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Workplace Spirituality and the Selling Organization: AConceptual Framework and Research PropositionsVishag Badrinarayanan & Sreedhar MadhavaramPublished online: 23 Sep 2013.

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Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, vol. XXVIII, no. 4 (fall 2008), pp. 421–434.© 2008 PSE National Educational Foundation. All rights reserved.

ISSN 0885-3134 / 2008 $9.50 + 0.00. DOI 10.2753/PSS0885-3134280406

It is the spirit that motivates, that calls upon a man’s reserves of dedication and effort, that decides whether he will give his best or just enough to get by.

—Peter Drucker (1954, p. 144)

Sharpen the Saw: Take time to care for your physical, mental, spiritual, and social health.

—Steven R. Covey (1999)

Recent years have witnessed a proliferation of articles on spirituality and its relevance for business. A growing trend in spirituality research is an emphasis on spirituality in the work-place. Theoretical and empirical support is slowly emerging on how workplace spirituality infl uences both employee and organizational outcomes. As Fry notes, “There is an emerg-ing and accelerating call for spirituality in the workplace. . . . Recent polls have found that American managers and leaders want a deeper sense of meaning and fulfi llment on the job—even more than they want money and time off” (2003, p. 702). Even new entrants into the labor force seek work environments that allow the fulfi llment of both personal and fi nancial goals (Friedman and Lobel 2003). It has been reported that, across diverse industries, fi rms such as Aetna International, Taco Bell, Wal-Mart, Southwest Airlines, Xerox, and Deloitte and Touche have already incorporated initiatives on supporting spirituality in the workplace. Signifi cantly, as Cohen (1997)

notes, sales professionals are also discovering spirituality as a platform to success.

The competitive nature of the sales profession is character-ized by high degrees of job-related stress (Moncrief et al. 1997; Porter, Kraft, and Claycomb 2008). In today’s turbulent times, the challenging work environment in which salespeople oper-ate is further complicated by the pressures of globalization, downsizing, layoffs, terrorism, and suspect organizational values, among other factors. In general, American employees, compared to their counterparts in other countries, work longer hours, spend less time on leisure activities, and experience high levels of job-related stress (Gavin and Mason 2004). Given the amount of time people spend at work, the work environment becomes an important predictor of employees’ well-being (Friedman and Lobel 2003). Furthermore, internal to the fi rm, organizational policies and practices affect job at-titudes, behaviors, success, and ultimately, as Pfeffer (2003) notes, could nurture or weaken the spirit of employees. In this regard, although the emotional and cognitive aspects of work environment have been researched extensively in the business literature, there has been limited academic inquiry on the spiritual components of organizational life (Duchon and Plowman 2005).

Broadly stated, the goal of this paper is to explore workplace spirituality and its antecedents and outcomes in the context of the selling organization. Ashmos and Duchon defi ne work-place spirituality as “the recognition that employees have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community” (2000, p. 137). As Robbins elaborates, “Organizations that promote a spiritual culture recognize that people have both a mind and a spirit, seek to fi nd meaning and purpose in their work, and desire to connect with other human beings and be part of a community” (2003 p. 542). Workplace spirituality is increasingly being viewed as an important variable in predicting psychosocial

WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY AND THE SELLING ORGANIZATION: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH PROPOSITIONS

Vishag Badrinarayanan and Sreedhar Madhavaram

The past few years have witnessed a proliferation of articles on spirituality and its relevance for business. A growing trend in spirituality research is an emphasis on spirituality in the workplace. Theoretical and empirical support is emerging on how workplace spirituality infl uences both employee and organizational outcomes. However, the sales literature has not yet integrated the dimensions of workplace spirituality into its frameworks. Therefore, drawing on existing theoretical foundations, we propose a conceptual framework that illustrates the role of workplace spirituality in selling organizations. We present relevant testable research propositions, guidelines for future research, and implications for practice.

Vishag Badrinarayanan (Ph.D., Texas Tech University), Assistant Professor of Marketing, McCoy College of Business Administration, Texas State University–San Marcos, vb16@txstate.edu.

Sreedhar Madhavaram (Ph.D., Texas Tech University), Assistant Professor of Marketing, Nance College of Business Administration, Cleveland State University, s.madhavaram@csuohio.edu.

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functioning in the areas of stress and coping (Miller 2004). However, in the sales literature, despite the preponderance of related concepts such as team spirit and esprit de corps, work-place spirituality has not been explicitly examined. A notable exception is the work of Porter, Kraft, and Claycomb (2003). They propose that healthy spirituality and spiritual values of salespersons are essential for psychological well-being, inter-pretation of the work environment as less threatening, and coping with stress.

In this paper, we suggest that the dimensions of workplace spirituality contribute to the sacralization of work, spiritual well-being, and other critical positive outcomes to salespeople and, in turn, the selling organization. Furthermore, we also propose supervisory behavior, organizational values, ethical climate, and wellness lifestyle as antecedents of workplace spirituality. Integrating the dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of workplace spirituality, formally, we present a conceptual framework and research propositions.

BACKGROUND

Spirituality (from Latin root spiritus meaning breath—the breath of life) is receiving increasing attention in the contexts of employee, work environment, management, leadership, and organizational research. Academic publications such as the Journal of Organization Change Management, Leadership Quarterly, and Journal of Management Inquiry have published special issues on spirituality. Trade publications such as BusinessWeek, Fortune, Wall Street Journal, and Newsweek have also featured articles on the increasing interest in spirituality among individuals, organizations, and corporate America.

Garcia-Zamor notes that there is “a spiritual awakening in the American workplace” (2003, p. 355). For example, in an article in Fortune magazine, Schrage notes that “Survey after management survey affi rms that a majority want to fi nd ‘meaning’ in their work” (2000, p. 306). As Kale surmises, “At a time when spiritual needs ascend in salience, the cross-fertilization of sacred ideologies, practices, and rituals have created a ‘spiritscape’ like nothing we have experienced before. The task for governments, civic bodies, policy makers, as well as corporations is to take cognizance of this spiritscape in for-mulating appropriate policies and strategies” (2004, p. 102). Why is corporate America’s interest in spirituality growing? In their infl uential article, Ashmos and Duchon (2000, p. 134) offer the following reasons:

1. The downsizing, reengineering, and layoffs of the past decade have turned the American workplace into an environment where workers are demoralized and where there is a growing inequity in wages.

2. The workplace is being seen more often as a primary source of community for many people because of the

decline of neighborhoods, churches, civic groups, and extended families as principal places for feeling con-nected. For many, the workplace provides the only consistent link to other people and to the human needs for connection and contribution.

3. Curiosity about Pacifi c Rim cultures and Eastern phi-losophies, such as Zen Buddhism and Confucianism, which encourage meditation and stress values such as loyalty to one’s groups and fi nding one’s spiritual center in any activity, are fi nding acceptance.

4. As aging baby boomers move closer to life’s greatest uncertainty—death—there is a growing interest in contemplating life’s meaning.

5. The pressure of global competition has led organiza-tional leaders to recognize that employee creativity needs a fuller expression at work. Such expression is diffi cult when work itself is not meaningful.

Despite this increased interest, two factors have impeded scholarly research on spirituality in the mainstream business literature: (1) the prevailing confusion regarding the differ-ences between spirituality and religiosity and (2) the lack of a consensus on the defi nition of spirituality. Pioneering works did not clearly distinguish between spirituality and religios-ity. Arguing for the presence of an overlap, researchers have sometimes merged the concepts together in their studies (e.g., Moberg 2002; Zinnbauer, Pargament, and Scott 1999). How-ever, modern psychological approaches explicitly differentiate spirituality from religion and such a distinction has achieved a paradigmatic status in various literatures (Zinnbauer, Par-gament, and Scott 1999). In fact, in a study conducted by Mitroff and Denton (1999), participating managers over-whelmingly highlighted the distinction between spirituality and religiosity, with some describing themselves as spiritual and not religious. As Fry notes, “spirituality is necessary for religion but religion is not necessary for spirituality” (2003, p. 706). Adopting this viewpoint, this paper summarizes some of the reported differences between spirituality and religiosity in Table 1.

With regard to the defi nition of spirituality, it must be recognized that pinning down the concept is a challenging task (Gull and Doh 2004). Nonetheless, by reviewing the following exemplar defi nitions, the essence of the concept emerges. As Sheep (2006) observed, despite the lack of con-sensus, psychologists are defi ning and measuring spirituality in ways that are conducive to empirical research. Adhering to the discussion earlier, it is important to recognize that none of the following defi nitions alludes to religion or religiosity. Neck and Milliman defi ne spirituality as “expressing our desires to fi nd meaning and purpose in our lives and . . . a process of living out one’s set of deeply held personal values” (1994, p. 9). Dehler and Welsh (1994) describe spirituality as

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an individual’s inner source of inspiration and an energizing feeling. Gull and Doh (2004) note that this energized feel-ing is an important manifestation of an individual’s spirit, and they also suggest that spirituality should not be nar-rowly defi ned in terms of emotions alone. On the basis of an empirical study with senior human resources executives and managers, Mitroff and Denton defi ne spirituality as “the basic feeling of being connected with one’s complete self, others, and the entire universe” (1999, p. 83). As Moore and Casper (2006) summarize, individual spirituality is generally viewed as an internal belief, attitude, or emotion that affects people’s behavior. According to McKee, “The concern of marketing as it relates to spirituality is to develop organizations that ad-dress the needs of both employees and customers, as well as other stakeholders for an ethical and humane workplace and marketplace” (2003, p. 72). Although it is beyond the scope of this paper to review various other defi nitions of spirituality, the following section expands on the development of thought on spirituality in the workplace.

WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY

The concept of workplace spirituality brings attention to the work environment as a critical infl uencer of employees’ well-being and performance. For instance, McKee (2003) draws a parallel between workplace spirituality and the societal market-ing concept. Just as societal marketing “calls upon marketers

to build social and ethical considerations into their marketing practices . . . in a way that preserves or enhances the consumer’s and society’s well-being” (Kotler and Keller 2006, p. 22), the notion of workplace spirituality directs employers to create a more ethical and humane workplace (Gunther 2001). A spiri-tual workplace is an employee-friendly work environment that recognizes, supports, and develops the spirit of its employees. Duchon and Plowman defi ne workplace spirituality as “the recognition that employees have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community” (2005, p. 811). Consistent with the distinction between spirituality and religiosity, Ashmos and Duchon note:

[Workplace spirituality] is not about religion or conversion, or about getting people to accept a specifi c belief system. Rather, it is about employees who understand themselves as spiritual beings whose souls need nourishment at work. It is about experiencing a sense of purpose and meaning in their work beyond the kind of meaning found . . . in the performance of tasks. . . . Spirituality is also about people experiencing a sense of connectedness to one another and to their workplace community. (2000, p. 135)

Based on Duchon and Plowman’s (2005) defi nition, three unique dimensions of workplace spirituality can be identifi ed. Organizations must (1) recognize that employees have an inner life (inner self ), (2) assume that employees have a desire to

Table 1 The Differences Between Spirituality and Religiosity

Spirituality Religiosity Exemplar Sources

An inner longing for meaning and An organized belief system. Duchon and Plowman (2005)community.

Highly appropriate topic for discussion Highly inappropriate topic for discussion Kale (2004); Mitroff andin the workplace. in the workplace. Denton (1999)

Not dependent on or predicated by May serve as a “vehicle” or “road map” to Kale (2004)any form of religion. nurture, comprehend, and express spirituality.

Broader concept that represents beliefs Narrower concept that refers to behaviors. Fry (2003); Westgate (1996)and values. Has prescribed tenets, dogma, and doctrines.

Looks inward, within the individual. Often looks outward depending on rites and Klenke (2003); Marques, More inclusive, universally applicable, and rituals. Sometimes tends to be dogmatic, Dhiman, and King (2005)embraces diverse expressions of exclusive, and patriarchal.interconnectedness.

Not operationalized in terms of affi liation Characterized by measures of church attendance, Giacalone and Jurkiewiczor denominational ideals. amount of prayer, involvement in church-related (2003b); Koenig, McCullough, activities, among others. and Larson (2001)

Strong theoretical and empirical support No clear relationship between religion and ethics. Giacalone and Jurkiewiczfor a connection between spirituality (2003b); Terpstra, Rozell, and ethics. and Robinson (1993)

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fi nd their work purposeful and meaningful (meaningful work), and (3) provide a commitment to serve as a community for spiritual growth (connectedness). These three dimensions are elaborated in greater detail in the following paragraphs.

Inner Self

The inner self dimension of workplace spirituality refers to the viewpoint that employees bring their “whole” selves to work (Duchon and Plowman 2005; Sheep 2006). That is, organizations need to recognize that “employees have spiritual needs (i.e., an inner life), just as they have physical, emotional, and cognitive needs, and these needs don’t get left at home when they come to work” (Duchon and Plowman 2005, p. 811). From an identity theory (Shamir 1991) perspective, individuals have multiple identities and the salience of an identity infl uences behavior. For example, a correspondence between one’s identity (or self-concept) and one’s work infl u-ences attitude toward work. Likewise, when individuals are spiritual and when the work environment allows an expres-sion of their spiritual identity, employees are likely to feel motivated, valued, and cared for as individuals. As Duchon and Plowman propose, “If individuals defi ne themselves as spiritual beings who have an inner life—even at work—and they belong to a work unit whose central, enduring character embodies (or at least permits) this defi nition, the work unit identity will thus provide an opportunity for expression of inner life” (2005, p. 812).

Meaningful Work

The second dimension of workplace spirituality embodies the notion that people seek meaning at work (Duchon and Plowman 2005). Mitroff and Denton (1999) describe spiri-tuality as the desire to fi nd ultimate meaning and purpose in one’s life and to lead an integrated life. Likewise, a spiritual workplace is one that has meaning over and above fi nancial rewards traditionally associated with workplaces. To support employees’ spiritual growth and job performance, there must be a convergence between employees’ perceptions of their own life and the meaning of their work (Sheep 2006). As Duchon and Plowman aptly summarize, “a conceptualization of spirituality at work must include, not only the recognition that individuals have inner lives that push them towards a search for meaning, but that part of the search for meaning is satisfi ed by meaningful work” (2005, p. 814).

Connectedness

Workplace spirituality also embodies connectedness and community, which are exemplifi ed through sharing, mutual obligation, and higher levels of commitment (Duchon and

Plowman 2005). Mitroff and Denton (1999) propose that an important element of spirituality is interconnectedness. Cor-respondingly, Pfeffer notes that “an important dimension that people value at work is being able to feel part of a larger com-munity or being interconnected” (2003, p. 7). Porter, Kraft, and Claycomb state, “The healthy spirituality of employees also increases the closeness of their social relationships and a sense of emotional connectedness” (2003, p. 197). Social relationships, consequently, reduce perceptions of job envi-ronment as stressful (Deeter-Schmelz and Ramsey 1997). As Milliman et al. state, “an organization that earnestly treats its employees as part of its community and emotionally engages them in a company purpose which makes a difference in the world, will obtain a higher level of employee motivation and loyalty” (1999, p. 230).

Before proceeding further, it is important to deliberate on the nature of the concept of workplace spirituality. First, as conceptualized in this paper, workplace spirituality is an or-ganizational characteristic and not an individual trait or state. As mentioned earlier, organizations embrace workplace spiri-tuality and implement practices that nurture, motivate, and empower their employees. Duchon and Plowman best describe workplace spirituality as a type of “psychological state—a set of perceptions that workers have about the local work unit, how it is managed, and how workers relate to each other” (2005, p. 815). Similarly, Jurkiewicz and Giacalone (2004) liken workplace spirituality to an organizational culture that promotes employees’ well-being by positively affecting their experiences, work processes, and connections with others. At the organizational level, research indicates that fi rms ranking high on workplace spirituality outperform others and also experience faster growth, better effi ciencies, and increased returns on investment (Jurkiewicz and Giacalone 2004). Dent, Higgins, and Wharff (2005) reviewed 87 scholarly articles on the topic of workplace spirituality and concluded that most studies had either hypothesized or found a relationship be-tween workplace spirituality and organizational performance. At the individual level, as Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003b) note, the benefi ts of a spiritual culture include increased physical and mental health of employees, advanced personal growth, and an enhanced sense of self-worth. The adoption of workplace spirituality by organizations is refl ected in the three dimensions discussed in the previous section.

Second, although the concept of workplace spirituality originates from discussions on spirituality, it rises above the discussions on individual spirituality. The fi eld of spirituality in business is characterized as being in the paradigm development stage, with a lack of consensus regarding ontology, defi nition, and contextual boundaries. Yet, as workplace spirituality is an organizational state that detaches itself from discussions on organized religion or theology, it has found widespread ac-ceptance in the context of organizational behavior (Robbins

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2003). In fact, the topic of workplace spirituality has found entry into textbooks of organizational behavior (e.g., Robbins 2003), implying that the concept is gaining legitimacy in aca-demic circles and is even being taught to undergraduate and graduate students in business classrooms. One objective of this paper is to foster research on the topic of workplace spirituality by emphasizing commonly accepted themes, especially those that have relevance for the selling organization. As Dent, Hig-gins, and Wharff (2005) urge, to develop the fi eld further, it is imperative to continue the pursuit of a richer defi nition and defi ne the conceptual boundaries. The defi nition of workplace spirituality (specifi ed earlier), which synthesizes the construct into three dimensions, is an ideal and parsimonious starting point for developing and extending theory.

Third, as a precursor to the developments of conceptual frameworks involving the construct, it is important to review ways by which workplace spirituality can be measured. Some researchers believe that the richness of the construct can be truly studied using qualitative and interpretive methods of inquiry such as phenomenology and hermeneutics (Driscoll and Wiebe 2007). Bell and Taylor (2001) measured work-place spirituality using observation methods, and Mitchell, Hastings, and Tanyel (2001) surveyed employees using self-administered questionnaires. Recently, building on the work of Ashmos and Duchon (2000), Duchon and Plowman (2005) provide robust multi-item measures for the three dimensions of workplace spirituality and demonstrate high reliabilities in empirical tests.

Finally, in order to understand the relevance of workplace spirituality to selling organizations, it is of critical importance to establish conceptual clarity. Prior to the emergence of the measures suggested by Duchon and Plowman (2005), some researchers have utilized proxy measures that best fi t their conceptualizations. These attempts are useful starting points, but true discrimination is essential to propel the fi eld forward. Toward this end, Duchon and Plowman (2005) emphasize that the three dimensions of workplace spirituality are similar to, yet markedly different from, established constructs such as self-concept, job enrichment, and organizational climate, respectively. Self-concept theory (Shamir 1991) indicates that employees are motivated when a congruity exists between the work and their self-concept. Correspondingly, when individu-als defi ne themselves as spiritual beings even at work and when their workplace permits this defi nition, then the workplace provides an opportunity for the expression of inner self. Similarly, job enrichment entails a focus on the psychological needs of employees while assigning tasks and jobs. However, the dimension of meaningful work goes beyond job enrich-ment and is about providing meaningful tasks that create a sense of joy and are viewed by the employee as important in life (Duchon and Plowman 2005). Further, the dimension of connectedness implies that workplaces are perceived as

the sources to connect with others. Even though this is not a new notion, recognizing the need for belongingness is an essential component of organizations embracing workplace spirituality.

In summary, this section briefl y discussed the nature of the concept of workplace spirituality, its dimensions, how the concept is different from related ones, and possible ways to measure it. The defi nition and the dimensions utilized in this paper are parsimonious and explicit enough to assist in theory development. A selling organization that recognizes that its salespeople have needs for inner self, meaningful work, and connectedness can create a unique and rewarding work environment.

IMPORTANCE OF WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY IN SELLING ORGANIZATIONS

The demanding nature of the sales profession coupled with the decline in traditional forms of community indicate that salespersons may strive for both meaning and a sense of com-munity at work. Therefore, the workplace spirituality litera-ture suggests that the concept can be highly relevant in the selling organization. Specifi cally, expanding on the workplace spirituality research, following the work of Porter, Kraft, and Claycomb (2003), we propose that workplace spirituality can have a positive infl uence on salespersons’ well-being. Selling organizations would be well served by adopting workplace spirituality especially in an era when salespeople are venturing toward spiritual pursuits. Noting that more than 40 percent of those attending spirituality conventions describe themselves as being in the sales profession, Cohen states that “the search for drive, fi erce competitive fi re, and a do-anything-for-business mentality has been replaced by a search for self, for inner peace” (1997, p. 46). Further, tracing the association between spirituality and sales to Dale Carnegie programs on training and motivation, Cohen remarks that “the message—that salespeople must feel good about themselves and be in touch with who they are before they sell—that’s now openly spoken about in the workplace” (1997, p. 49).

As salespersons spend a lot of their life at work and partly derive their social identity from their work, their experience at work is important for their mental and physical health and well-being (Pfeffer 2003). Further, following Mitroff and Denton (1999), salespersons are likely to fulfi ll their potential when they are associated with organizations that acknowledge and support their spiritual beliefs. Therefore, workplace spirituality may result in benefi ts accruing to in-dividual salespersons. Subsequently, benefi ts may also accrue to the selling organizations.

For example, Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003b) indicate individual benefi ts of workplace spirituality programs include personal outcomes such as increased joy, peace, serenity, job

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satisfaction, and job commitment. Such personal outcomes may be highly benefi cial in the context of the (1) competitive nature of the sales profession, (2) challenging and stressful work environment involving commissions and sales quotas, and (3) complex and demanding nature of buyer requirements. Potentially, workplace spirituality can provide salespersons the ability, willingness, and the frame of mind to do their best. Such self-awareness and confi dence are essential in interactive sales processes such as relationship selling, where belief in one’s self is essential for forging relationships with customers. Furthermore, Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003b) also suggest measurable organizational benefi ts to effi ciency and effectiveness, including productivity, reduced absenteeism and turnover, and positive ethical impact.

These arguments notwithstanding, very few advancements have occurred in relating the dimensions of workplace spiritu-ality to salesperson and selling organization outcomes.

In developing our conceptual framework, we focus on the salesperson-related outcomes. Although the individual sales-person outcomes can subsequently result in positive outcomes for the selling organizations, developing possible propositions among salespersons’ outcomes and organizational outcomes is beyond the scope of our effort. In the following section, we present a theoretically grounded and parsimonious, yet substantive, framework that could serve as a starting point for further research in this fertile area.

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

In this section, we develop a conceptual framework of work-place spirituality in the context of the selling organization (see Figure 1). First, consistent with our discussion of the potential benefi ts of workplace spirituality to salespersons, we discuss the consequences of workplace spirituality and present our corresponding testable research propositions. Second, we discuss potential antecedents of workplace spirituality and corresponding propositions. In discussing the potential ante-cedents, we focus on variables that the selling organizations can control in infl uencing workplace spirituality.

Consequences of Workplace Spirituality

Sacralization of Work

“Sacred” is defi ned as “that which is regarded as more sig-nifi cant, powerful, and extraordinary than the self ” (Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry 1989, p. 13). Studying sacralization of consumption, Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry (1989) note that anything, including people, places, objects, experiences, and other entities, could be considered sacred. Correspondingly, in tourism and leisure research, sacredness of places has been studied as “site sacralization” (Henke 2005; MacCannell 1989;

Pearce, Morrison, and Moscardo 2003). To the authors’ knowl-edge, however, sacralization of work has not been examined in the business literature. Extrapolating from related research, sacralization of work is expected to bring about greater rever-ence, devotion, and commitment to work.

Noting the sacralization of mundane secular objects, Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry state, “the rise of individualism has made it possible to defi ne the sacred as that which brings secular ecstasy to the individual” (1989, p. 9). While draw-ing a tentative analogy between high enduring involvement and sacralization, they emphasize that the two are distinctly separate concepts and that “involvement is a component of sacred experience” (Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry 1989, p. 13). Salespeople who consider their work as sacred will ex-hibit high levels of involvement, but not all who display high involvement may regard their work as sacred. Based on Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry (1989), for work to become sacred to a salesperson or any employee, it must be treated with reverence and devotion, must reliably provide extraordinary experiences, and must be capable of being profaned. That is, work “may become sacred by rituals designed to transform [it] symbolically” (Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry 1989, p. 14). In contrast, when work is considered profane, it is neither treated reverently nor a focus of devotion. In a sense, spirituality is the search for the sacred (Sheep 2006) and, concomitantly, workplace spirituality embodies a search for work that is sa-cred. Accordingly, we propose that the workplace spirituality dimensions of inner self, meaningful work, and connectedness are positively related to the sacralization of work.

Proposition 1: The workplace spirituality dimensions of in-ner self, meaningful work, and connectedness are positively related to salespersons’ sacralization of work.

Spiritual Well-Being

Spiritual well-being has been defi ned as “A high level of faith, hope, and commitment to a well-defi ned worldview or belief system that provides a sense of meaning and purpose to ex-istence in general, and that offers an ethical path to personal fulfi llment which includes connectedness with self, others, and a higher power or larger reality” (Hawks 1994, p. 6). It is widely held that health and well-being are outcomes of spirituality. Correspondingly, higher levels of spiritual health have been found to be related to lower levels of perceived stress and better coping capabilities in the emotional, spiri-tual, and interpersonal areas of life (Heintzman and Mannell 2003). Simply stated, employees who are happy at work transfer such happiness into their lives outside work and vice versa (Jurkiewicz and Gaicalone 2004). As discussed earlier, workplace spirituality imparts work with a sense of meaning. In addition, it embodies connectedness and community—the

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notion that spiritual beings connect with others (Ashmos and Duchon 2000). Workplace spirituality provides feelings of completeness and joy as it facilitates the employees’ search for meaning in their life and in their work (Giacalone and Jurkiewicz 2003b). Coupled with each employee’s quest for fi nding meaning in life and at work, such connectedness (or social interaction) could positively infl uence the spiritual well-being of the employees (salespeople). Therefore,

Proposition 2: The workplace spirituality dimensions of in-ner self, meaningful work, and connectedness are positively related to salespersons’ spiritual well-being.

Ethical Behavior

Workplace spirituality infl uences ethical behavior by enhanc-ing ethical standards (Marques, Dhiman, and King 2005). Hunt and Vasquez-Parraga (1993), using an experimental design, found that marketers primarily rely on deontological factors informing ethical judgments. Deontological factors focus on the inherent righteousness of a behavior (Hunt and Vitell 1986). Often, top management and supervisors set the standards for ethical conduct in organizations. However, research has demonstrated that their infl uence may not al-ways enhance ethicality among employees and could, in fact, lower ethical standards (Jurkiewicz and Thompson 1999).

Accordingly, it is viewed that the eventual decision to raise one’s ethical standards remains with the individual employees (Giacalone and Jurkiewicz 2003a; Jurkiewicz and Thompson 1999). Further, new employees who are not socialized to the prevailing ethical standards within their organizations may rely more on their own moral frameworks and past experi-ences (Giacalone and Jurkiewicz 2003a). Therefore, in the absence of a well-defi ned ethical code or, alternatively, when the employee lacks the appropriate socialization, “individual discretion of right and wrong becomes the guiding basis for ethical decision making in the workplace” (Giacalone and Jurkiewicz 2003a, p. 86). In such situations, “An individual’s spirituality will determine his or her understanding and inter-pretation of ethical behavior” (Garcia-Zamor 2003, p. 357). Ferrell and Weaver (1978) note social interaction as a major internal environmental consideration in understanding ethical behavior. Supporting Ferrell and Weaver’s proposition, Hoff-man, Howe, and Hardigree (1991) note that interaction with signifi cant others (fellow employees) can infl uence ethical behavior. Furthermore, in a recent article, Mantel (2005) proposed that employees who are happy and have a sense of ownership are more ethical. Therefore,

Proposition 3: The workplace spirituality dimensions of in-ner self, meaningful work, and connectedness are positively related to salespersons’ ethical behavior.

Figure 1A Framework of the Workplace Spirituality and the Selling Organization

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Job Commitment

To Bashaw and Grant (1994), job commitment entitles an individual’s psychological identifi cation or absorption with the job. Committed salespeople enjoy higher levels of sales performance, are more willing to make sacrifi ces, and are less likely to leave the employing organization (Bashaw and Grant 1994; Pettijohn, Pettijohn, and Taylor 2007). More specifi -cally, Jurkiewicz and Giacalone note, “Attitudes of employees in organizations with high levels of spirituality are positive, supportive of the organization, and demonstrate commitment to a much greater degree than in organizations without such values” (2004, p. 136).

Specifi c to the selling organization, high employee turnover often leads to knowledge loss, key account loss, and additional hiring and training costs. However, workplace spirituality could make salespeople feel good about themselves, fi nd meaning in their work, and feel connected to the organization and fellow employees and, therefore, could help improve job commitment. As salespeople fi nd their work environments acknowledging them and rewarding them with purposeful work, the congruity between their job identity and self-concept (Shamir 1991) increases and, ultimately, engenders job com-mitment. Therefore,

Proposition 4: The workplace spirituality dimensions of in-ner self, meaningful work, and connectedness are positively related to salespersons’ job commitment.

Job Satisfaction

For Spector (1997), there was a trend to defi ne job satisfac-tion as the extent to which employers met the physical and psychological needs of their employees. However, modern research tends to deemphasize this approach and focus more on cognitive processes. As such, Spector (1997) simply de-fi nes job satisfaction as how employees feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs. Such an approach focuses more on employees’ attitudes toward various aspects of a job. Kantak, Futrell, and Sager (1992) fi nd a correlation between life satisfaction and job satisfaction. Distinguishing between and simultaneously studying life satisfaction and job satisfac-tion, Jones (2006) suggests that there is moderate evidence to support the inclusion of life satisfaction as an antecedent of job performance. As discussed earlier, workplace spirituality embodies greater connectedness with the organization and an enhanced contentment with work. In their empirical study, Milliman, Czaplewski, and Ferguson (2003) found signifi cant relationships between workplace spirituality and intrinsic work satisfaction. In the sales literature, job satisfaction has been shown to have a positive impact on the selling organization and the salespeople. Consequently, workplace spirituality

could prove benefi cial to the selling organization by positively infl uencing the salespersons’ job satisfaction. Therefore,

Proposition 5: The workplace spirituality dimensions of in-ner self, meaningful work, and connectedness are positively related to salespersons’ job satisfaction.

Antecedents of Workplace Spirituality

Supervisory Behavior

Researchers have reported that considerate behavior by super-visors is positively related to reduced burnout and job tension among employees (e.g., Seltzer and Numerof 1988; Sheridan and Vredenburgh 1978). More recently, Gilbreath and Benson (2004) fi nd that supervisor behavior has a signifi cant effect on employees’ psychological well-being, which includes spiritual well-being. Furthermore, Fry notes that leadership can create “a vision wherein organization members experience a sense of calling in that their life has a meaning and makes a differ-ence” (2003, p. 695). Top management and supervisors who inspire and energize employee behavior based on meaning and purpose, rather than rewards and security, motivate employees to transcend self-interests for the welfare of the organization, coworkers, and society (Dent, Higgins, and Wharff 2005). Accordingly,

Proposition 6: There is a positive relationship between considerate supervisory behavior and the workplace spirituality dimensions of inner self, meaningful work, and connectedness.

Organizational Values

Several researchers have studied how organizational values affect employees’ attitudes toward work and, ultimately, job performance. To support workplace spirituality, organizations must adopt humanistic values. That is, organizations must deem important policies and practices that recognize the dignity and worth of their employees, as well as provide them with the opportunity for personal development in conjunc-tion with corporate goals (Jurkiewicz and Giacalone 2004). Subsequently, such organizations are more likely to support workplace spirituality. As Jurkiewicz and Giacalone elaborate, “Humanistic values in the organization result in employees’ personal growth, which in turn makes them more productive than those in organizations that don’t sustain such values” (2004, p. 132). Milliman et al. posited that “company spiritual values that tap both the mental and emotional aspects of em-ployees will be more positively related to employee work and spiritual attitudes than values which only tap the mental aspect of employees” (1999, p. 230, emphasis added). In examining

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the spiritual-based values that guide organizational goals and practices, Milliman et al. (1999) use Southwest Airlines as an example of a company with a highly spiritual approach. They state that Southwest Airlines emphasizes a sense of community by encouraging “teamwork, serving others, and acting in the best interests of the company” (Milliman et al. 1999, p. 221). Indeed, as Fry states, “Employees who work for organizations they consider being spiritual are less fearful, more ethical, and more committed” (2003, p. 703). Therefore, hiring and other human resources management practices, which are designed to align employees with company’s values and goals, are critical to integrating spirituality within the organization (Milliman et al. 1999). Organizational values permeate down to the sales force subculture (Grant and Bush 1996; Jackson, Tax, and Barnes 1994). Subsequently, as Grant and Bush (1996) note, strong sales force cultures provide and reinforce salespeople with shared values, beliefs, and common mission. Therefore,

Proposition 7: There is a positive relationship between humanistic organizational values and the workplace spirituality dimensions of inner self, meaningful work, and connectedness.

Ethical Climate

Parboteeah and Cullen explain how the prevailing ethical climate, a subset of organizational climate, can encourage spirituality in the workplace:

The ethical climate construct delineates a group of prescrip-tive climates refl ecting prevailing organizational policies with moral consequences . . . ethical climates also help employees identify ethical issues within the organization. In other words, ethical climates serve as a perceptual lens through which work-ers diagnose and assess situations. (2003, p. 138)

Further, by drawing on Victor and Cullen’s (1988) typology of ethical climates, Parboteeah and Cullen posit that benevolent (company norms support maximizing interests of a particular social group) and principled (company norms support follow-ing abstract principles independent of situational outcomes) ethical climates are “the most conducive to foster the devel-opment of workplace spirituality” (2003, p. 149). They do so by encouraging the development of a sense of community, meaning at work, and an individual’s awareness of personal values (inner life). On the other hand, egoistic (company norms support the satisfaction of self-interest) ethical climate “because of its emphasis on gains at the expense of other individuals or social entities, seems to be the least desirable climate for the development of workplace spirituality” (Parbo-teeah and Cullen 2003, p. 149). As Jurkiewicz and Giacalone summarize, a “connection between personal goals and work life enables employees to transcend physical and cognitive

demands and imbue tasks with spiritual signifi cance” (2004, p. 133). Therefore,

Proposition 8: There is a positive relationship between be-nevolent and principled ethical climate and the workplace spirituality dimensions of inner self, meaningful work, and connectedness.

Wellness Lifestyle

To Porter, Kraft, and Claycomb (2008), a wellness lifestyle provides salespeople with essential personal resources that enable them to combat stress. Wellness is defi ned as an integration of the social, mental, emotional, physical, and spiritual dimensions of human functioning (Bensley 1991). Specifi cally, Porter, Kraft, and Claycomb defi ne salesperson wellness as

a general psychological state attained through a lifestyle comprising a belief in one’s responsibility for his or her own health, an awareness of the infl uence of environmental and nutritional factors on personal health, knowledge of causes of stress and stress management techniques, the active practice of physical fi tness activities, the maintenance of healthy social relationships, and the pursuit of a satisfying spiritual life. (2003, p. 191, emphasis in original)

Further, they propose that organizations can infl uence salesperson wellness and improve both salesperson and fi rm performance through interventions such as smoking cessation, nutritional awareness, yoga, or physical fi tness programs. Sub-sequently, they argue that salespeople who practice a wellness lifestyle are more likely to cope with stress and avoid burnout in the highly demanding selling environment. Correspond-ingly, spiritual wellness is “a balanced openness to or pursuit of spiritual development” (Chandler, Holden, and Kolander 1992, p. 170). Milliman et al. state that “An active spiritual life can help individuals fi nd meaning and purpose in their lives and live out deeply-held personal values. These values often refl ect a desire to make a difference and help to create a more meaningful world” (1999, p. 221).

Parboteeah and Cullen offer the following insights on how organizations can infl uence the lifestyles of employees:

Encouraging spirituality through such practices as business retreats, meditation, exercise, contemplation of the meaning of life, and encouraging community service, companies are aligned with a benevolent climate that supports expending considerable resources for everyone’s benefi t. Consider, for example, the corporate courses on meditation at such com-panies as Xerox and Motorola. Such benevolent programs provide the outlets for employees to express their spiritual being and to defi ne their values and consistency with organi-zation values. . . . Additionally, principled climates support the notion that life has a deeper meaning beyond individual or group welfare. (2003, p. 149).

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The practice of a wellness lifestyle (including a healthy spiritual life) increases closeness and fosters emotional connectedness (Porter, Kraft, and Claycomb 2003). Finally, according to trade publications, more companies are paying for their employees to relax by sponsoring activities such as yoga, meditation, and refl exology, which result in physical, mental, and emotional wellness. Therefore,

Proposition 9: There is a positive relationship between well-ness lifestyle and the workplace spirituality dimensions of meaning in work, sense of community, and inner self.

DISCUSSION AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

As noted earlier in this paper, recent times have witnessed a tremendous curiosity among researchers as to the role of spirituality in business. Furthermore, researchers have begun to explore the specifi c role of workplace spirituality in infl u-encing employees’ behavior in ways that benefi t the employees and the organization. Given that research is often cumulative in nature, there is a need for sales management researchers to integrate and build on the recent developments in workplace spirituality research. Toward accomplishing this objective, this paper makes fi ve major contributions. First, this paper draws attention of sales management researchers to the hitherto underresearched concept of workplace spirituality. As several fi rms such as Aetna International, Taco Bell, Wal-Mart, South-west Airlines, Xerox, and Deloitte and Touche have already recognized the usefulness of spirituality in the workplace, so should the selling organizations. By developing a theoretically robust conceptual framework, this paper calls for research on workplace spirituality in the context of sales management.

Second, this paper clarifi es the differences between the concepts of spirituality and religiosity, discusses the defi ni-tions of spirituality, deliberates on the defi nition of workplace spirituality and its dimensions, and discusses the importance of workplace spirituality for selling organizations. Third, rec-ognizing that sales managers and researchers could use some help for thinking about the concept of workplace spirituality and how the concept could potentially help solve some of the employee- and organization-related sales problems, this paper proposes a conceptual framework. However, we do not claim this conceptual framework to be comprehensive and offer it as a foundation for future research. Fourth, in developing the conceptual framework in the context of selling, we propose the infl uence of workplace spirituality on employee and organizational outcomes and antecedents that can positively infl uence workplace spirituality.

The concept of workplace spirituality and the proposed conceptual framework are signifi cant to the selling organiza-tion to the extent that personal outcomes such as increased

joy, peace, serenity, reduced stress, job satisfaction, and job commitment, and organizational outcomes such as effi ciency and effectiveness, including productivity, reduced absenteeism and turnover, and ethical behavior, are important for survival and growth. Specifi cally, given that selling organizations often face problems regarding turnover, employee burnout, em-ployee stress, and employees’ ethical behavior, we propose that workplace spirituality positively infl uences the sacralization of work, spiritual well-being, ethical behavior, job commitment, and job satisfaction. Furthermore, we propose organizational values, supervisory behavior, ethical climate, and wellness life-styles promoted and implemented within the fi rm as potential infl uencers of workplace spirituality.

Fifth, outside of the sales management context, this paper and the proposed conceptual framework also contribute to the workplace spirituality research stream in general. In particular, this paper proposes the infl uence of workplace spirituality on sacralization of work and spiritual well-being. These concepts have not been examined in the workplace spirituality research stream.

As acknowledged earlier, the proposed conceptual frame-work is but a preliminary effort and we encourage future researchers to explore this area in greater depth. Toward this end, we offer the following suggestions to extend this literature stream further:

• Empirical verifi cation. The propositions and relation-ships raised in this paper are theoretically grounded, but empirical verifi cation is necessary to accelerate future research in this promising area. Also, it is im-perative to develop appropriate scales that could be administered in sales contexts. Interested researchers could utilize scales developed in the organizational be-havior literature by Duchon and Plowman (2005) as a useful starting point. As Dent, Higgins, and Wharff (2005) note, this is a ripe area for additional research and development. Identifi cation of robust measure-ment tools can enable the evaluation of whether one selling organization is collectively more spiritual than another. This will, in turn, facilitate better un-derstanding of the antecedents and consequences of workplace spirituality in the context of the selling organization.

• Workplace spirituality and salesperson training. Training salespeople to get accustomed to and enjoy the ben-efi ts of workplace spirituality needs to be an organiza-tional priority. Researchers can explore effective ways to impart these values. As Dent, Higgins, and Wharff (2005) state, several organizations already include a spiritual development component in their training activities and it would be worthwhile to study and iso-late the impact of training on outcome variables.

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• Workplace spirituality and distal salespeople. In some selling organizations, salespeople have to be away from their parent organization for long periods of times. For example, in the context of key account selling, salespeople spend prolonged periods of time with their client fi rms. In such cases, they may be insulated by the practices prevailing in their own fi rm. Importantly, they may be affected by the climate and culture of their client or customer organization. In such selling situations, researchers could identify and investigate the impact of workplace spirituality that spans organi-zational boundaries.

• Role of individuals. An interesting area of future re-search lies in the domain of individual infl uences on organizations adopting workplace spirituality. As in-dicated earlier, a majority of attendees in spirituality conventions describe themselves as being in the sales profession. Therefore, they could be exerting an inter-nal infl uence on their organizations to adopt a more spiritual workplace. Further, team leaders, managers, and new recruits in the upper echelons may also infl u-ence workplace spirituality.

• Workplace spirituality and other salesperson outcomes. Thomson (2000) argued that organizational perfor-mance and spirituality are interconnected by offering evidence that spiritual organizations add shareholder value. Indeed, as Giacalone and Jurkiewicz state, “Identifying the practical implications of workplace spirituality is perhaps the most fundamental method of demonstrating utility” (2003b, p. 10). Therefore, it is important to explore other possible outcomes of workplace spirituality to appropriately demonstrate the usefulness of the construct.

• Workplace spirituality and quality of work life. Research on quality of life has generally viewed it as a state of well-being. Some researchers have included spiritual well-being as part of their conceptualization of quality of life, but others have not. A recent meta-analysis by Sawatzky, Ratner, and Chiu (2005) revealed that spiri-tuality and quality of life are distinct, yet related, con-cepts. However, as they point out, questions regarding the nature and direction of the relationship between spirituality and quality of life remain unanswered. As spirituality becomes more integrated in the lifestyles of individuals, it will affect individuals’ perceptions of quality of life (Kale 2004). Although quality of life is a general state of well-being with reference to life, we propose that quality of work life, a state of well-being with reference to work, is a more relevant construct for organizations. Incorporating dimensions of work-place spirituality in assessing quality of work life among salespeople is a promising avenue for future research.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Given the conceptual nature of this paper, we discuss some potential implications of the proposed framework. To practi-tioners who are interested in infl uencing salesperson-related outcomes, the framework developed in this paper provides some useful guidelines across two levels. First, it is suggested that sales organizations that support workplace spirituality can infl uence salesperson-related outcomes such as sacralization of work, spiritual well-being, ethical behavior, job commitment, and job satisfaction. As Porter, Kraft, and Claycomb state, “Individuals who fi nd a level of fulfi llment and meaning in their work and in their personal existence have been found to be reliable and productive employees” (2008, p. 56). The challenge for managers, therefore, is to identify the spiri-tual requirements of employees, design supportive workplace policies and practices, and closely monitor the achievement of individual and organizational objectives. In this regard, periodic assessment of salespersons’ perceptions of workplace spirituality would prove benefi cial when used in combination with other sales environment and productivity measures.

Second, the framework also suggests that selling organiza-tions can infl uence workplace spirituality through consider-ate supervisory behavior, humanistic organizational values, benevolent and principled ethical climate, and promotion of wellness lifestyle. From a normative perspective, these variables provide initial directions on how organizations can create or modify their culture, policies, and procedures to develop sup-portive work environment and, ultimately, infl uence positive salesperson outcomes. The support and mentoring provided by considerate supervisors enhance salespersons’ feelings of self-worth, security, and belongingness (Mulki et al. 2008). Therefore, through leadership styles of top management, adoption and communication of benevolent organizational policies and procedures, training programs, and appropriate reward structures, selling organizations can infl uence consid-erate supervisory behavior. Likewise, in addition to policies at the supervisory level, selling organizations need to adopt humanistic organizational values at the fi rm level. To sup-port workplace spirituality, practices must be adopted that recognize the dignity and self-worth of employees, as well as provide a platform for simultaneous achievement of personal growth and professional goals.

Further, it is important to establish benevolent and prin-cipled ethical climates that implement norms emphasizing achievement work group or organizational objectives, rather than satisfaction of self-interest. These norms enhance the correspondence between employees’ self-concept and work, meaning in work, and connections with other employees in the fi rm. Finally, as discussed earlier, selling organizations can stress the importance of wellness lifestyles among sales employees. By supporting smoking cessation programs, nutri-

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tional awareness campaigns, yoga or physical fi tness programs, and practices such as retreats, meditation, or community service, fi rms can encourage employees to adopt healthier lifestyles (Porter, Kraft, and Claycomb 2008). As the selling organization’s culture evolves to refl ect a greater emphasis on health, it subsequently fosters physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health.

In summary, this paper provides a foundation for future research on the impact of workplace spirituality on the selling organization. In today’s competitive and stressful sales environ-ment, organizations supporting workplace spirituality can ex-perience valuable advantages in motivating current employees to be more productive, rejuvenating emotionally and spiritually fatigued employees, and in hiring the best and brightest future employees. It is hoped that future researchers extend existing knowledge on the nature, antecedents, and consequences of workplace spirituality in the selling organization.

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