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Page 1: Workshop4 cog biases - Clinical Reasoningclinical-reasoning.org/resources/pdfs/CR3-cog-biases.pdf · Confirmaon"bias"is"the"tendency"to"look"for"confirming"evidence"to"supporta

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Just  a  reminder  that  the  lecture  notes  for  this  session  are  on  the  website:  www.clinical-­‐reasoning.org  This  session  –  summary  of  what  we  have  learned  so  far,  a  bit  about  what  happens  on  a  typical  MAU  ward  round,  then  we’ll  get  to  the  main  bit  of  what  today’s  session  is  about  –  cogniCve  biases  and  errors.  

In  your  clinical  reasoning  assessments  you  only  get  one  mark  for  the  right  answer.  Nearly  ALL  the  marks  are  for  describing  what  you  think  is  going  on  and  WHY  -­‐  ie  your  reasoning.  Unfortunately  students  are  fixated  on  “the  right  answer”  –  which  is  why  you  oOen  do  badly  on  these  assessments  (you’re  afraid  of  thinking  out  loud  in  case  it’s  “wrong”).  The  fact  is,  in  medicine  someCmes  there  is  no  immediate  right  answer,  there  may  be  a  number  of  potenCal  answers,  so  your  ability  to  reason  things  through,  and  demonstrate  your  reasoning,  is  vital.  

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Summary  so  far  [read  slide]  Remember  that  since  the  1960’s  psychologists  began  to  examine  our  thinking,  decision  and  acCons  scienCfically  and  what  they  found  was  that  thinking  itself  is  prone  to  error.  This  affects  everyone.  Even  highly  intelligent  people  fall  in  to  the  same  cogniCve  traps.  Also,  error  is  not  randomly  distributed  –  we  systemaCcally  err  in  the  same  direcCon,  which  makes  our  mistakes  predictable  –  but  only  to  a  degree.  

Psychology  and  other  disciplines  support  the  ‘two  minds  hypothesis’  :  there  are  forms  of  cogniCon  that  are  ancient  and  shared  with  other  animals  –  where  speed  is  oOen  more  important  than  accuracy  –  and  ones  that  are  recently  evolved  and  disCnctly  human.  Each  ‘mind’  has  access  to  mulCple  systems  in  the  brain.  So  we  have  a  fast,  pa^ern  recognising,  intuiCve  way  of  thinking  –  and  a  slow,  controlled  but  high  effort  way  of  thinking.    

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Psychologists  esCmate  that  we  spend  95%  of  our  daily  lives  engaged  in  Type  1  thinking  –  the  intuiCve,  fast,  subconscious  mode  of  decision-­‐making.  Imagine  driving  a  car,  for  example  –  it  would  be  impossible  to  funcCon  efficiently  if  every  decision  and  movement  was  as  deliberate,  conscious,  slow  and  efforcul  as  in  our  first  driving  lesson.  With  experience,  complex  procedures  become  automaCc,  fast  and  effortless.  The  same  applies  to  medical  pracCce.  There  is  evidence  that  expert  decision-­‐making  is  well  served  by  intuiCve  thinking.  The  problem  is  that  although  intuiCve  processing  is  highly  efficient  in  many  circumstances,  in  others  it  is  prone  to  error.      

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 Clinicians  use  both  Type  1  and  Type  2  thinking,  and  both  types  are  important  in  clinical  decision-­‐making.  When  encountering  a  problem  that  is  familiar,  clinicians  employ  pa^ern  recogniCon  and  reach  a  working  diagnosis  or  differenCal  diagnosis  quickly  (Type  1  thinking).  When  encountering  a  problem  that  is  more  complicated,  they  use  a  slower,  systemaCc  approach  (Type  2  thinking).  Both  types  of  thinking  interplay  –  they  are  not  mutually  exclusive  in  the  diagnosCc  process.  Figure  1.6  illustrates  the  interplay  between  Type  1  and  Type  2  thinking  in  clinical  pracCce.  

   Errors  can  occur  in  both  Type  1  and  Type  2  thinking  –  for  example  people  can  apply  the  wrong  rules  or  make  errors  in  their  applicaCon  while  using  Type  2  thinking.  However,  it  has  been  argued  that  the  common  cogniCve  biases  encountered  in  medicine  tend  to  occur  when  engaged  in  Type  1  thinking.    

   For  example,  imagine  being  asked  to  see  a  young  woman  who  is  drowsy.  She  is  handed  over  to  you  as  a  ‘probable  overdose’  because  she  has  a  history  of  depression  and  a  packet  of  painkillers  was  found  beside  her  at  home.  Her  observaCons  show  she  has  a  Glasgow  Coma  Score  of  10/15,  heart  rate  100  beats  per  minute,  blood  pressure  100/60  mmHg,  respiratory  rate  14  per  minute,  oxygen  saturaCons  98%  on  air  and  temperature  37.5oC.  Already  your  mind  has  reached  a  working  diagnosis.  It  fits  a  pa^ern  (Type  1  thinking).  You  think  she  has  taken  an  overdose.  At  this  point  you  can  stop  to  think  about  your  thinking  (raConal  override  in  Fig.  1.6).  ‘What  is  the  evidence  for  this  diagnosis?  What  else  could  it  be?’    

   On  the  other  hand,  imagine  being  asked  to  assess  a  paCent  who  has  been  admi^ed  with  syncope.  There  are  several  different  causes  of  syncope  and  a  systemaCc  approach  is  required  to  get  to  a  diagnosis  (Type  2  thinking).  However,  you  recently  heard  about  a  case  of  syncope  due  to  a  leaking  abdominal  aorCc  aneurysm.  At  the  end  of  your  assessment,  following  evidence-­‐based  guidelines,  it  is  clear  the  paCent  can  be  discharged.  Despite  this,  you  decide  to  observe  the  paCent  overnight  ‘just  in  case’  (irraConal  override  in  Fig.  1.6).  In  this  example,  your  intuiCon  is  actually  availability  bias  (when  things  are  at  the  forefront  of  your  mind)  which  has  significantly  distorted  your  esCmate  of  probability.    

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CogniCve  biases  should  not  be  confused  with  ‘expert  intuiCon’  which  is  a  common  way  experts  make  decisions  –  but  only  in  their  domain  of  experCse.    In  1973,  two  American  psychologists  took  two  groups  of  people  –  one  consisCng  of  chess  masters  and  one  consisCng  of  novices  –  and  showed  them  chessboards  with  20-­‐25  pieces  on  them,  set  up  as  if  in  the  middle  of  a  game.  The  subjects  were  shown  the  boards  briefly  and  then  asked  to  recall  the  posiCons  of  the  pieces.  The  chess  masters  were  able  to  recall  the  posiCon  of  every  piece  on  the  board,  but  the  novices  could  only  recall  four  or  five.  The  experiment  was  then  repeated,  but  this  Cme  the  pieces  were  randomly  distributed  on  the  chess  board.  This  Cme,  the  chess  masters  were  no  be^er  than  the  novices.  Chess  masters,  with  their  years  of  experience,  could  look  at  the  chess  pieces  in  the  middle  of  a  game  and  see  a  pa^ern.  The  chess  pieces  were  like  le^ers  in  a  word,  and  like  readers  recognise  whole  words,  chess  masters  are  experts  in  the  language  of  chess.  But  if  they  were  asked  to  simply  look  at  a  jumble  of  le^ers,  they  performed  no  be^er  than  everyone  else.    

   

Expert  intui+on  is  really  tacit  knowledge.  Although  it  involves  intuiCve  thinking,  this  is  slightly  different  to  the  subconscious  ‘assumpCons’  to  which  we  are  all  prone,  experts  included.  The  apparent  effortlessness  is  in  fact  not  effortless  at  all  -­‐    10,000+  purposeful  pracCce,  feedback/coaching  

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You  all  know  this  word  says  “remember”  because  you  recognise  the  word  –  you  did  not  have  to  figure  it  out  from  the  individual  le^ers.  In  the  same  way,  expert  chess  players  saw  the  pieces  like  le^ers  in  a  word,  and  expert  clinicians  see  individual  clinical  features  like  le^ers  in  a  word  –  it  seems  effortless  but  the  effort  it  took  to  get  there  is  “hidden”  from  you.  NOT  the  same  as  “jumping  to  conclusions”  which  we  are  going  to  discuss  in  more  detail  later.  

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One  definiCon  of  diagnosCc  error  is  this:  the  clinician  has  all  the  informaCon  available  to  get  the  right  diagnosis  and  then  gets  the  wrong  diagnosis.  Why  does  this  happen?  

Knowledge  gaps.  For  example,  a  cons  colleague  of  mine  told  a  pt  her  pain  (that  sounded  really  like  biliary  colic)  could  not  be  due  to  gallstones  because  she  had  had  her  gallbladder  removed.  That’s  a  knowledge  gap.  

MisinterpretaCon  of  diagnosCc  tests  Cog  biases  –  the  topic  today.  

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[tell  story]  

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So  let’s  move  on  to  talk  about  cogniCve  errors  and  biases  …  

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[read  slide]  

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Here’s  a  common  example  –  which  line  is  the  longest?  A,  B  or  C?  Using  a  ruler  takes  more  effort,  right?  

There’s  another  famous  experiment  where  3  lines  of  DIFFERENT  lengths  were  given  to  subjects.  It  was  easy  to  see  which  was  the  longest  line,  but  when  they  were  put  in  a  group  of  people  who  all  disagreed  with  them,  they  frequently  chose  the  incorrect  answer  due  to  peer  pressure!  

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CogniCve  biases  fall  in  to  4  main  groups:  Social  –  peer  pressure,  ‘halo  effect’  (when  someone  is  good  at  one  thing  so  you  assume  they  are  good  at  everything)  Memory  –  hindsight  bias  (hindsight  significantly  impairs  our  ability  to  judge  the  quality  of  decision  making  that  occurred  in  the  past)  Decision  making  –  confirmaCon  bias  and  others  in  the  hand  out  coming  around  now    [HANDOUT]  Probability/belief  biases  –  e.g.  Gambler’s  fallacy,  availability  bias  –  more  of  that  in  a  minute!  

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The  mistaken  belief  that  is  something  happens  more  frequently  than  normal,  then  it  will  happen  less  frequently  in  the  future  (or  vice  versa).  In  situaCons  where  what  is  being  observed  is  random,  this  belief  is  obviously  false.  

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Is  the  process  of  inferring  the  CAUSES  of  events  or  behaviours  (with  no  evidence)  

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We  have  probably  all  been  a  vicCm  of  this,  as  in  the  line  experiment.  

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ConfirmaCon  bias  is  the  tendency  to  look  for  confirming  evidence  to  support  a  theory  rather  than  looking  for  contradictory  evidence  to  refute  it,  even  if  the  la^er  is  clearly  present.  ConfirmaCon  bias  is  common  when  you  are  seeing  a  paCent  who  has  already  been  seen  by  another  dr,  who  may  be  more  senior  than  you.  Actually,  confirmaCon  bias  is  rife  in  everyday  life:  in  general,  people  read  newspapers  that  already  support  their  views,  browse  internet  sites  that  mirror  their  own  values,  and  hang  out  with  like  minded  people.  

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I  like  this  one  –  fear  of  flying.  Availability  bias  is  when  things  are  at  the  forefront  of  your  mind  because  you  have  seen  several  cases  recently  or  have  been  studying  that  condiCon  in  parCcular.  There  have  been  (what  seems  to  be)  a  lot  of  airline  crashes  in  the  news  recently.  But  neglect  of  probability  (or  base  rate  neglect)  is  the  tendency  to  ignore  the  prevalence  of  something  which  then  distorts  our  reasoning.  

Of  course,  in  life  AND  medicine,  pure  logic  is  someCmes  NOT  helpful  when  dealing  with  an  anxious  person!  

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Anchoring  bias  occurs  even  when  iniCal  informaCon  is  clearly  wrong  …  We  use  anchoring  all  the  Cme  –  whenever  we  have  to  guess  something  like  the  length  of  the  Mississippi  River,  we  start  with  something  we  are  sure  of  (the  anchor)  and  take  it  from  there  –  otherwise  we  would  just  be  making  up  a  number.  Unfortunately  we  use  anchors  when  we  don’t  have  to  as  well:  it  is  the  common  human  tendency  to  subconsciously  hang  on  to  the  first  piece  of  informaCon  given  when  making  a  decision.  Lots  of  experiments  demonstrate  this.  In  one,  estate  agents  were  given  a  tour  of  a  house  and  asked  to  esCmate  its  value.  Beforehand  they  were  informed  of  a  randomly  generated  sales  price.  The  higher  that  price,  the  higher  they  valued  the  property.  Car  salesman  and  other  negoCators  do  the  same  thing.  

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And  finally,  story  bias  is  our  tendency  to  remember  stories  more  than  abstract  facts  and  also  to  be  moved  more  by  a  human  side  to  a  situaCon.  ChariCes  and  news  media  use  this  bias  to  great  effect.  However,  stories  can  give  us  a  false  sense  of  understanding  –  they  simplify  reality  and  filter  things  out  that  don’t  fit.  But  they  make  sense  to  us!  

Authority  bias  refers  to  how  figures  of  authority  can  exert  influence  on  your  reasoning.  For  example,  if  the  consultant  said  this  is  what  the  diagnosis  is,  subconsciously  (or  not)  defer  to  authority  and  assume  that  person  knows  what  they  are  doing,  and  they  tend  not  to  interfere  (strict  hierarchy  btw  can  have  disastrous  consequences  if  people  are  afraid  to  quesCon).  

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Around  100  cogniCve  errors  and  biases  are  described  in  this  book  ‘the  art  of  thinking  clearly’  –  easy  to  read  and  recommended.  I’ve  listed  a  few  more  here:    sunk-­‐cost  fallacy  is  when  you  have  already  invested  in  something  you  hold  out  to  the  bi^er  end,  even  when  it  makes  no  sense  (bad  movie,  bad  project,  bad  war)  Social  proof  is  a  cause  of  stock  market  panic.  If  suddenly  everyone  looks  up,  you  automaCcally  look  up  too  –  we  insCncCvely  follow  the  herd  (in  evoluConary  terms,  this  was  a  survival  strategy).  Overconfident  is  the  tendency  to  believe  we  know  more  than  we  actually  know,  placing  too  much  faith  in  opinion  instead  of  gathered  evidence  (?poliCcians)  The  other  ones  marked  with  an  *  are  in  the  handout  and  you  can  read  about  them  there  …    

Visceral  bias  –  negaCve  or  posiCve  feelings  towards  people  affect  our  decision  making  Su^on’s  Slip  –  going  for  the  obvious  and  not  considering  other  possibiliCes  

Order  effects  –  the  tendency  to  remember  the  first  and  last  bits  of  informaCon  and  forget  the  stuff  in  the  middle  

Commission  bias  –  tendency  towards  acCon  ‘be^er  to  do  something  than  nothing’  instead  of  watching  and  waiCng  which  might  be  the  best  thing  to  do  Stereotyping  

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[read  slide]  

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Some  of  you  may  have  been  told  about  famous  group  think  experiments  where  apparently  normal  intelligent  people  do  really  strange  things  because  everyone  else  is  doing  it  too.  

Examples  when  I  was  a  junior  dr:    

50  year  old  alcoholic  man,  abdo  pain/vomiCng,  fever,  ‘proteinuria’  =  UTI  (pancreaCCs)  70  year  old  woman,  CSF  leak,  immunosuppressed,  new  confusion  =  cons  said  ‘b  cult  if  spikes  temp’  (meningiCs)  

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Personality  type  and  other  individual  characterisCcs  influence  decision  making.  Some  people  are  naturally  more  confident  (or  over-­‐confident)  than  others  e.g.  men  vs  women.  Decisions  are  also  made  in  context.  My  work  environment  is  an  accident  waiCng  to  happen:  characterised  by  noise,  interrupCons,  mulC-­‐tasking  and  cogniCve  overload  for  example.  

‘Comfortably  numb’  we  menConed  before  –  it  refers  to  mindlessly  adopCng  strategies  to  conserve  thinking.  This  leads  to  problems:  e.g.  failure  to  do  a  thorough  history  and  exam,  blindly  accepCng  informaCon  from  others,  deferring  to  authority  without  quesCon,  adopCng  a  non-­‐skepCcal  approach  …  you  must  quesCon  everything!  

Healthcare  providers  cannot  afford  to  be  comfortably  numb  when  paCent  care  is  at  stake.  

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[read  slide]  The  areas  of  the  brain  required  for  system  2  processes  are  most  affected  by  things  like  stress,  cogniCve  overload,  sleep  deprivaCon  and  faCgue  …  All  factors  combine  to  increase  use  of  system  1  processes  and  compromise  funcCon  of  system  2  processes.  We  will  learn  more  about  that  in  year  two  when  we  cover  ‘Human  Factors’.  

 

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So  no  ma^er  how  smart  we  are,  our  brains  are  wired  to  miss  things  and  assume  things  …  and  make  errors.  So  what  can  we  do  about  it?  [read  slide]  

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James  Reason  is  a  well  known  psychologist  who  became  famous  for  studying  error  in  healthcare.  He  said  this.  

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That’s  it!  

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So  in  your  PBL  sessions  try  and  spot  when  you  might  be  subconsciously  filling  in  gaps/jumping  to  conclusions  when  really  you  don’t  know.    

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