A4cf- - - - t

LAW p r ~ w m or p h u r . The ~ l u t o be perfor9rd i n different tiw poriodo a re r p c i f i r d u rqmra te constraints. I n the objective function, differont ti- dircount factors a re r p p l i d t o coot8 lacurred i n differont tin per&odr.

11, 1&a11y, the m d o l would h.+r the u p a b i l i t y t o coariJer i n t e r dapaodoacia i n s q ~ a c i ~ q of wkr, doterdning the " c ~ i t i c a l path" f o r the prodect while s i d t a n e o u l y c~m0idet?n6 a l t e m t i v e wthoda of accog l i rh ing u c h liaa i n tho c h i n m d its uroc ia tod nrource con r rq t i on d i c h a re rubJoct to ~ m t m i a t 8 * Pafortunrtely, gptiufcation technlquu a n not yet a v l l t b l e to handle such a c o q l e x prob . H w ~ r , t h i r l i d m t i o n ua be par t ly r e by formdating coar t r 3. at8 to require (I) tha t 8 a r t of tuka i n kter ti- perlad. u e r u o u r c y that hvm been mod i n ur l ier -

!#

4/ See E.W. lh t i . m d 0.1. leidorn "Anw~lgorith. for O p t i m a l P r o j e t - Scbaduling under " tb l t ip lo Ruourco Courtrainto," Maara.a.nt Sci.rrce, v. 17, No. 12 h g w t 1972).

t i m e periods, o r incur an ordering and setup cos t f o r n w rasourccs, (11) t h t c e r t a i n taeb be acconplished befo1.e others begin, and (111) t ha t sore trsb m y be mdertaker? during w r e than one phase. Again, t he tmics t o be p e r f o r ~ l d i n d i f f e r en t ti- periads o r phases are simply epecif l ed as separa:e c o m t r a i n t s . In thfs way, s o u sub-opt i l l i ta t ion of eequencing can be e f fec ted v i thou t going i n t o t h e detail r eq l i r ed i n a netvork time a ~ l y s i s , as tasks which can be h e i n d i f f e r en t t i r e periods w i l l tend t o be scheduled during periods when caastrained resources a r e i n s lack demand. Hwever, t h i s ap- proach should be supplemented by a separa te c r i t i c a l path ana lys is (e.g. PICUT o r PEBT/CQST procedures) vhere project scheduling and time a r e important fac tors .

12. S o w resource8 may be s h j e c t e d t o cons t ra in ts ( e i t he r maxim o r d n b a ) v h l l e o thers m y be purchased i n varying qwint i t ies . A d i s t i nc t ion is made betvten '*exlstingl' resources already a t the Job c i t e from previoue tin p h a s a and " n d ' resources vhich muat be brought t o t h e job s i t e during the current tirs period. A l tnp-rrm "se t up" coat may be asscseed during the f i r s t period t o any nor resource. These a r e cos ts incurred. t a w d e r ' ( o r .- r ec ru i t ) and t r a m p o r t a piece of equipment (o r pe-dtltrel) t o the job sf- m d met i t rrp f o r operation. For labor, t h i s would include the coa ra f a camps, medical and o the r f u i l i t i e e ( m t o t h e n l s e chL..~naFdS'"l m b l l i z a t i o n co6t).

13. During each time period, each resource, including labor, w i l l be a d l a b l e f o r 8 spec i f ied ntaber of hours u t i l i za t ion . I f w r e r u o u r c e houra a r e required during a glven t h e phase than a r e ava i l ab l e from ex i s t - i n g qumt i t i - , then new MIu - t be h i red or purchsred; or, i f t he rtaource 1. 8ubject to 8 mldnrrm conatr8int, a l t e m a t i ~ methods u t i l i z i n g o ther re- #outcar v l l l be r d e c t e d .

14. The object of the abdel f a to a e l e r t thmt nartfc111nr q r * -6

l r t hods vhich r lnFoitu t o t a l cos t subjec t t o n l e v a n t rerource conr t ra in ts . Al l r u o u r c u ( including labor, oquipmnt nnd conrumnble material.) a r e coated. Ei thor rocla1 accouatin8 p r i c w o r arrket p r i c u be w e d depend- i n 8 on the purporr of the particular uultrir. Doortic and foreign exchange c a p o n e n t s a r e meparatrly c a t e d ; fore l@ exchange (or ury other resource) may be rubjected rn a conr t ra in t and it. s h d a t value i n t he pa r t i cu l a r appl i - c a t i o n ~ u l c u l a t e d (which ca then be c o q a r e d with the'rocial accounting p r i c e o r g m e r a l r h d a t p r i c e fo r thee rooourcr).

15. P r m i r i o n r rre m d e ia t h e rodel fo r the c a p i u l c a t s of n w o q u i p r a t to be t rea ted e i tbu u A lrrp-rm c a p i u l char lo a t t h e begirming o f thm project d n u r a ( d h o r m t e d ) ralvm8e valur a t t h e c o q l e t i o n of tba projec t , o r u M hourly m r r i r r ~ t i o n charge g/ b u e d on a r p r c i f i d l i f e t i n u t i l i z a t i o a . I n the k t t e r use, coa t fo r any i d l e ti- would bm i q o r e d throufi a d j w t w n t of the u t e i - t i o n r a t e o r through t h r we of

5 Depreciation p l w i n t r r u t . -

e l sck var iab les i n the equipment setup cons t ra in ts . The coats of maintenance, sps re p a r t s and tires, fuel , o i l and operator time required t o operate each piece of equiprent can be added i n t o one uni t charge, o r any component can be l i s t e d separa te ly i n the G! f e c t i v e function and subjected t o a resource con- s t r a i n t . I n t he prescat d t l formulation, equipment depreciation, 1nt:ei-t and win tenance costa a r e ca lcc la ted oa an hourly baeis . Fuel, o i l and operator cost8 a r e calcu1a:ad separately.

16. There a r e many complexities i n analyses of t h i s type. The d i f f e r en t resources s u m d up slmply a s "equipment" and "labor" must be defined i n de t a i l . Xot only a r e the-e many d i f f e r e n t i tem, of equipmnt, bu t d i f f e r en t s i z e s nust a l s o be separa te ly ident i f ied ; there a r e s f d l a r l y many d i f f e ren t categories of labor and consumable w.cerials. k/ Similarly, domestic and foreign exchange components may be separa te ly accounted. Furthermore, t h e number of task a d method a l t e rna t ives to be exadned is a c w b i n a t o r i a l problem t h a t can quickly baomc very large. The number of er.tione ava i l ab l e a s t o the mix of labor. equipnent cn hand, and new equipment purchases t o be considered fo r a :onstruc- t ion ~ r o j e c t Fs qu i t e large; however, the m d e l provides a framevork to search fo r t h e s e a l t e rna t ives i n orderly and t f f i c i e n t atannW.

17. The de ta i led e q ~ a c i o a a of the model d e a c r i b t w Chz--&Qce~&+s~~t~&- t im and the cons t ra in ts along with an explardtion of t he variables used i n . t he model IB given i n an Annex 2-1 a t the end of the chapter.

18. me optimal so lu t ion gives t he minimum c o s t wit11 the spec i f ied methods and resource requirelpante to accomplish the desired tub with in the specif l ed time periods eubject to the rarource c o m t r a i n t s specif ied. A des i rab le f u t u r e of t he linur programming algorithm is it8 c 3 i l i t y t o readi ly ca l cu la t e a seq..unca of solution8 for a range of values i n me o r -70 thr p n - s + r * l n * s , r - I - r - n m - --- - * -< - 3 ' - C C , I

--* - - - - - .- -..- r r A r - L " L L L I L I C L . C . L . & . I -

capabi l i ty a n p r o v i d ~ information on t he t o t a l c a t for a ranqe of d i f fe ren t valuer for t h e a r k . t o ba performad, o r for c range of ava i lab le resource conr t ra in t r . The conr t r a in t r i n t he aodel may e i t h e r ba mrxilwnr o r minhum limits on rrrources and the w k q u m t i t i m . ThwS i t a project is plsnnel t o provide euployment, t h e lwtr limit on :he rider of unskilled laborers t o bo cmpioytd can ba spec i f ied by a cons t ra in t and t h e r a u l t a n t so lu t ion .

' vould be the u r i g n n e n t of beme laborerr t o t h e t a m b i n which they would be mbrt b m e f i c i a l .

19. iha m d e l 18 w e d t o develop the envelope of po in t r f o r an iroqurrnt c u m fo r the raquirrd ccnrbinrtion of labor an4 equipmsnt by using a continuuar of labor price8 and rolving for t he dnianm coat rolut ion. Thme are the i ~ o q u a n t c u m u covered i n conventiorul econodc theory. Any coubirutions of labor and equipment t ha t do not l i e on t h i r curve v o u l h b e i n f e r i o r or i ~ f f i c i e n t method8 f o r any wage rat-. .

61 A l f a t o f the d i f f e r e n t rerourcer used i n the study i r given i n Voluuu - 111, Annex A.