ASSIGNMENT: SOCIOLOGY

REPORT ON WORKING WITH CULTURAL DIVERSITY

SUBMITTED TO

SIR SHAHID OMER GONDAL

SUBMITTED BY

IRAM FATIMA GULZAR, 006USMAN AHMED, 12

BBA-5CIIT/LHR

DATE: / /

DEDICATION

We dedicate our hardworking efforts to our worthy Parents who gave us the gigantic support in achieving our goals, in one way or the other. We also dedicate

our work to our honorable Sir Shahid who gave us the opportunity to utilize our efforts.

Thank you.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We are THANKFUL to our worthy teacher Sir Shahid Gondal, who

provided us with the opportunity to work on one of the most interesting

and practical topic prevailing in the surroundings. This project of report

has given us a gigantic know how of the issues present in our society and

enable us to look at the issued with an eye of solution seeking.

We are really Thankful to you Sir!

We also Thank ALLAH Almighty for giving us the capability to work with zeal and enthusiasm.

Last but not least, we Thank our Parents for being always their to support in both knowledge seeking and knowledge gaining

opportunities.

“WE THANK YOU ALL”

Letter of Transmittal

TO: Sir Shahid Omer Gondal

FROM: Iram Fatima Gulzar, 06Usman Ahmed, 12

DATE: May, 2008

Subject: Impact of Cultural Diversity in Society and Organization

As explained in our conversation with our worthy teacher Sir Shahid, I am directed to analyze and report on the impact of cultural diversity in working conditions as well as in the society. Being a reputed member of the society, we have the awareness of the effects of cultural diversity in the society. As far as the organizational point of view is concerned, we will analyze the merits and demerits of diversity through data collection.

Here is the report YOU directed me to prepare on May 2008.

You will clearly refer the factors of diversity, its impact with various ways to overcome problem easily.

This has been a most interesting project. We’ll be pleased to discuss it with you, at your request.

REGARDS,

PREFACE

We all have heard that the society has made substantial progress in dealing with diversity. However, with the recent problems surfacing in the different services, I have to question this progress. Why do we continue to have these problems? Personally, I feel there is lack of training. A two hour class on cultural diversity isn’t enough to get rid of the root cause of these problems.

Though this report only scratches the surface of the diversity issue in society and organization, the report made me examine my own feelings and attitudes and recognizes where areas I can learn more and make changes. I hope this report will encourage others to do the same-

I’d like to Thanks my Faculty Advisor, Sir Shahid Gondal. He planted the seed for this report and provided insight feedback and research guidance throughout.

ABSTRACT

Many scholars define diversity in terms of human differences that play an important role in the culture and operation of organizations. The culture of an organization includes the customs, assumptions, beliefs, values, rules, norms, practices, arts and skills.

The dimensions of diversity in organizations include:

Age Educational background Ethnicity Family status Gender Income Military experience National, regional or other geographical areas of origin Ownership of property and assets Physical and mental ability Race Social class Spiritual practice Work experience

Often, a culturally diverse youth/family coalition is viewed in the negative sense, rather than the positive. It is easy to identify the inherent obstacles and barriers associated with differences in religion, class, age, disability, veteran status, region of origination, educational level or even paid employees versus volunteer staff.

The first phase of making the most of diversity is to make a concerted effort to become aware of what dimensions of cultural diversity exist within an organization. Acknowledging there are differences between individuals and groups of people is an important initial phase.

When conflicts, ill feelings or stressful situations arise due to the sub-cultures involved, it is because of "differences." The second phase of making the most of diversity is for people to talk about their cultural differences. Two things must be remembered concerning cultural diversity:

People should remember it is difficult to address cultural differences without resorting to stereotypes. In the purest form, there is no such thing as a stereotype. No person is exactly like another person and no individual is a clone of another member of a group.

As diversity in an organization grows, so does the complexity of communication and the necessity to spend greater effort developing improved communication skills.

Awareness and discussion can cause a clearer picture of cultural diversity. Appreciation and understanding of cultural diversity means not just tolerating differences among individuals or groups, but supporting and nurturing them. A variety of ideas, talents, skills and knowledge is a desirable attribute to any youth or family coalition.

Providing a supporting and nurturing environment enhances other goals of the coalition by exposing group members to new issues, ideas, information and cultures. Diversity creates opportunities for character development by teaching tolerance and respect for people and by encouraging concern for equity. A culturally- diverse coalition that

values and nurtures people from all backgrounds is worthy of active participation. Such an organization will flourish and perpetuate.

There may be resistance to disturbing the status quo, but it is no excuse for avoiding change.

Attention to cultural diversity may be the necessary catalyst for making things happens. Coalitions of youth or family agencies that strive to address specific community needs and issues have no chance of success, or even continued existence, unless they mirror, understand and make the most of their community's cultural diversity.

Impact on society will also be in notification once clearly identified.

INTRODUCTION

Culturally Diverse Coalitions

Diversity is defined in terms of human differences that play an important role in the culture and operation of organizations. The culture of an organization includes the customs, assumptions, beliefs, values, rules, norms, practices, arts and skills that define and guide members about:

The reasons for existence of the organization. How its "work" is to be done. The rules for membership. How to relate to others in the organization and to those outside.

Cox states that prejudices are negative personal attitudes toward a member(s) of a cultural group; discrimination is "observable adverse behavior" toward the group member(s).

Discrimination requires prejudice plus organizational or dominant-group power to lead to destructive denial of recognition, power and privilege.

The dimensions of diversity in organizations include:

Age Educational background Ethnicity Family status Gender Income Military experience National, regional or other geographical areas of origin Ownership of property and assets Physical and mental ability Race Social class Spiritual practice Work experience

These dimensions need to be considered when identifying, selecting and recruiting prospective coalition members. A heterogeneous group can work together effectively on mutual goals and objectives through consensus and cooperation.

For an example: a neighborhood in a city might contain several political subdivisions, a native American group, an African-American population, some small businesses, blue collar workers, a variety of religious groups and possibly some gang factions.

If a coalition is to be formed to obtain more housing, people from each or most of these groups must participate for the coalition to have power. If not participating, at least all cultural groups must be consulted for their opinions or beliefs. A culturally-diverse coalition is composed of representatives of the cultures living in an area or community. It is also critical to consider varied opinions or beliefs within a certain culture. Two people do not have the same opinions because they are both Native Americans or from an Appalachian culture.

Making the Most of Diversity

Often, a culturally diverse youth/family coalition is viewed in the negative sense, rather than the positive. It is easy to identify the inherent obstacles and barriers associated with differences in religion, class, age, disability, veteran status, sexual orientation, region of origination, educational level or even paid employees versus volunteer staff.

The first phase of making the most of diversity is to make a concerted effort to become aware of what dimensions of cultural diversity exist within an organization. Acknowledging there are differences between individuals and groups of people is an important initial phase.

When conflicts, ill feelings or stressful situations arise due to the sub-cultures involved, it is because of "differences." The second phase of making the most of diversity is for people to talk about their cultural differences. Two things must be remembered concerning cultural diversity:

People should remember it is difficult to address cultural differences without resorting to stereotypes. In the purest form, there is no such thing as a stereotype. No person is exactly like another person and no individual is a clone of another member of a group.

As diversity in an organization grows, so does the complexity of communication and the necessity to spend greater effort developing improved communication skills.

Awareness and discussion can cause a clearer picture of cultural diversity. Appreciation and understanding of cultural diversity means not just tolerating differences among individuals or groups, but supporting and nurturing them. A variety of ideas, talents, skills and knowledge is a desirable attribute to any youth or family coalition.

Providing a supporting and nurturing environment enhances other goals of the coalition by exposing group members to new issues, ideas, information and cultures. Diversity creates opportunities for character development by teaching tolerance and respect for people and by encouraging concern for equity. A culturally- diverse coalition that values and nurtures people from all backgrounds is worthy of active participation. Such an organization will flourish and perpetuate.

Making the most of diversity in a youth or family coalition requires the commitment of all involved. Changing prevailing attitudes and assumptions is not easy. Often the only hope is to change behaviors rather than deep-seated attitudes. Members of a diverse coalition must be committed to what they are doing and address issues related to cultural difference.

There may be resistance to disturbing the status quo, but it is no excuse for avoiding change.

Attention to cultural diversity may be the necessary catalyst for making things happens. Coalitions of youth or family agencies that strive to address specific community needs and issues have no chance of success, or even continued existence, unless they mirror, understand and make the most of their community's cultural diversity.

Enhancing the Dynamics

Within the framework of a youth and family coalition, diversity empowers its members to capitalize on unique skills and areas of expertise. Careful attention must be given to mutual understanding and appreciation of individual differences. Strengthening the sense of positive cultural identity is an important aspect of establishing a viable coalition.

Individuals may consciously or subconsciously interject ethnic values, attitudes or behaviors into the dynamics of the larger group.

Factors that impact the extent to which diverse cultures interact with existing cultures are:

The reason for immigration: what was sought and what was left behind.

The place of residence an ethnic or non- ethnic neighborhood. The socioeconomic status, education and upward mobility. The political and religious ties to the ethnic group. The spoken languages. The extent of family intermarriage with or connection to other

ethnic groups. The individual's attitude toward the ethnic group and its values.

The concern with diversity and related programming by Extension and other organizations is a result of changes in the workplace and general population. Brazil cites that aspects of diversity are being incorporated into vision and mission statements of both for- profit and not-for-profit organizations. To ignore its impact on profits and other bottom line measures affects performance. Organizations as well as individuals are exploring the impact of this diversity.

The result is a growing recognition that multiple perspectives can benefit an organization's approach to opportunities and problem-solving. Loden and Rosener say this approach assumes "we will be more successful as individuals, work teams, organizations and a society if we acknowledge, respect and work with . . . dimensions of difference."

So, the case for building a culturally diverse or multicultural coalition is without question. The drastic change in the status quo of the U.S. population, labor force, race and ethnicity, and citizen status demands adaptation.

All families in this country have experienced the stresses of immigration and migration. While ethnic heritage may have become dimmed or forgotten, it continues to influence outlook and interaction with others. Under the pressure of accommodating new situations, many groups have been forced to abandon much of their ethnic inheritance.

To understand ethnic identities, it is important to realize the impact immigration has on families over succeeding generations. Second generations are more likely to reject the "ethnic" values of their parents and to strive to become "Americanized." Third or fourth generations frequently reclaim aspects of their heritage that were sacrificed by previous generations as they sought to assimilate.

As the United States experiences the growing pains of becoming a citizenry of descendants of early forbearers, the challenges are apparent. Preserving our roots need not prohibit the effectiveness of diverse individuals or groups working together.

Managing Cultural Diversity

1. Recruitment- Try to include people or organizations within the youth or family coalition that are representative of the community.

2. Diversity Trialing- Become aware of the cultural diversity of the coalition. Try to understand all its dimensions and seek the commitment of those involved to nurture cultural diversity. Address the myths, stereotypes and cultural differences that interfere with the full contribution of members.

3. Communications Within Coalitions- Remove the major barriers that interfere with people from diverse cultures working together. The best method to do this is through understanding and practicing better communication:

o Learn to listen. Listen for what is really being said, not what you want to hear.

o Invite others to be a part of the discussion. o Learn to communicate clearly and fairly. o Do not misjudge people because of accent or grammar. o Test for understanding. Ask questions to be certain you are

clear on what is being said. o Adapt your communication style to fit the situation. The

telephone causes problems in understanding between cultures. Be explicit. Individuals from different cultures may react differently. Know with whom you are communicating.

o Use language that fosters trust and alliance. Don't come on like "gangbusters." Each person wants to succeed in this venture. Be calm and positive.

o When conflicts arise, the problem may result from style rather than content strive for understanding. Review, revise and revisit your main objective to be certain the content is clear. How you say something may be more important than what you say.

4. Different, But the Same- Men and women, whites and non-whites, volunteers and paid staff, middle-class and working class people are different, but much less different than they are the same. An appreciation and acceptance of both commonalities and differences are essential to effective working relationships.

5. Maintain the Commitment- Your coalition will become more connected with the community that it serves if it states publicly that having a diverse work force is a top priority. Continue to revisit the various components that address the awareness, understanding, communication and nurturing of a culturally-diverse organization.

6. Provide Strong Leadership- Loden and Rosener believe the following leadership behaviors foster coalitions of diversity:

o Articulate pluralistic vision and values for the organization; show ways in which they are an integral part of the organization's mission and vision.

o Encourage and support discussion among people throughout the organization about the meaning of diversity and pluralism; show how to implement programs that can accomplish those goals.

o Demonstrate ethical commitment to fairness and to the elimination of discrimination in all its forms inside the coalition and in the coalition's relationships to other people, groups and organizations.

o Understand the dimensions of diversity, use inclusive and valuing language, quote diverse sources, readily adapt to differences in communication styles of diverse people, display respect for human differences and be aware of and comfortable about dealing with diverse issues.

o Value ongoing personal learning and change, solicit views and opinions of diverse people, invite feedback about personal behavior and blindspots and be open to belief modifications and actions based on feedback.

o Mentor and empower diverse individuals and encourage others to do so as well. (Loden and Rosener)

Valuing Diversity

The Key to Success

Diverse coalitions will be more successful because of support from the community they represent. Goals must be established to encourage diversity in membership. Without diverse coalitions there is animosity produced within neighborhoods and communities regarding "us versus them."

Within a culturally diverse group new ideas are produced, communications are improved and bridges are built to the people needing services.

There are numerous benefits when coalitions value diversity:

Culturally diverse coalitions could be viewed as legitimate advocates for the greater community by political, business and industry "power-brokers." Jackson, Holvino and Cox state: "Multicultural organizations ... human differences are valued and seen as a competitive advantage for the organization."

Coalition membership recognizes that no one set of cultural values is inherently better than another.

People are not required (expressed or implied) to relinquish their cultural heritage as a condition of coalition membership.

Appropriate communication and working relationships among coalition members of different cultures require mutual respect and some understanding of one another's culture.

Coalition members should have the opportunity to hear directly from others regarding one another's culture and values; by doing so members will tend to be more respectful of them, especially if the exchange takes place among personal acquaintances.

Opportunities for personal acquaintance and communication over time will usually increase trust among the coalition membership.

Careful facilitation and sensitivity must occur when coalition members of different cultures are brought together. This ensures cross-cultural understanding, coalition productivity and effectiveness.

Cross-cultural learning among coalition members will involve making mistakes and learning from them. Avoidance of or reluctance to initiate or participate in a culturally diverse coalition, due to fear of mistakes, competition or conflict must be overcome.

Gaining personal and cultural respect for coalition members from different cultures will contribute to more frequent and effective working relationships among those who have mutual interests.

VALUING CULTURAL DIVERSITY

The principles for promoting cultural diversity are:

Valuing Diversity

Fostering a community that recognizes the values and benefits of a culturally rich and diverse society.

Actively promoting respect and harmony and discouraging racism and negative stereotyping.

Reducing Inequality

Recognize the right of people of diverse national ethnical and religious background to practice enjoy and share their culture.

Have in place systems and procedures that are valid considered in government policies.

Encouraging Participation

Encourage all inclusive society that provides opportunities for all people to fully participate in public and civil life.

Using appropriate media and promotional channels as a mean to ensure that the government info reaches all.

Identify and address any barrier to participation.

A CULTURALLY DIVERSE WORKFORCE;

The responsiveness of an organization to the communities it serves can be greatly enriched by developing a culturally diverse and aware workforce. Employing staff who speak other languages or have experience and understanding of other culture can be an important

strategy for improving an organization’s awareness of and sensitivity to its community.

Good examples

✓ A metropolitan shire council ensures its staff recruitment and selection policy results in a diverse workforce.

✓ A mental health service establishes a bilingual case management service.

MERITS OF DIVERSITY:

People's culture, age, and gender make them see the world in different ways. These perspectives are a key to creative thinking, and that, in turn, is the key to successful R&D.

We must stop seeing diversity as a problem, and start seeing it as an advantage. To succeed, organizations must understand and use the skills, traditions and backgrounds of a diverse workforce.

In reality, diversity gives businesses a key advantage in the world marketplace. Our wider range of viewpoints offers a spectrum of talents—meticulous craftsmanship, for example—which can improve many aspects of product and process research.

Diversity helps when:

• You are marketing internationally

• You are negotiating with people from abroad

• You are launching a campaign to a new population (whether domestic or international).

In situations like these, it’s an asset to have someone from that population on your planning team? Couldn’t the person whose accent made you uncomfortable during a job interview have just the perspective you need to help your R&D efforts?

Can't Find the Staff You Want? Create It

Once you appreciate cultural diversity, your organization can appeal to a wider base of employees, and that in turn will improve your staffing. As you make diversity an integral part of policy and procedures, it's vital to work at all levels and in all departments.

• Plan strategically at top levels to incorporate multicultural managing and motivating.

• Recruit diverse leaders, not just staff.

• Train supervisors in multicultural skills.

• Review interviewing and selection procedures and criteria.

You may need to learn new skills as you begin to recruit and interview candidates from diverse backgrounds. Are you adapting to the culturally-appropriate behavior of the people you're interviewing? How do you respond when others don’t act as you expect?

Because stereotypes can keep you from understanding what's really going on, be alert to your assumptions. Take eye contact as an example. Most interviewers think a direct eye-to-eye gaze connotes the desirable traits of honesty and attention. But people from cultures with great respect for authority may think this signifies disrespect, even (or especially) during an interview. So when someone refuses to look you in the eye, perhaps it reflects culturally correct behavior, not deviousness!

Most recent immigrants are still learning the "rules" of the new culture. They may be uncomfortable with assertiveness, questioning an interviewer, or volunteering information. "Self-marketing," in short, may still be a foreign concept to them.

If you continue to seek the personality traits you have always sought, you may not hire the people you need. By staying in this "cultural rut," you may lose talented candidates.

The Learning Must be Mutual

As we start taking cultural diversity seriously, we are embarking on a two-way learning process. Just as we need to learn about the culture of newcomers, they must learn about ours. Coaching and mentoring thus become indispensable. This is also a two-way street: As the newcomer learns what is expected and how to succeed, the mentor gains insight into other cultures and customs.

What must newcomers learn?

• general business practices (e.g., frequent witness signature on lab notebooks);

• the particular requirements or "culture" of your organization (e.g., joining the Friday beer session);

• what they must do to get promoted or succeed.

Management Style

Now that you're on the way to getting the staff you want, how do you manage them? Let's look at motivation. Remember that motivations other than money may be equally important in other cultures. Many people are motivated by feeling that they are being heard and respected, that they are making a meaningful contribution. Receiving incentives and recognition as part of a team may be more important, or more comfortable, than as an individual.

Relationships become more important as the workplace grows larger. Allow sufficient time to communicate with individuals and groups. If I can generalize for a moment, the purpose of communication for white American males seems to be to transmit and receive information. But for most women as well as culturally diverse populations, communication also establishes and maintains relationships. If you're concerned about employee retention and effectiveness, take the time to build rapport with individuals and support team spirit. Have celebrations when the team reaches a goal.

Also, check that your terminology is understandable to everybody. Our daily parlance is so chock-full of clichés and heavy on slang that sometimes we are barely comprehensible to foreigners. Do all your employees understand when you "up the ante" or "deep-six" a project? (Remember that some people who seem to understand are just trying to save themselves the embarrassment of asking a lot of questions.)

Saving Face

Do you criticize employees in public? Despite the common conception that only Asians are concerned with saving face, it's also a concern of many others. That's one good reason for correcting people in private. If you must make an immediate correction, make it general—don't single someone out. For a chronic problem, schedule a private talk or use a go-between. You can also save face and increase team solidarity by instituting group performance appraisals.

Other points to consider:

• In some cultures, leaders act decisively, from the top down—if they ask a subordinate's opinions, they lose respect. In other cultures, conferring widely helps people "buy into" the resulting decision.

• In many cultures, youth lacks the high value it is accorded in the United States. Because it is more common to respect age, young managers must work harder to earn respect than older managers.

• To exploit the advantages of diversity, question all assumptions; base employees evaluations on results, not preconceptions; and demand that managers be accountable for developing the talents of all employees.

To work effectively in the new reality of cultural diversity, you must be able to hear and respect other points of view. You must be ready to take risks, have a sense of humor, and retain your intellectual curiosity. You must look forward to new experiences.

As an R&D manager, your leadership in valuing cultural diversity can influence the thoughts, attitudes and behaviors of your organization. If you understand that changing demographics represent a strategic opportunity, you put yourself in a position to lead your organization into the next century.

IMPACT OF DIVERSITY ON INDIVIDUALS AND ORGANIZATIONS

There have been so many changes in the cultural make-up of organizations that it becomes imperative for leaders and supervisors to understand cultural diversity and how it can affect their organization. Cultural diversity has been defined as “the representation, in one social system, of people with distinctly different group affiliations of cultural significance.”

Researchers have gone further to define diversity in primary and secondary dimensions. Primary dimensions being age, ethnicity, gender, physical abilities/qualities, race, and affection orientation. The primary dimensions “shape our basic self image as well as our fundamental world view.” Additionally, they have the most impact on groups in the workplace and society. The secondary dimensions include educational background, geographic location, income, marital status, religious beliefs and work experience. These impact our “self esteem and self definition.” These dimensions are not exact—there are times when the secondary dimensions will have as much impact as the primary dimensions.

In the book, Cultural Diversity in Organizations—Theory, Research and Practice,Dr. Taylor Cox, Jr. provides a conceptual model (Figure 1) showing the impact of diversity on an organization. He ties together his research and uses information on gender, racial ethnicity, nationality, age and other areas of diversity to create this model.

When developing this model, not only did Cox use the traditional areas of diversity such as race, gender and nationality, he also used areas that are just as important in the military such as job function, background and values. Another point about this model is that it treats group identities in a more sophisticated way instead of the traditional way. For example, we have traditionally grouped people together based solely on physical characteristics such as black, white, or Hispanic. Yet, this categorical treatment ignores how the individual identifies with the culture of the group. A final point about this model is that it proposes that the impact of diversity on an organization is an interaction of the environment and individuals.

Figure 1. Interaction Model of the Impact of Diversity on Individual Career

Outcomes and Organizational Effectiveness

The logic of the model shows that a person’s group affiliations such as age, gender and race can be analyzed on three levels: individual, group/inter group and organizational.

These collectively will define the diversity climate of the organization. This climate may influence individual and organizational outcomes either as affective outcomes or achievement outcomes. These individual outcomes may impact organizational factors such as work quality and productivity.

How does diversity effects organizational performance? As Cox’s model suggests, “a set of individual, group and organizational factors interact to influence a set of individual outcomes that in turn influence organizational outcomes.” Additionally, the individual and organizational outcomes can impact affective outcomes and achievement outcomes. Cox defines affective outcomes as to “how people feel and think about their jobs and their employers…what people believe about their opportunities in the work environment is of vital importance regardless of whether or not these beliefs are consistent with the facts.”

If an individual feels valued by the organization, they will contribute more to meeting the goals of the organization. Cox defines achievement outcomes as “tangible measures that are, at least

theoretically, indexes of the employee’s contribution to the organization.”

These can include performance ratings and promotion rates. So, according to the model, “by understanding the diversity climate we can predict effects on individual outcomes and ultimately effects of diversity on organizational effectiveness.”

There are direct effects of diversity on organizations. Processes such as problem solving, creativity and communications will be affected by diversity. These processes are critical to any organization and diversity can either complement these processes or provide challenges to overcome. This is reflected in Cox’s model by the arrow that extends from the diversity climate to the organizational outcomes.

Problem solving in a diverse group will provide different perspectives, provide more critical analyses of the alternatives and “lower the probability of groupthink.” It is necessary for the group to understand the differences of the other members of the group; otherwise, the group may have conflicts in trying to solve problems. Creativity may also be enhanced by a diverse group. But, the contributions of all members must be recognized so that individuals will want to share their creative ideas with the group. Finally, communications can pose an obstacle to a diverse group. “Communication differences related to culture may become the source of misunderstandings and ultimately lower workgroup effectiveness.” Once this is recognized, action can be taken to try to overcome these difficulties.

Examining selected factors from the diversity climate listed in the model and how they can be applied to the military will provide the foundation of how diversity can impact an organization. Specifically, identity structures, prejudice, stereotyping, ethnocentrism and informal integration will be defined. Although the other factors are also applicable to the military, because of the structured environment we operate in, change in those areas require more than self-examination.

DIVERSITY CLIMATE FACTORS

Identity Structures:

“A group identity is a personal affiliation with other people with whom one shares certain things in common. Such identities are central to how cultural diversity impacts behavior in organizations.” The way we define ourselves can be based on our group affiliation. For example, I may think of myself as an officer in the Air Force which would be a group identity. This will play a part in how I define myself and how others see me.

There are different types of group identities: phenotype identity groups are visually distinguishable from members of other groups such as “women are physically distinguishable from men and thus gender represents a phenotype identity.” Racioethnic groups often represent phenotype groups. Stereotyping and prejudice are usually activated on the basis of phenotype. Once we categorize people in this way, our minds may naturally recall any information about members of that group. This may cause us to interact with these individuals in a certain way. The other group is a culture identity group which has two components: culture identity profile which is the cultural group to which the person identifies and identity strength which refers to the value that the individual places on that particular group identity

TOOLS FOR MANAGING DIVERSITY

Empowerment

If you have had any Quality Air Force training at all, you know that empowerment is essential in order to make effective quality decisions. All members, regardless of race or gender, should feel free to contribute in decision-making processes. A study on the “Equal Opportunity Climate and Total Quality Management,” was conducted by the Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute. Three fairly diverse (43 percent minorities and 22 percent female) military units recognized for their TQM programs were studied. In this study, they found a “linkage of perception of minority power with quality for the minorities in the three quality units.” When using empowerment in diverse organizations, Golembiewski states that it should follow the “more, more hypothesis.” This hypothesis follows that the more you trust someone, the more others will reciprocate by trusting and being

trustworthy. This has been seen in units by higher job satisfaction and higher productivity.

Empowerment in a diverse organization is a “win-win” situation. Empowering diverse members and making them feel their contribution is meaningful and worthwhile, will only improve the diversity climate and thus improve mission accomplishment.

Diversity Training Programs

Diversity training programs are used to make people more aware of related issues in diversity. As a supervisor or leader, you have the responsibility to be well trained in the area of understanding diverse employees. All supervisors and leaders must take advantage of the training offered by their respective services. Basically this training will set the stage for policies and practices that shape people’s behavior. Prejudice and stereotyping are the main barriers to a positive diverse climate. Training can be used to enlighten members about positive aspects of various groups. In other words, training can be used to break down the stereotypes and reduce prejudicial attitudes.

Monitoring/Networking

Mentors provide support, challenges, and recognition to help shape the future for the individuals they are assisting. In a study done by Ann Morrison, “a lack of mentors and role models is a barrier for many white women and people of color. Nontraditional managers may especially need the guidance, encouragement, and advocacy that more seasoned managers can provide to overcome such hurdles as isolation, lack of credibility, and perhaps a naiveté about institutional politics.”

Networking also provides forms of support to nontraditional groups. Internal networking groups can be used by traditional and nontraditional managers. Nontraditional managers can use these networking groups as a source of support and encouragement.They can introduce nontraditional employees to one another so “they can serve as counselors, cheerleaders, sounding boards, content experts and resources in other capacities.” Traditional managers can use these networking groups to find out about problems that may exist in the organization and then receive input on how to improve or correct the problems.As a supervisor or leader, it is critical to be a mentor or encourage mentoring for your subordinates. Also, leaders and supervisors should

support different networking organizations. These organizations provide support to the members as well as provide them a channel to voice complaints and problems to senior leadership.

FIVE STEP PROCESS

Step One: Assess the Condition of Your Organization

The reports generated from these inspections or assessments will usually identify specific problems with production or compliance and can also show areas that are efficient and effective. Therefore, these reports can provide insight into negative or positive areas that could influence the diversity climate of an organization.

Once you have gathered as much information as possible, Morrison warns that you must keep assumptions under control, try to get more than just numbers—get perceptions too and don’t get tied down to just gathering information.

Step Two: Strengthen Top-Management Commitment

Everyone in the organization must know that the senior leaders are committed to a positive diversity climate. The same commitment must be relayed down to the lowest levels. Senior leaders must strongly and openly support all diversity policies and practices that are mandated.

E.g. Secretary Widnall and General Fogleman have shown their commitment to cultural diversity making diversity a key issue. They are responding to problems that have arisen and they are desperately trying to make diversity an accepted way of life in the Air Force.

As commanders and leaders, we have the responsibility to support our senior leadership policies and let our subordinates know through our actions that we believe in the benefits of cultural diversity.

Step Three: Choose Solutions

After you have gathered all your information, choose solutions that address the data and culture. Some tools that could be used as solutions were discussed previously. Still, you must remember that you need to reach as many members of the organization as possible. Solutions can be difficult to impose especially if they are new and radical.Therefore, it is essential that everyone understand why these changes are being implemented and the rationale behind them. Comprehensive training and preparation must be accomplished to help facilitate this understanding.

Step Four: Revisit the Goals

Creating meaningful goals can be a challenge. Yet, this is a requirement to measure success. Goals should be realistic and achievable within an established time frame. “The simple rule that ‘what doesn’t get measured doesn’t get done’ applies as well to diversity efforts as to other activities.” You may need to re look at attitudes and perceptions to see how and if they have changed. You may want to see if the diversity climate has changed.What’s important is that you determine progress. This is a requirement to ensure the members of your organization believe that you are serious about addressing problems.

Step Five: Keep Building

You must think long-term. Although most of us are only in assignments for 2 or 3 years, by thinking long-term, you can develop a culture and attitudes that will permeate throughout the entire organization of the Air Force. As Morrison states, “Success begets success; building on

progress already made can be accelerated; past achievements can be used to extend diversity beyond gender and ethnicity issues into the full range of diversity.”

So, as you can see, these are five easy steps that can be effectively used to provide road map in order to assess the diversity climate in an organization.

Recommendations on integrated perspectives on and approaches to cultural diversity and urban development

Introduction

'Cultural Diversity in European Cities' was one of the main themes for the work of and the discussions in the informal EU Urban Development Group during the Danish EU Presidency. This booklet was initiated by the Danish Presidency and has been developed within the framework of the Urban Development Group. The point of departure for the work has been 'The Multi-annual Programme of Co-operation in Urban Affairs within the European Union' - the Lille-report - discussed and approved at the Informal Ministers' Meeting in Lille in November 2000. As one out of nine priority themes the report stresses the importance of developing and implementing measures to tackle social, ethnic and discriminating segregation in disadvantaged neighborhoods and within this context to promote a better action for the integration of ethnic minorities.

Urban cultural diversity is very much a reflection of a global-local development, which has to be considered in current and future urban policies. Within this framework the Urban Development Group has discussed general European experiences as well as national and local examples of best practices with respect to policies and strategies. Furthermore, the booklet also includes some examples from LIA-projects.

The general European experiences and the examples of best practices show that much work and progress have been done already in European cities. But it also points to several steps, which can still be taken - at city level, regional level and national level and at the EU level. The 18 recommendations are intended as sources of inspiration to continue the work and co-operation.

Integrated perspectives and policies on migration and urban development

1. Migration and integration have to be integrated as some of several important dimensions of urban policy and strategies - at all levels. The interdependence between migration and urban development impacts and influences all European cities both by offering opportunities and by posing challenges. Therefore, integrating the cultural perspective into urban policies is important in order to promote social, democratic, economic etc. sustainable urban development, just as it is an important dimension of social cohesion policies - in the cities, in the Member States and within the European Union.

2. Giving priority to the cultural dimension of urban policy in Community policies may be a valuable way to promote the importance of this issue. And to support efforts at national and local levels to promote democratic, social and economic inclusion of all urban citizens including migrants and ethnic minorities. Specific lessons learned from the current EU URBAN programme concerning projects targeting ethnic minorities living in urban pockets of poverty could be taken into account in future EU cohesion policy.

3. It is important that national urban strategies and policies include migration, integration and cultural diversity in order to provide an overall comprehensive approach to this complex phenomenon. The social, economic and cultural impacts of globalisation and migration on European cities have to be considered and reflected by national urban policies. And in this connection it might be necessary to rethink and redefine urban strategies in order to meet these new urban challenges and in order to make use of these new urban opportunities.

4. Formal equality of opportunity for all people and groups is an important principle in all Member States. This principle should also be explicitly addressed to cities and included in national urban policies. That is, in the political, economic and legislative frameworks for urban policy given by national authorities.

5. Local urban strategies and bottom-up perspectives are considered to be extremely important - due to the unique circumstances given in each city with

respect to challenges, barriers and opportunities. Local urban strategies incorporating the cultural dimension can contribute positively to promoting real equality of opportunity in the city and urban areas, to targeting specific initiatives in specific areas and to promoting social cohesion and social inclusion of migrants and ethnic minorities.

Co-operation and coordinated initiatives

6. In order to obtain synergies and to exchange experiences it is important to continue - and if possible even to strengthen - co-operation and co-ordination concerning policies and initiatives on cities and urban development. Within the EU, between the EU and the Member States, between the Member States and between the European cities. This especially applies to policies and initiatives aiming at integrating migrants and ethnic minorities in cities and promoting urban cultural diversity.

7. In order to promote an integrated Community approach to cultural diversity in European cities activities and initiatives connected to a future Action Programme on Integration and the further implementation of the Co-operation Framework to promote Sustainable Urban Development could be linked and co-ordinated. The importance of integration was stressed in the Commission's Communication on a Community Immigration Policy of 22 November 2000, suggesting among other things that "... a Community Action Programme to promote the integration of third country nationals could be developed". Likewise, the Urban Action Plan 'Sustainable urban development in the European Union: a framework for action' aims among other things at promoting equality and social inclusion of migrants and ethnic minorities.

8. The involvement and commitment of the private sector and civil society is crucial in order to promote real equality of opportunity for migrants and ethnic minorities - on the labour market, the housing market, in social urban life, etc. Experiences from European cities point to the importance of including the private sector and civil society not only with respect to general urban policy, but also with respect to specific projects and programmes targeting migrants and ethnic minorities.

9. The work of and co-operation between European cities (as for example EUROCITES) on issues concerning migrants

and ethnic minorities in cities should be encouraged and supported by the Member States and EU. Cities constitute important platforms for integration of migrants and ethnic minorities and inputs and feed-back from the city level are constantly needed for continuous development of overall strategies and policies.

Research and knowledge

10. Though the interdependence between migration and urban development is well known and generally accepted more research within this field is still needed.

11. The urban dimension and within this context the ethnic and cultural aspects should be taken into account in future Framework Programmes for Research and Development. An important research theme could be how European cities can benefit from cultural diversity in order to meet the challenges of globalisation. Economically, socially and culturally. And, consequently, identification of policies and strategies needed in order to promote sustainable, culturally diverse cities and communities.

12. 'Citizens and governance' is one out of seven priority themes in the current Sixth Framework Programme for Research and Development 2002 - 2006 stressing among other things the need for research in new types of fellow citizenship, new identities and the impact of cultural diversity in Europe. When selecting and evaluating specific research projects within this theme of the Sixth Framework Programme, special attention could be given to the diversity of European citizens including those born outside the European Union. Important questions are how new types of governance and new types of information and communication technologies (multi-lingual and multi-cultural communication tools) can be developed and used in order to promote inclusion of all groups in society. And furthermore, how new technologies, new types of governance and urban communities can be used as a combined platform for inclusion and participation of culturally diverse civil societies.

13. In order to achieve more knowledge and a better understanding of urban cultural diversity in European cities future editions of the Urban Audit could be amplified to include specific information on migrants and ethnic minorities in European cities. The first edition of the Urban Audit presents valuable comparable information on the

quality of life in European cities and contains important urban indicators. The dimension of urban cultural diversity in future editions could also apply to specific urban indicators such as occupation, unemployment rates, income, civil involvement, economic activity.

Specific focus points and issues concerning ethnic minorities in cities

14. The experiences from European cities presented in the booklet point to several very specific spheres and issues of urban life, which need special attention, consideration and action at the city level, regional level, national level and at the EU level.

15. Local actions and initiatives based on a partnership with civil society and public as well as private actors can be successful for the purpose of eliminating discriminatory attitudes and behaviour. Discrimination in local urban areas, at the local labour and housing markets, in civil life, etc. constitutes a serious barrier to integration as well as real equality of opportunities for migrants and ethnic minorities. Likewise, it hampers the possibilities of making good use of the opportunities afforded by the cultural diversity in European cities.

16. Simultaneous and multi-facetted urban initiatives at both the national and local levels - such as mixed ownership and positive discrimination of urban areas - can be effective in order to re-incorporate deprived urban areas into the rest of the city. This argument is more to do with the rich-poor divide than migrants and ethnic minorities specifically. However, quite often ethnic minorities are particularly affected by the negative and exclusive mechanism of urban segregation such as unemployment and social exclusion.

17. Targeted job training, vocational qualifications, language training, encouragement and support towards self-employment, establishment of small and medium size enterprises, etc. are important initiatives to eliminate the existing mis-match between supply and demand on the labour market and have to be incorporated into urban strategies. Likewise, it is important to promote access to

work that people are qualified for. Employment and access to the labour market are crucial for peoples' personal lives, just as they give a feeling of having a stake in general social and civil life. However, the unemployment rate among migrants and ethnic minorities in European cities is very high compared to general unemployment rates. At the same time companies increasingly need culturally diverse manpower in order to meet diverse demands in a global economy. Furthermore, international studies show that ethnic enterprises have a positive economic impact on the urban areas where they are located.

18. Participation by all urban citizens in urban democracy processes is important in order to promote sustainable urban development. The experiences from European cities show that special efforts have to be made in order to involve migrants and ethnic minorities in urban planning and politics. Urban areas have proved to be excellent points of departure with respect to collective mobilization of ethnic minority groups. Furthermore, establishing alternative platforms and channels for influence also seems to be successful, and within this context using of new information and communication technologies.

 Footnotes

The LIA projects (Local Integration / Partnership Action, 1996 - 1999) were based on a partnership between three European networks of Cities (EUROCITIES, Elaine & Quartiers en Crise) and focussed on integration of migrants and ethnic minorities.

A Word About Theories

Social science theories are just what they are: theories. The philosophers who have come up with these theories believe in them because they have made a set of the assumptions by their observations and they have made conclusions based on these assumptions. However, as the reality of the world is open to interpretation, each theory describes the world in its own unique way. No theories are wrong if they are supportable by facts and

observations. These theories you will learn are just ways that thinkers have used to describe the world around them. Just remember that you do not have to agree with a particular theory, but you must be able to understand all theories in order to make a conclusion about the world in which you live.

The best way to understand a particular ideology is to think as a philosopher would think. How would believers of a particular theory present a solution to a particular problem? Thinkers in different schools of thought will come up with different answers because of the differences in their assumptions. Make sure you understand how different theorists think.

Most importantly, understand that these theories are constantly being altered, borrowed from, and in some of the cases, discredited completely. Theories are not rules to the world but rather ways to look at the world. A person can look at the world in different perspectives and can combine different assumptions of theories to describe it. No matter how different theories can be, they can almost always be combined because they are almost never mutually exclusive.

Given the dearth of minorities and women in the scientific enterprise, I think their inclusion can significantly strengthen the research effort by bringing new perspectives and attitudes to the work.

I have other suggestions for increasing knowledge flow among people who work under different paradigms. Among the behaviors I consider helpful are:

• Keep talking, communicating.• Ask how questions, to acknowledge all possibilities, even those that are a causal or improbable according to your paradigm.• Recognize that why not questions are as valid as why questions. • Establish concrete, whole project goals and let the entire team know them. • Get the whole team to work together toward those goals. • Identify and support group originality. • Tolerate similarities and differences. • Encourage job rotation (within the group and occasionally farther afield). • Discuss everything in context so the right brain can contribute.

Why don't I conclude this article by listing other paradigms? Because if you knew what other paradigms might bear on your R&D work at a particular time, if paradigms could just be listed and used, they would shrink to become one more item in the toolbox of your own paradigm, to be used when needed in the familiar, linear manner.

It would be far better if other scientific paradigms were represented in your research group by workers who are comfortable with those paradigms. Only then can you reap the harvest of many forms of cultural knowledge and inquiry.

Organizational values, cultural attributes and core competencies

Mennonite Mission Network values are qualities that should characterize the organization in its relationships and work.  These values should form our culture, and living them out should become a natural outgrowth of who we are, what we do, and how we do it.  As they become part of our organizational life, these cultural attributes should also characterize individuals within Mennonite Mission Network.

The organizational values and cultural attributes are listed below along with competencies we expect to see exhibited in staff and mission workers.  Leaders of Mennonite Mission Network carry additional responsibility to influence others positively.

Vision - Organize around the purpose and focus on visionPurposeful, committed, passionate and knowledgeable about mission and organizational vision.

Staff and worker competencyUnderstands and is committed to God’s reconciling mission to the world and the vision of Mission Network.

Mission leader competencyDemonstrates knowledge of and articulates mission vision with the ability to stimulate passion for God’s reconciling mission to the world.

Diversity - Embrace cross-cultural diversityAdaptable, anti-racist, embracing cultural differences, open to new experiences.

Staff and worker competencyDesires to work with and exhibits respect for individuals who are different in age, race, color, national origin, gender, and abilities.

Mission leader competency.Works actively to increase mission involvement of congregations, staff and workers with different backgrounds of age, race, color, national origin, gender and abilities.

Community of grace - Foster a spirit of unity and graceCompassionate, forgiving, empathetic, caring, trusting/trustworthy, community-oriented.

Staff and worker competencyDemonstrates compassion and forgiveness in interpersonal relationships.

Mission leader competencyLeads by being trustworthy, extending trust and fostering compassion and forgiveness in interpersonal and cross-agency relationships.

Innovation - Exhibit flexibility, innovation and risk-takingLearning-oriented, supportive of risk-taking, creative, flexible, resourceful, entrepreneurial.

Staff and worker competencyShows flexibility, is open-minded to new ideas, strategies, procedures and opportunities to expand skills and knowledge.

Mission leader competencyDemonstrates openness to taking risks by encouraging, planning and implementing innovations.

Interdependence - Encourage interdependent relationshipsMutual, reciprocal, connected, interacting, related.

Staff and worker competencyWorks to strengthen connections and communication between groups.

Mission leader competencyBuilds networks among staff groups, in agencies and in constituency, and communicates the need of work groups for one another.

Collaboration - Exercise effective collaborationCohesive, cooperative, joint, harmonious, concurrent.

Staff and worker competencyWorks cooperatively with others, accepting and sharing responsibility.

Mission leader competencyFosters cohesion and works together with staff to promote and carry out decision-making without the extreme forms of authority or consensus.

Stewardship - Practice wise stewardship of resourcesConserving, economizing, concerned with care for creation, conscientious in use of resources.

Staff and worker competencyUses natural and financial resources with care, promotes personal health and well-being.

Mission leader competencyFosters care of self and others, supports sensible workloads, and promotes wise use of natural and financial resources.

Church centeredness - Be centered on the churchEmbracing the church, trustful of God’s working in local congregations, accountable to the church.

Staff and worker competencyRespects, values and participates in congregational life and church-wide mission agenda.

Mission leader competencyGuided by mission agenda at every level of the church and plans agency strategies in congruence with that agenda.

Spiritual vitality - Nurture sensitivity to God's spirit and callPrayerful, joyful, faith-filled, sensitive to God’s calling and direction.

Staff and worker competencyDemonstrates spiritual sensitivity and commitment to Jesus Christ.

Mission leader competencyModels, incorporates sensitivity to and helps others be aware of God’s leading in daily work.

'Cultural Diversity in Teaching and Learning: A Guide to Self-Audit for Good Practice' outlines the importance of:

Respecting culturally diverse approaches to learning and ways of understanding; Providing opportunities for all students to reflect on, and express their own

sources of cultural influence, as well as the knowledge and experience they bring to the educational environment;

Encouraging a critical and open awareness of inappropriately ethnocentric, gender-biased language and assumptions and devising effective strategies for managing classroom situations of discrimination and stereotyping;

Creating an open and inclusive approach to learning from others, and valuing the diversity of perspectives offered in group learning contexts;

Maintaining a learning environment that addresses the marginalisation or isolation of students on the basis of cultural difference.

Summary

Coalitions which are truly culturally diverse and serve diverse populations must:

Be representative of their target community. Communicate clearly. Emphasize the advantages of their cultural diversity. Celebrate the contributions of each culture. Encourage the positive outcome of interacting with these

cultures.

In building coalitions, it is important that neither prejudice nor discrimination be tolerated, with consequences outlined in the constitution and bylaws or operational agreement. Self- awareness and sensitivity training should be a prerequisite for coalition membership as well as initial and subsequent orientation and training. Coalition leaders should help members understand cultural diversity, realize such diversity can strengthen the coalition and acquaint them with specific roles they can play in developing a diverse group.

Social deviance is a phenomenon that has existed in all societies where there have been norms. There are two possibilities for how an individual will act in the face of social norms; conform or violate. There are implicit social norms and explicit social norms. Explicit social norms are not necessarily laws (such as a sign at a computer lab that says food and drink are prohibited). In reality, there is often a blend of conformity and deviance in the ways people behave. Rarely if ever does a person deviate from or conform to all norms. Furthermore, some behaviors in themselves reflect both conformity and deviance at once. Consider breaking the speed limit, which is technically a legal violation, but which is also conformist, particularly on freeways where motorists "go with the flow." That is a critical feature of deviance, conformity, and norms. Relativity abounds. That is, norms can change over time (e.g. women in the paid labor force), depend on situational context (e.g. laughing at a party as opposed to doing so at a funeral), depend on statuses (e.g. an adolescent blowing up neighbors' mailboxes as opposed to an elderly woman doing so), and any number of other factors. But it's not all relative. There are forms of deviance (and certain norms) that are about as universal as anything in the social sciences can be, such as when one maliciously harms a child. In light of the way we think about norms, deviance, and conformity, many thinkers throughout history have tried to explain the causes behind deviance.

‘Empowering, training and mentoring are tools that can be used to assist you in becoming that pluralistic leader who

understands and finds diversity an asset to your organization. Additionally, the five-step process of assessing the

organization, top-level commitment, choosing solutions, revisiting the goals and to keep building is a simple formula that the pluralistic leader can use on a continuous basis to

encourage a positive diverse climate.’

FAQS

What is Cultural Diversity?

Cultural Diversity Policy affirms that cultural diversity encompasses differences based on race, ethnicity

Y, language, religion, value and belief systems, disability, class, sexuality, gender, age and educational background. The cultural diversity of the University is strength and an asset, and we value diversity of opinions, perspectives and interests.

Valuing Cultural Diversity

We are committed to social harmony and cohesion, supporting all staff and citizens as they achieve a deeper appreciation of their own cultures, as well as greater cross-cultural understanding. We strive to create an environment where staff and students promote culturally inclusive behaviors and activities, ensure cultural differences are heard and explored, and actively seek to learn from other cultures.

Why is diversity important?

we view that the diversity of staff and student population as a strength and an asset, valuing the opinions, perspectives and interests that come from a diverse population. Cultural diversity enriches all aspects of academic and social life and encourages approaches to teaching and learning that are relevant to our increasingly global academic environment.

What is meant by the term 'equity'?

Equity, in context of equal opportunity and anti-discrimination, refers to fairness, or principles of justice aimed redressing the inequalities in opportunity. Equity issues began to be taken seriously by universities in the early 1990s, following the publication of the Government Paper: A Fair Chance for All.

What is an equity group?

we have targeted strategies which address the needs of groups of people who are known to be underrepresented in higher education.

Students from rural and isolated backgrounds Indigenous students Students from low socio-economic backgrounds Students with a disability or ongoing medical condition Students who come from non-English-speaking backgrounds

(NESB) Women in non-traditional fields of study and women doing postgraduate degrees

by research.

What is equal opportunity?

Equal Opportunity aims to ensure that discrimination is prohibited in employment and education. It is unlawful to discriminate on the grounds of: Sex, Age, Race, Marital Status, Pregnancy, Political Conviction, Religious Conviction, Impairment, Family Responsibility or Family Status, or Sexual Preference.

What is affirmative action?

Affirmative action means taking measures to ensure that existing discriminatory barriers and behaviors are removed and that equal opportunity is promoted for all individuals.

What is discrimination?

Discrimination is broadly defined as treating one person unfairly over another according to factors unrelated to their ability or potential. Legislation prohibits discrimination on specified grounds. The legislation provides limited exemption for some measures, such as affirmative action programs, designed to achieve increased representation of groups historically under-represented in the workforce. Discrimination may be direct or indirect and may not always be intentional.

What is direct discrimination?

Direct discrimination occurs when someone receives less favorable treatment on the basis of characteristics or stereotyped assumptions which are not job- or study-related.

What is indirect discrimination?

Indirect discrimination occurs when policies and practices which appear neutral or fair because they are applied to everyone, have a different and disadvantageous impact on groups of people covered by equal opportunity legislation.

THE REPORT

This report reflects the participants' views on the most important issues that require better knowledge if early childhood classrooms are to offer children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds effective and meaningful learning experiences. It draws on their analysis, experience, and knowledge of the research on these issues. The goal was not to achieve unanimity of opinion, but rather to distinguish questions for which there is research evidence from those that are based primarily on values or ideology. The participants also began the process of deciphering the practical implications of the existing research and identifying promising directions for future research.

Several caveats about the scope of the report are in order. First, although much of what was discussed could be construed as having implications for a policy regarding parent education, the focus of the workshop was limited to implications for group care and educational settings, including the ways in which those implications may affect parents. Second, substantial thought was given to culturally shaped

aspects of children's home environments that hold meaning for early childhood settings. Variation in cultural aspects of schooling, while recognized as important by the participants, was not a focus of discussion. Finally, the extremely timely and controversial issue of assessment, particularly as a basis for placement at the end of early childhood in bilingual or mainstream classes, or in regular or special education classes, was not discussed: the complexity of the topic warranted more time than the workshop permitted.

The next three sections of the report are organized around the three questions that provided the structure for the workshop:

What roles does culture play in shaping children's earliest learning opportunities and experiences at home?

How do children's cultural and linguistic backgrounds affect the skills, knowledge, and expectations that they bring to school?

What do we know about whether and how the nature, language, or content of instruction needs to vary to assure learning and motivation for children from differing linguistic and cultural backgrounds?

Many interesting and important questions that call for serious study were raised throughout the discussions. Several of them are noted in the final section that addresses future directions for research.

Readers familiar with this field of study will appreciate the caution with which the participants approached the existing research literature. People in the early childhood community seeking clear advice about educational practices are likely to be frustrated by the limited degree to which preschool children or preschool settings have been studied in terms of questions of culture and schooling. As reflected in this report, the workshop participants believe it is critical to identify the limits of what is presently known, as well as the potential of research in progress, to advance this field substantially.

SOCIAL CONVENTIONS

A growing literature is documenting ways in which children from different cultural backgrounds are exposed to different conversational rules, conventions for displaying respect, and other patterns of social interaction that may have significant effects on the ease and comfort with which they make the transition to school. Several examples from this literature were discussed at the workshop.

Conversational rules and discourse patterns appear to vary widely across cultures. Barbara Rogoff discussed how different cultural groups are comfortable with differing amounts of conversation and, accordingly, with silence. In some cultures, individuals who talk a lot are considered smart; in others, they are considered foolish. This affects how much children will talk and how comfortable they are likely to be with demands to talk more or less. In some cultures, children are treated by adults as conversational partners; in others, children adopt the role of observer, and information is communicated primarily through shared activity rather than in the context of lessons or explanations (Rogoff, Mistry, Goncu, and Mosier 1993). The role and place of interruptions also vary across cultures. In some, frequent interruptions are expected as part of active engagement in a conversation. In others, long pauses between comments and between questions and answers are more the norm.

Questioning behavior appears to be heavily imbued with cultural meaning. Patricia Greenfield discussed her work comparing the amount and meaning of questioning behavior by Japanese and U.S. students (Greenfield and Cocking, 1994). Japanese students were reluctant to ask questions because this behavior has negative connotations. It suggests that the student did not work hard enough to understand the material or that s/he is implicitly criticizing the teacher's ability to communicate information. In contrast, U.S. students asked many questions, presumably because they value this behavior as a means of demonstrating involvement and interest.

Conversational rules also express patterns of respect and authority that, in turn, vary across cultures. In some cultures, because age is the major determinant of patterns of respect, children are hesitant to question their teachers or to act as their conversational partners. Most U.S. classrooms, in contrast, tend to value children's willingness to engage in verbal exchanges with their teachers and classmates. Lisa Delpit's work (1988) has revealed the intricate association between some African American children's respect for their teachers and the degree of authority that the teachers express in their classroom interactions. This authority is often communicated through highly directive and didactic methods that have been portrayed as inappropriate by white, middle-class standards. Low-income Chicano families, as well, have been observed to rely on highly directive socializing and teach ing tactics (Laosa, 1978). Work with Native American students, in contrast, has revealed children's belief that they should be responsible for their own learning. Highly directive teachers appear to undermine these beliefs and, in so doing, undermine their own authority in the eyes of these relatively autonomous children.

SUMMARY

Culture plays a complex and ubiquitous role in shaping children's earliest learning opportunities and experiences in the home. Parent's beliefs about when and how children learn school-related skills, their daily interactions with their children, and the social rules that guide these interactions combine in intricate ways to create what Luis Moll has termed "funds of knowledge" that are based in culture (Moll, Amanti, Neff, and Gonzalez, 1992). However, efforts to specify the specific mechanisms or dimensions of culture that carry its role in learning are in their infancy. The workshop participants defined culture as a term that encompasses economic, ethnic, racial, social structural, and other dimensions that constitute a constellation of influences on children's early learning opportunities. It is critical when examining the research evidence to take careful note of the investigator's definition of culture and its implications for the results from any particular study.

A persistent problem in much of this research is drawing inferences about noneconomic dimensions of culture when, in fact, social class may be the more influential variable. Are differences that are attributed to children's ethnic backgrounds or immigrant status, for example, more accurately ascribed to the educational backgrounds of their parents, as suggested by Laosa? Efforts to disentangle these differing definitions of culture are particularly difficult in the United States, given selective immigration patterns and persistent poverty among African American, Latino, and Native American populations.

Some culturally shaped early learning opportunities have been found to be more conducive than others to preparing children for success in schools, which are typically not designed with diverse configurations of students in mind. One of the challenges that this poses to early childhood educators, in particular, involves striking a balance between demonstrating respect for cultural differences and preparing children to participate successfully in formal school settings (Prince and Lawrence, 1993). A starting point for addressing this dilemma involves understanding how children's cultural backgrounds affect the skills, knowledge, and expectations that they bring to school.

Bibliography

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DEOMI Research Directorate, Patrick AFB FL, 1996.Golembiewski, Robert T. Managing Diversity in Organizations. Tuscaloosa: TheUniversity of Alabama Press, 1995.Krouse, Stephen B. and Alvin and Patricia Smith. Equal Opportunity Climate and TotalQuality Management: A Preliminary Study. DEOMI Research Directorate, PatrickAFB, Florida, 1994.Landis, Dan and Rabi S. Bhagat, Editors. Handbook of Intercultural Training, 2d Edition.Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 1996.Loden, Marilyn and Judy B. Rosener, PhD. Workforce America! Managing EmployeeDiversity as a Vital Resource. Homewood: Business One Irwin, 1991.Morrison, Ann M. The New Leaders—Guidelines on Leadership Diversity in America.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1992.Moskos, Charles. “From Citizens’ Army to Social Laboratory.” The Wilson Quarterly,Vol 17, Winter 93.Powell, Colin with Joseph E. Persico. My American Journey. New York: Ballantine

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GLOSSARY

Culturally Diverse Pluralism- A culture that promotes mutual respect, acceptance, teamwork and productivity among people who are diverse in age, gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, race, class, religious beliefs, physical ability and other perceived differences.

Coalition- A unit composed of distinct elements of the population it serves.

Multicultural Organizations- Organizations that maintain a pluralistic culture promoting mutual respect, acceptance, teamwork and productivity among diverse people. It reflects the interests and contributions of members of diverse groups in mission, operations and product or service.

Diverse coalitions are well represented in multicultural organizations at all levels, in all functions and in all work groups. Members of diverse groups have power and influence in the organization. They are included as full and influential participants in all aspects of the organization, especially where decisions are made and policies established. Discrimination is not tolerated within the organization and in its relationships with people, groups and organizations in its environment.

Discrimination- The systematic, intended or unintended denial of recognition, power and privilege to certain people based on the groups to which they belong.

Cultural Bias- Cox includes discrimination and prejudice as a part of cultural bias. He states that prejudice is a "judgement made about others that reinforces a superiority/ inferiority belief system."

Stereotype- A fixed and distorted generalization made about all members of a particular group. (Loden and Rosener)

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