TalkingHeads:OntheRepatriationofMāoriToiMoko

ColleenMurphy

Athesissubmittedinpartialfulfillment

oftherequirementsforthedegreeofBachelorofArts

withHonorsintheHistoryofArt

THEUNIVERSITYOFMICHIGAN

April2016

Murphy 2

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Whakawhetai(Acknowledgements)......................03

Text

Introduction:DetachedHeads.....................04

TaMokoTattooing...........................07

EarlyContactwithEuropeans......................09

ChangingAttitudes...........................16

GeneralH.G.Robley...........................19

PeopleonDisplay............................26

WesternDisplaysofMāoriArtandArtifacts...............30

TheMāoriRenaissance..........................34

RepatriationPractices..........................37

LegislationRelatedtoRepatriation....................39

Conclusion:CeremonialRepatriation...................41

Endnotes....................................42

Bibliography..................................46

Images.....................................50

Murphy 3

Whakawhetai(Acknowledgements)

IwouldliketosincerelythankmyfacultyadvisorDr.DavidDorisforhis

indispensableguidanceduringthisprocess.Hecontinuouslyfoundtimeinhisbusy

scheduletohelpmewithmyresearch,andIamincrediblygratefulforhisgenerosity,sense

ofhumorandsupport.

IamalsogratefultoDr.HowardLayforhisassistancebothinthisprojectand

throughoutmycareerattheUniversityofMichigan.HereaffirmedmylovefortheHistory

ofArtinhislecturesbothatMichiganandthroughoutFrance,anddemonstrated

unbelievablededicationtoourseminarclass.IamcertainthatmyexperienceatMichigan

wouldnothavebeenthesamewithouthismentorship.

IamgreatlyappreciativeofthestaffatTePapaTongawerafortheironline

resourcesandresponsestomyspecificquestionsregardingtheirRepatriationProgram,

andtheLibraryoftheUniversityofWellington,NewZealand,whichgenerouslymakes

portionsoftheNewZealandTextCollectionfreelyavailableonline.

Finally,Iwouldliketothankmyfriendsandfamily,especiallymyparents,Thomas

andSharonMurphy,fortheirunendingloveandencouragement.Iamalsothankfulformy

peersinthethesisseminar,whohavesharedtheirfriendship,bakedgoods,and

proofreadingskills.

Murphy 4

I. Introduction:DetachedHeads

Inacriticalfirststep,theheadisseveredfromtherestofthebodyatthefoundation

oftheskull.Next,sharptoolsareusedtomakeanincisionthatallowsforacomplete

extractionofthebrain.Followingremovalofthebrainandeyes,interiorcavitiesarefilled

withclayandvegetalfiberstodelaydecompositionandensurethattheheadmaintainsits

shape.Itisthenboiledorsteamedinaspecializedoven,smokedoveranopenfire,andset

outinthesuntodryforseveraldays.Beforetheprocessiscomplete,acoatingofsharkoil

isappliedtoprotecttheskinandthedelicatetattooedpatternsthatembellishtheseheads.1

Theresultingembalmedheadsarecalledtoimoko(Figure1).2Inthisway,the

Māori,apeoplenativetonorthernNewZealand,preservetheheadsoftheirdeceasedina

practicesimilartothatofEgyptianmummification.Theprocesssurroundingthecreation

oftoimoko,oftenperformedbytribalchiefs,wasconsideredsacred.Accordingly,neither

therelativesofthedepartednorthepeopleperformingtheceremonywouldeatuntilithad

beencompleted.3Duetotheirsacrednature,theseheadsarenotgenerallyphotographed.

Inpreparingthisthesis,IhavegivenalotofthoughtastohowIcanaddresstheseheadsas

visualobjects,yetstillrespecttheirsanctity.IchosetoprovideFigure1,ablackandwhite

imageofa“specimen”previouslykeptatNewZealand’sAucklandMuseum,asawayof

helpingreaderstounderstandwhytheseheadslookthewaytheydo.Iwilldiscussthe

commodificationofpreservedheadsandthewaysinwhichtheseheadshavebecome

associatedwithcolonizationandquestionablemuseumethics.Morerecently,theseobjects

havetakenonasymbolicmeaninginthestruggletorightpastwrongsandre-establish

desecratedtraditions.

Murphy 5

Thestorybeginswithanactofcutting.Inthisvitalmomentofdetachment,thehead

itselfbecomesanobject,amovablethingseparatedfromthebody.Itispreciselythis

mobilitythatresultedinthesespirituallyimbuedobjectsbecominginternational

commodities.Throughtheirhistory,theseseveredheadshavebeendetachedfromtheir

ritualtraditionsandattachedtolargerconceptionsthanthebodiesfromwhichtheyhave

beenexcised.

ItwascommonforMāoriburialstoemphasizetherelationshipbetweentheliving

andtheirancestors,withindividualsoftenburiedinsideorclosetoareasofsettlement.

Burialpracticesarecomplicatedandvaryamongstdifferentiwi(tribes)andthroughout

differenttimeperiods.Forinstance,anthropologistshavediscoveredmorethanonestyle

ofburialwithinthesameplot.4Earlyburialsweretypicallyinshallowgraveswiththe

bodiespositionedinfacedownor“crouched”positions.Laterburialsbeginningintheend

ofthesixteenthcenturyareoftenfoundincaves,manyofthemsecondaryburials.Inthese

cases,thebodiesappeartohavebeenburiedandallowedtodecomposebeforethebones

wereremovedandrelocatedtoacave.Onrareoccasions,thewholebodywasplaced

insidethecave.5

Toimokowerecreatedtoensureacontinued,post-mortemconnectionwith

ancestors.Theywerekeptinornateboxesandbroughtoutonlyforspecialoccasions.6

Thus,wecanimaginethelivinggreetedthedeceasedasonemightreceiveanoldfriend.

Throughthepreservationoftheirheads,thedeadwereabletocontinuefunctioningas

membersofthecommunity.Theheadswerepreparedsothattheformandfeaturesofthe

deceasedwerestillvisible,soitwouldhavebeenpossibleforindividualstorecognizetheir

ancestors.

Murphy 6

TheconceptofwairuacanbeusedtounderstandtraditionalMāoribeliefsaboutlife

andtheafterlife.Thewairua,usuallytranslatedas‘soul’or‘spirit,’isboundtoone

individualforlifeandisabletodetachfromthebodyforperiodsoftime,likeduring

dreams.7Althoughitleavesthebodyafterthedeathofanindividual,itisbelievedthat

humanremainsstillcontainacontinuedessenceofthedeparted.Forthisreason,ancestral

remainsareregardedwithgreatvalue.8ThefoundationofMāorisocietyisbuiltaroundthe

peoples’beliefsabouttheafterlifeandtherolethatancestorsplayintheday-to-day

activitiesoftheliving.TheauthorityoftheancestorsshapesallaspectsofMāoriculture.

Intimesofstress,theyoftencalluponthespiritsoftheirancestors,ortupuna.9Mothersin

laborormeninbattleoftenappealtothesespiritsforstrengthandassistance.Therefore,

showingrespecttoone’sancestorsisofgreatimportancetotheliving.Accordingly,

turningtheheadofanindividualintotoimokowasasignofrespect.Theheadwasviewed

asthemostsacredpartofthebodyandisseenasthesourceofallknowledgeandpower.

Theimportanceoftheheadtonotionsoftheafterlifeisexemplifiedinthefollowing

narrative:

Two brothers were [fleeing] for their lives down a hillside. A shotbrokethelegofoneofthemandhefell.Theenemywascloseathand.Alreadytheexultingcry,“Na!na!materawa!”washeard.Thewoundedmancriedtothebrother,“Donotleavemyheadaplaythingforthefoe.”Therewasnotimefordeliberation.Thebrotherdidnotdeliberate.Afew slashes with the tomahawk saved his brother’s head, and heescapedwithitinhishand,driedit,andbroughtithome.10

Thebeliefintheimportanceoftheheadalsoledtothepracticeoftamoko,ortraditional

tattooing,thatdecoratedthefacesofmanyMāori(Figure2)and,ultimately,their

preservedheads.

Murphy 7

II. TaMokoTattooing

LegendhasitthatonedaythegreatMāoriChiefMataorawasapproachedbya

groupofyoungpeoplefromRarohenga,thespiritworld.Amongthemwasabeautiful

womannamedNiwareka,thedaughterofUetonga,achiefoftheunderworld.Sheand

Mataorafellinloveandeventuallyweremarried.Oneday,followingadispute,Mataora

becameangryandmistreatedNiwareka,wholefthimandreturnedtoRarohenga.Inhis

grief,Mataorafollowedhertothehouseofherfather.Uponhisarrival,theinhabitantsof

theunderworldmockedMataoraforthedesignspaintedonhisface,astheyweresmudged

withsweatandappearedpitifulincomparisontotheirpermanentlytattooedfaces.After

beggingforhiswife’sforgiveness,Mataorawasgivenpermissiontobetattooedbyhis

father-in-lawandsubsequentlyreturnedtotheworldofthelivingwithNiwareka.11

Thisisbelievedtobetheoriginstoryoftamoko,thetraditionoffacialtattooingin

Māoriculture.Changesinoraltraditionshaveresultedinthedisseminationofseveral

versionsofthenarrative,yetthemessageconveyedremainsconsistent:tamokoservesas

aconstantreminderoftherelationshipbetweenthelivingandthedead.Itisnotjustanart

form,butaculturalheirloomandsacredritualmeanttoconnectthewearerwiththeir

ancestorsintheafterlife.Afterhewastattooed,Mataorabecameworthyofmarrying

abovehisstatus,asNiwarekawasdescendedfromthegodsoftheunderworld.His

tattooingthenservedasapermanentremindertoavoidevilactions,suchasmistreating

one’swife.12Asforthesignificanceofthesepatterns,mokowasnotjustadecorative

symbolofconnectionwithone’sdepartedtupuna,butasignofanindividual’sstatuswithin

thecontemporarycommunity.

Murphy 8

AbiographicalinterpretationofthepatternsontheheadsattheMuseumofNatural

HistoryinRouen,Franceallowsscholarsabetterunderstandingofthespecificityofthese

markings(Figure3).Themarkingsconveyinformationaboutanindividual’ssocialstatus,

occupation,andfamily.Whilemenweregivenfullfacialtattoosaswellasdecorationon

theirbacksideandlowertorso,women’sfacialtattooingwasusuallylimitedtothelipsand

chin.13WhentheMāorilaterinteractedwiththeEuropeans,thesemarkingswereusedon

officialdocumentsasakindofsignaturefortreaties,deeds,andlandgrants.14Thisis

significantnotonlyinunderstandingtherelationshipbetweensymbolism,demarcation,

andstatusintheirculture,butalsobecausetattooedmokopatternsarestilldiscernable

aftertheheadshavebeenpreserved.Thetattooedpatternsthatornamentthetoimoko

certainlycontributedtothecuriousappealofthe“other”thatattractedWesterncollectors

inthefirstplace.HoratioGordonRobley,theavidnineteenth-centurycollectorof

ethnographicartifacts,describedtheseheadsashavingalookof“lifeindeathwhichonce

seencanneverbeforgotten.”15

Whentheprocesswascomplete,aceremonywasheldinorderto“recompense”for

thebloodofthepersonthathadbeenshed.Duringthisceremony,afeastwasgivenanda

slaveorcaptivewassacrificed.16Alloftheprecautionsandritualssurroundingtheprocess

revealthedeeplyheldsignificanceoftamokoinMāoriculture.Unlikethesterile,low-risk

needletattooingwearefamiliarwithtoday,tamokowaspainful,lengthy,andposedahigh

riskofinfectionandothercomplications.Linesweremadebytappingachiselrapidlyand

preciselyinordertocarvethedesignintothefaceofthebearer.17Theprocessitselfwas

consideredtapu,orsacred,andthereforewassubjecttoanumberofstrictrules.For

example,tamokowasperformedoutofdoorsinatemporaryshelterbuiltforthisspecific

Murphy 9

purpose.18Duringthistime,thepersonbeingtattooedwasnotallowedtospeakormake

physicalcontactwithanyonenotinvolvedintheritual.Theywerefedthroughan

elaboratelycarvelfunnel,calledakorere(Figure4),duetoboththeresultingfacialswelling

andtheriskofcomingintocontactwithcontaminatedsubstances.19Forseveraldays

afterwards,recipientsofmokoweremadetoabstainfromsexandwashingoneselfwhile

theyhealed.20

Tamokotattooingwasawaytohonoranindividual.Onlynobleandrespected

membersofthetribewereallowedtoundergotheritual,sounmarkedheadscertainly

wouldnothavebeenembalmed.Inthissense,theassociationbetweentattooingand

preservationistwofold.Thetattooedpatternsareeternallyfixedontheheadsofthese

enduringobjects.Theycannotberemoved.Likewise,thenotionsofhonor,ancestral

connection,andcommunityvaluesthatconnectthesepracticescannotbeseparatedfrom

theobjectsthemselves–orcanthey?

III. EarlyContactwithEuropeans

Sealers,traders,missionaries,andotherEuropeanswhocameovertoNewZealand

inthelateeighteenthcenturydevelopedaninterestintheseheadsassouvenirsor

“curiosities,”particularlythemoredisquietingenemyheads.Toimokowerenotonlymade

fromtheheadsofancestors,butalsofromtheheadsofenemiesconqueredinbattle.While

thepreservationofancestralheadswasseenasashowofrespect,preservationofthe

headsofaconqueredenemiesservedanother,practicalfunction.Theseheadswereoften

publicallydisplayedasashowofstrengthtoneighboringtribes.Theycouldbetradedfrom

onetribetoanothertosolidifybargainsandothertribalagreements.21Itmayseem

Murphy 10

contradictorythatthesereveredobjectswereusedtoscornorinstillfearintribalenemies,

butthispracticecanbeexplainedwithadiscussionoftheMāoriconceptsoftapuand

mana.Tapu,therootoftheEnglishword“taboo,”describesaperson,object,location,or

practicethatisrestricted,orsacred.22Mana,anotherconceptcrucialtounderstandingtoi

moko,referstothepowerorspiritualauthorityofaperson.23Whenawarrioristaken

prisoner,helosesbothhismanaandtapuandhiscaptorscantreathimhoweverthey

wish.24

Thereisanimportantvisualdistinctionbetweentheheadsofenemiesandthoseof

ancestors.Themouthsofancestralheadsweresewnshutwithvegetalfibers,butthe

mouthofanenemywasleftopen(Figure5).Thelipsofanancestor’smoutharesewn

togetherinthemiddlebeforestreaming,allowingforapeaceful,lessconfrontational

appearance.Theenemyheadshaveghastlysnarlsafterpreservation,withexposedteeth,

almostasiftheheadsareforevercryingouttovoicethepowerofthewarriorthattook

theirlife.Perhapstheyalsocryoutinmourningofwhatwouldbecometheirtragic

history.

Theynolongerservedtoscareoffenemiesorestablishtreaties,butbecame

collectablesandappealedtotheWesternfascinationwiththeexoticandgrotesque.

AlthoughNewZealanddidnotbecomeanofficialBritishcolonyuntil1840,thecultural

exchangebetweentheMāoriandEuropeanpowersbeganmuchearlier.TheMāoriandthe

Europeansfirstcameintocontactin1642withaDutchexpeditionledbyAbelJanszoon

TasmanintheserviceoftheDutchEastIndiaCompany.25Tragically,cultural

misunderstandingsledtobloodshedinapatternthatwouldprovetobeprototypalof

subsequentencounterswiththeWesternworld.Bothcivilizationswerecompliantinthe

Murphy 11

commodificationoftheheads,asabrutaltradeofhumanheadsinexchangeforfirearms

wasdeveloped.

WhenTasmanandhiscrewattemptedtodockinGoldenBay,thenorthwestendof

NewZealand’sSouthIsland,thelocalNgatiTumatakokiritriberammedtheDutchshipwith

theircanoeandkilledfouroftheDutchseamen.ThispromptedtheDutchtoreferto

GoldenBayasMoordenaersBaij,orMurderer’sBay.26WhileDutchmayhaveviewedthe

attackasunprovoked,theMāorilikelyrecognizedthemasathreat:

Theincidenttookplaceinthemiddleoftheseasonalkumaragrowingseason,whichrunsbetweenOctoberandApril.TheDutchshipsmadeabeelineforwhatwasessentiallythefoodbasketofGoldenBaybeforetheywereattacked.AftertheDutchanchoredandsenttwosmallboatsinshore to explore the coastline, local people may well have seenTasman and his potentially hungry crew as a threat to their foodresources.27

Dr.IanBarberoftheUniversityofOtagonotesthatatribe’slocalgardensweremostlikely

consideredtapu,orsacred.TheMāoriprobablysawthedisrespectoftheirlandasareason

toattacktheunannouncedstrangers.

WhileTasman’striptoNewZealandwasfollowedbyBritishexpeditionsbyJohn

ByronandSamuelWallis,CaptainJamesCook’s1769voyagesolidifiedsustainedcontact

betweenNewZealandandEuropeanpowers.Thedeclaredaimofthismission,sponsored

bytheRoyalSocietyofLondon,wasnottocolonize.Instead,thevoyagersweretoobserve

themovementoftheplanetVenusinordertocalculatethedistancebetweentheearthand

thesun,andtolookforwhattheybelievedwasthe“greatsoutherncontinent.”28Despite

hisstatedobjective,CookwrotedetailedaccountsofthenaturalresourcesofNewZealand.

Theseprovedtobehelpfulinthefutureascolonialinterestsbecamemorepertinent,and

suggestthatastronomicalstudiesmaynothavebeenhisonlyaim.Duringaprevious

Murphy 12

expeditiontoTahiti,CookbefriendedaTahitianchiefandpriestnamedTupaiawhocame

alongwithhiscrewtohelptranslatetheMāorilanguage,similartohisownTahitian

language.29TupaiawasalsousefulinhelpingCookandhismenunderstandthetraditions

oftheMāori.Thisismostclearlyillustratedinfirsthandaccountsfromothermembersof

hisvoyage:

The[Māori]chiefmanonthelargestcanoemadespeeches,brandishinghisspear,andeventuallycamealongside,wherehepronouncedafewwordsandgently threwastoneagainst thesideof theship. At thissignalhismenimmediatelytookuptheirweapons,butTupaiawarnedthemthatiftheyattackedtheywouldallbekilled,andthrewTahitianclothdowntothem(whichinfluencedthemfarmorethanhisthreatshaddone).30

Unfortunately,thediplomaticTupaiawasnotpresentwhentheBritishmenfirstattempted

tocomeonshore,andtheencounteralsoturnedviolence.

TheMāorilaterdescribedtheCaptainCookas“asurlyoldfellowwhofireduponthe

natives,”31yettheyweregreatlyfondofTupaia.WhentheBritishreturnedtoNewZealand

threeyearslater,theycalledouttowelcomehim.Theyweredistresseduponlearningthat

hehaddied,andaskedifhehadbeenkilledbyCookandhismen.32AlthoughTupaia’s

deathwastheresultofcasesofscurvyandmalaria,thisspeculationisindicativeofthe

Māori’sdistrustofEuropeanexplorers.CookvisitedNewZealandagainin1773andonce

morein1777.Theofficialaccountoftheexpeditions,compiledbyJohnHawkesworth,33

wasahugesuccessandcontributedtotheinterestinPolynesiaandPolynesianartifacts

amongthegeneralpublic.Infact,thethreevolumesetwasthemostrequestediteminthe

BristolLibraryfrom1773-1784.34CookandhismenreturnedtoEnglandwithdetailed

journalsdocumentingtheirtravelsaswellasandmanyMāoritreasures,amongthempatu

(clubs),hoe(carvedpaddles)matau(fishhooks),andtwotoimoko(Figure6).35Thetravel

Murphy 13

logs,stories,andtreasurescollectedbytheseearlyexplorerscontributedtotheWestern

world’smisinformationaboutNewZealandandthereputationoftheMāoriasbloodthirsty

savages.

NaturalistSirJosephBanksjoinedCaptainCookinhisfirstvoyage.36Justoneyear

intothe1769expedition,theacquisitionofapreservedheadbyBanksmarksthefirstever

recordedtradeofatoimoko.WhileinNewZealand,Banksmanagedtopersuadeanelderly

Māorimantogivehimapreservedheadinexchangeforapairofwhitelinen

undergarments.Themanwasatfirstreluctanttoparticipateinthetrade,butBanks

convincedhimtocooperateby“enforcinghisthreats”withamusket.37Thefirstincidentof

whatwouldbecomeabloody,internationalmarketbeganwithSirJosephBanks’

underpants.Banks’threatofviolenceandinclusionofmodernweaponrybecametypicalof

theseexchanges.Thetradeofheadsbeganwithadisrespectfulandviolentconfrontation

andcontinuedtoincreaseinscaleandbrutality.

Inhistravellogs,Banksincludeddetaileddescriptionsofthefloraandfaunathathe

foundinNewZealand.Hewentontodiscusstheindigenouspeoplethathefindswiththe

samekindofdescriptive,isolatinglanguagethatheutilizestodescribetheplantand

animallife.AsaresultofhisbotanicalstudiesattheUniversityofOxford,38hewaswell

versedinthescientificadvancementsduringthisageofEnlightenment.Inthe1730s,

SwedishnaturalistCarolLinnaeausacontactofBanks,developedhisfamoussystemof

biologicalclassification.39Oftenregardedasthefatheroftaxonomy,Linnaeaus’method

focusesonclassifyingtypesbasedonobservablecharacteristics.Bankswrites,“Incolor

theyvaryalittle,somebeingbrownerthanothers,butfewarebrownerthanaSpaniarda

Murphy 14

littlesunburnd[sic]mightbesupposd[sic]tobe.”40BanksdescribestheMāoriashewould

describeanewlydiscoveredspeciesofflower.

Frombehindthissyntacticalbarrier,Banksisabletomakeobservationsaboutthe

indigenouspeopleasiftheyweresomehowlesshumanthanBanksandhisreadersbackin

England.Hewriteswithanairofsupposedgeneticsuperiority,yethisjournalsinclude

narrativesofthenativewomenbeingsexuallyexploitedbythesepowerfulforeigners.He

notes,“bothsexesweremuchmoremodestintheircarriageanddecentintheir

conversationthantheIslanders,whichourpeoplewhohadamindtoformanyconnexions

[sic]withthewomensoonfound,buttheywerenotimpregnable.”41Theideathatawoman

ofanotherracecouldnotbemadepregnantbyawhitemansurelycontributestothe

argumentthatBanksandtheothermembersofCooks’voyageviewedthemselvesas

inherentlymoreadvancedthantheMāori.

TheEuropeanshadestablishedasystemoftradewithNewZealandthatwas

generallycooperative,however,theBritishultimatelydidnotlearnenoughfromthe

violentincidentsoftheexpeditionsofTasmanandCook.In1810,thecaptainandsomeof

thecrewofTheBoydwerekilledandeatenbytheMāoriaftergoingashoreatWhangora

Harbor.42Thisact,aretaliationagainstanearlierdisrespectonthepartoftheBritish,

delayedthearrivalofmissionariesuntil1814.43Whilenotentirelysuccessfulintheir

attemptstowesternizeandconverttheMāori,theircomplextribaldivisionsandsocial

systemswerestronglyaffectedbythepresenceoftheearlymissionaries.ChiefHongiHika

visitedEnglandin1820tomeetwithKingGeorgeIV,whogavehimgiftsinrecognitionof

hiscooperationwiththeEnglishmissionaries.44WhenheleftEngland,HongiHikastopped

inSydney,Australiawherehetradedthesegiftsinexchangeforweaponsandammunition

Murphy 15

whichhebroughtbackwithhimtoNewZealand.Thepressureforresourcesandtradehad

causedtensionbetweenthecommunities,andanarmsracebetweentribesdeveloped.In

thesedifficulttimes,theMāoriclearlyfeltthatsellingpreservedheadstoacquiremuskets

wastheonlywaytoprotecttheirlandsandfamiliesfromEuropeansettlersandmembers

ofothertribes.

Thisseriesofinter-tribalwars,oftenreferredtoastheMusketWars(1807-1842),45

killedthousandsofMāoripeople.Inthemidstofthisunprecedentedcivildispute,in

Februaryof1840,theTreatyofWaitangiwassigned.Thisofficialagreementbetweenthe

BritishmonarchyandmorethanfivehundredchiefsresultedinNewZealand’sofficial

statusasaBritishcolony.46Accordingly,theMāoribecameBritishsubjects.Inthischaotic

period,thetreatyappealedtomanychiefs,astheyhopedtocontrolthesaleoftheirland

andbelievedthatforginganewrelationshipwithBritaincouldhelpalleviatethefighting

betweentribes.Unfortunately,thegovernmentoftenignoredtheprotectionsthatthe

treatyhadpromisedtotheMāori.47Insteadofcreatingunity,differencesintranslationand

interpretationofthetreatydidnothingtoalleviatethetribalconflicts,andinstead

exacerbatedissuesbetweentheMāoriandEuropeansettlers.

Thehostilityofthisperiodprovedparticularlyfatalwhenthemusketsbroughtover

bytheseEuropeantradersandcolonizersreplacedmanyoftheirtraditionalweapons.The

daysofskillfulhand-to-handcombatbetweencelebratedwarriorsweregoneandreplaced

bymodernwarfare.Theintroductionofthisnew,advancedweaponrynodoubtincreased

theviolenceoftheperiod,butaforcemuchmorepowerfulandfar-reachingthanthe

introductionofWesterntechnologycausedthecommunity’sdecimation.Instead,arrivalof

theEuropeanswassodetrimentaltoMāoribeliefsandcustomsduetothecreationofa

Murphy 16

newobscuremarketplaceforhumanremainsandtherepudiationofcentury-oldbeliefsin

thefaceofoutsidepressure.

WhentheMāorilearnedthatEuropeantraderswouldexchangegunsforheads,the

marketfortheseitemsexplodedanddemandbegantosurpasssupply.Thelong-standing

traditionsofhonor,respect,andremembrancethatsurroundtoimokoweredestroyed.As

theheads-for-gunstradebegantoescalate,manyMāoriabandonedtheircustomary

practices.Thetraffickinginheadsturnedthecreationoftheseculturalheirloomsintoa

lucrativecommercialenterprise.

IV. ChangingAttitudes

Asthecollectingofheadsbecamemorepopularlaterinthenineteenthcentury,we

seeseveralkeychangesinMāoriattitudestowardstoimokoandtamokotattooing.

Understandably,theMāorididnotwanttheirancestorstoendupinthehandsofwhite

collectorsontheothersideoftheworld.ThereareevenaccountsofMāorirecognizingthe

uniquemokopatternstattooedontheheadsoftheirfamilymembersandattackingthe

traderswhorefusedtogivethemback:

Amongst the headswhich JoeRowe [an early European trader] hadpurchasedweretwoofTaupochiefs.ThesewereseenathisstoreinKapitibytheirrelativeswhoentreatedhimtogivethemup.Helaughedatthem.Findinghehadarrangedthisexpedition,theyleftbeforehimandwenttoawaithitarrival…Whileeating,apartyofnativesjoinedcompanyandoneofthenativeswentandsatdownintheboat.Rowercalledoutto[theothertrader]toturnhimout,butknowingmoreofthenatives,Roweproceededtodosohimself,andtheMāoripromptlykilled himwith a blow to the head… Rowe’s head and that head ofanotherofthemenweresteepedanddriedintheusualwayforsale.48

Murphy 17

ThecallouslackofunderstandingonthepartoftheEuropeantradersandthe

consequentialincreaseinviolenceledtothedestructionofthissacredMāorirituals,and

ancestralremainswerenolongermadeintotoimoko.49

TheMāoricontinuedtoembalmtheheadsoftheircapturedenemies,butfora

differentpurpose.Tokeepupwithdemand,theybegantopreservetheheadsofslavesand

captivesfromothertribeswiththeintentthattheybesoldtotraders.50Whenthe

Europeanhungerforhumanremainswasnolongersatisfiedbypreservedheadsof

captivesandslaves,desperatetradersturnedtotheftandgraverobbing.51Thereareeven

storiesofheadsbeingnegotiatedandselectedwhiletheslaveswerestillalive.52Whatwas

onceameansofhonoringchiefsandotherdignifiedpersonsbecameafatereservedonly

forthepoorest,mostunluckymembersofthecommunity.

Thepreservedheadsofslaves,captives,andtheoccasionalEuropeanthatwere

producedduringthisperiodcannotbeviewedastruetoimoko.Afterall,toimokoare

definedbytheirintentandspiritualvalue.Theywereintendedtoserveaspecificpurpose

fortheircommunities.ThisdistinctionisstressedintheMāorivocabulary,asthepreferred

termforthefalsifiedheadsproducedforEuropeanconsumptionismokomokai,nottoi

moko.Likewise,themokotattooinghatcoveredthefacesoftheseslaveswascompletely

fabricatedanddevoidofmeaning.Nolongerpartofasacredceremonialprocess,the

processwasperformedrapidlyandwithoutconcernforsymbolismorquality.Insteadof

communicatingdetailsaboutthestatusofanindividual,theirroleinthecommunity,and

significanteventsintheirlife,thismokowascompletelymeaningless,merelyconstructed

bytheforgerstoappearsymbolic.

Murphy 18

Thissacredartoftamokodisappearedasaresultofthecommercializationof

preservedheads.Thepossessionofelaboratemokotattoosprovedtobedangerous,as

unlawfultraderswouldreadilykillamaninordertoturnaprofitfromhishead.53Fortheir

safety,lessandlesspeoplechosetoundergotheprocess.Thecompletedecimationofthe

Māoricultureandupheavaloftheirsocialstructureultimatelydestroyedtheprimary

purposeofmoko.IntheeyesofthenewlypowerfulEuropeancolonizers,allMāoriwere

equallyinferior.Aschiefsanddistinguishedmembersofthecommunitywerenolonger

recognizedassuch,itwasunnecessaryforthemtodisplaytheirstatusandancestry

throughtheirtattoos.54By1860,thefull-facemokotattooinghadallbutdisappeared.55

Thefullorpartialtattooingofslaves’headswasoftendonepost-mortem,soitis

oftenpossibleforanthropologiststodaytodistinguishthesefalsifiedmokomokaifromtrue

toimoko.56Figure7showstheskinoftwoheads.Intheexampleontheleft,thesmoother,

lessprominenttattooingwasdonewhilethebearerwasstillalive.Inthesecond

photograph,thedeeper,moreprecisemokowasaddedafterthedeathoftheindividual.

Eveniftheheadsoriginatedastruetoimoko,however,moreelaboratetattooswere

sometimesaddedtoanindividual’sexistingmoko,becauseheavilytattooedheadswere

moreattractivetoWesternbuyers.Inthiscase,itisimpossibletotellwhetherornotthe

preservedheadwasonceatrueMāorichieforanunluckyslave.Itisevensaidthatthe

headsofEuropeanskilledinNewZealandwereoccasionallypreserved,tattooed,andsold

backtotheirownnaïvecountrymen.57Thecreationofthisculturalenterprisecausedboth

thedeathoftheindividualsthemselvesandthedeathsthatwouldcomeasaresultofthe

musketsacquiredinthesenegotiations.

Murphy 19

V. GeneralH.G.Robley

GeneralHoratioGordonRobley’scollectionofmokomokaiservesasarevealing

exampleofthewaytheseheadsweretransformedintocommodities.Acharacterreplete

withcontradiction,GeneralRobleyfirstcameintocontactwithNewZealandasasoldierin

theBritisharmystationedinTaurangawiththe68thRegimentduringtheLandWars

(1864-1866).58InhistimeinNewZealand,heproducedmanysketchesoflifeand

documentedmanydifferentexamplesoftamokofacialtattooing.Itisalsoknownthat

RobleyhadanintimaterelationshipwithaMāoriwoman,HareteMauao,duringthistime

andfatheredasonnamedHamioraTuRopere.59Twoyearslater,RobleyleftNewZealand

andneverreturned,althoughhecontinuedtosendherchildsupportmoneyforsome

time.

RobleyinsiststhathisstintinNewZealandwasnottheoriginofwhatwould

becomehisextensivecollectionofmokomokai.TheSydneyAct,passedin1831,effectively

stoppedtheexportationofheads.60Asaresult,Robley’scollectingbeganoncehehad

alreadyreturnedtoBritain,atatimewhenmokomokaiwerefoundinmuseums,curiosity

shops,andprivatecollectionsthroughoutthecountry.Inhiswritings,Robleydescribes

purchasinghisfirsthead:

It was more than 20 years after leaving [New Zealand]… that anaccidentalchanceledtothesupremeartofcollectingandwritingabout[moko andmokomokai]. Passing one day along the Brompton Road[south west], I espied from the top of an omnibus on which I wastravelling a phrenologist re-arranging hiswindow,& in thewindowwasaMāoriheadplacedtheretosuchbaseuseasanadvertisementtothe cranium part of the human frame for the purpose of attractingattentiontohisdoctrine.61

Murphy 20

Nomatterwherehispersonalcollectionstarted,Robley’smokomokaiundoubtedly

originatedfromNewZealandwheretheywereexportedaspartofanabhorrenttrade

centeredaroundcommercialexploitationandaviolentstruggleforpower.

Robleywasdeeplyinvestedinhiscollection,yetatthesametimewascriticalofthe

tradethatresultedinitsacquisition.DavidSimmonsoftheAucklandInstituteand

MuseumnotesthatseveraloftheheadspreviouslyinRobley’scollectionshowsignsof

havingbeenexcisedfromthebodyandpreservedinamannerdissimilarfromthe

traditionalMāoripractice.Simmonsalsoobservesthatthemokodesignsonanumberof

Robley’sheadsappeartohaveoriginatedfromthemid-nineteenthcenturyintheBayof

Plentyarea,theareamostassociatedwiththefalsificationoftoimokousingtheheadsof

captivesorslaves.62Despitethis,Robleydenouncesthetrafficinheadsas“gruesome”and

“repletewithabominations.”63Hegoesontostressthatitwas“repulsiveto[Māori]

instinctsandwhichtheyonlyadoptedasadesperatemeasuretopreservetheirtribesfrom

annihilation.”64Whilehewasnotdirectlyinvolvedintheexportingofheads,hisroleasa

collectorseemstocontradicttheseharshcriticisms.

Robleydoesnotdescribetheseveredheadsthemselvesas“gruesome,”butheis

appalledbytheitistheexchangeandfalsificationoftheseheads.PerhapsRobley,theself-

describedexpertonMāoricultureand‘connoisseur’ofheads,seeshimselfasthe‘laststep’

inthedreadfulnarrativethatresultedintheheadsbeingexportedfromNewZealandinthe

firstplace.Afterall,theheadsinhiscollectionhadbeenbroughttoEnglandlongbeforehe

purchasedthem.Historicalrecordsappeartocoincidewithhisclaimsthatheneither

carriedmokomokaioutofNewZealand,norcommissionedthepreservationofanyheads.

Perhapshetrulybelievedthathispositionasacollectorofthese‘finishedproducts’was

Murphy 21

whollydissociatedfromthedesanctificationoftheseobjects.Ineithercase,hewasableto

useofthemokomokaiforhisownadvantageandenjoyment.

Inadditiontohisfascinationwiththeheads,Robleyalsoexhibitedinterestinother

aspectsofMāoriculture.Overthecourseofhislifetime,Robleywrotetwobooks,Mokoor

MāoriTattooing65andPounamu:NotesonNewZealandGreenstone.66Thefirst,Mokoor

MāoriTattooingisunusualbecauseitsdiscussionoftamokoisalmostexclusivelyaesthetic.

Aspreviouslydiscussed,tamokowasasymbolofconnectionwithone’sdepartedtupuna

andasignofanindividual’sstatuswithinthecommunity.Despitethis,Robley’stextsolely

focusesondescribingthedifferentpatternsandthemesthathefindsinthetattooing

(Figure8).Similarly,heoverlooksthevalueinMāorigreenstone,orpounamu(Figure9),

andfocusesonitsaestheticbeauty.Thestoneisconsideredtapu(sacred)totheMāoriand

isusedinceremoniesandformakingpeaceagreements.67Robley’stextdiscussesthe

etymologyofthewordpounamu,thelegendsassociatedwiththediscoveryanduseof

stone,anditsutilizationintoolsandjewelry.Hedoesnot,however,provideadiscussionof

thesymbolicmeaningotherthanwhatisstrictlynecessaryforanunderstandingofthe

object.

Robley’sintentionsarecertainlycalledintoquestioninthisdecisiontowrite

extensivelyontwosacredaspectsofMāoriculturewithoutdiscussingtheirsanctity.To

overlookthespiritualcontextthroughwhichthesetraditionstookplaceistooverlookthe

fundamentalnatureofthesepractices.Atthisjuncture,onemustquestionwhetherthe

authorfullyvaluedorevenunderstoodthesetraditions.IntheintroductiontoPounamu:

NotesonNewZealandGreenstone,hewrites,“Forsavageart,rudethoughitmaybe,and

doomedtoextinctionascivilizationadvances,hasanindividualityofitsownwhichmakes

Murphy 22

itofimportancetotheethnologistandofinteresttothestudent.”68Undoubtedly,the

descriptionofnativeartas“savage”fallsinauspiciouslyontheearsofeducatedreaders.

Moreover,hischoiceofwordssuggeststhatRobley’sinterestintheMāoristemsfroman

elitist,dissociatedpointofview;likeabirdwatcherwouldobserveanddocumentaspecies

inthreatofextinction.

MyfirstencounterwithGeneralRobleycamethroughastrikingphotographofthe

manposingwithhisextensivecollectionofmokomokai(Figure10).Inthephoto,hesits

casuallycross-leggedamonghismummifiedheads.Hisgazerefusestomeetthecamera

directly,butlooksoffintothedistance,mirroringtheinabilityofthemokomokaitomake

eyecontactwiththeviewer.Theheadsaremountedonthewalllikethatofofaprize

stag.Whatisperhapsmostvisuallystrikingisthewaythatthefloor-to-ceiling

arrangementhasleftarowofmokomokaiatdirectlythesamelevelasRobley’sownhead.

ThisupsettingjuxtapositionofthelivingandthedeadpaintsapictureofRobleyasa

perversecollectorofthemacabrewithnoconsiderationforMāoricultureorthe

individualswhoseremainshenowdisplays.

Indeed,anearlytwentieth-centurywriternotesthathedecoratedhisbedroomwall

withthemokomokaiand“whenunabletosleepatnight[he]wouldriseandcombhis

Māoris'hair,andfelthimselfsoothed.”69Althoughtheaccuracyofthisaccountis

questionable,itshedslightontothepresumptionsmadeaboutRobleybasedonhis

collecting.LateraccountshaveoffereddescriptionsofRobley’sscandaloustastefor

interiordecoration:

OnmyfirstvisittoLondonin1905IcalledonMajorGeneralRobleyand foundhim taking his ease at full length on a couch; around thesomewhat small room were displayed 38 … preserved head withtattooed faces — they were on tables, sideboards, mantle-piece —

Murphy 23

everywhere. The possessor of them was smiling proudly at thegruesomedisplay.70

Robley’seccentricbehavior,recountedinhisautobiographicalmemoirs,

undoubtedlycontributedtothepublic’sfascinationwithhischaracterandcollection.In

thesememoirs,editedandpublishedbyHoraceFildes,Robleyunabashedlydescribeshis

peculiaractionsintheauctionhouse:“[Ipurchased]aheadfromtheprivatecollectionof

thelateDr.Paterson,BridgeofAllan—assoonasitbecamemine,totheastonishmentof

thesaleroombidders,Ihongied(sic)71it,explainingtherubbingofnoseswasthecorrect

greeting.”

Robley’smemoirscontainseveralepisodesofthispublicexhibitionism.Onone

instance,hedescribesbringingoneofhisheadstoadinner.Herecalls,“Irememberwhen

SeddongaveacoldmeatbanquetattheHolborn[restaurant]andItookaheadwithme72–

manyoftheyoungmenwereastonishedatmylectureonit.”73Again,hischoiceofthe

word“astonished”isnoteworthy.Certainly,theladiesandgentlemanofnineteenth

centuryLondonweremorethan“astonished”bythisunconventional,formermilitary

officerwholivedalonewiththeremainsofmorethanthirtyhumanindividuals.The

capabilitytoshockallowsanindividualtogainasortofpower,andthesekindsofpublic

performancessuggestthatRobleyenjoyedhisinfamousreputationasacollectorof

mokomokai.

Likewise,hewasnotshytoshowoffhiscollection.Inadditiontosharinghis

collectionwithfriendsandscholars,Robley’sheadswereshownonpublicexhibition.In

1898,hismokomokaiwereshowninLondon’sGuildhall.74Theshock,notoriety,and

noveltyofthisshowturnedouttobeagreatsuccess,andwhentheexhibitionendeditwas

movedtotheLiverpoolMuseumtobeshownagain.Inthissetting,theLiverpoolDaily

Murphy 24

Postwrote,“Therearetwenty-oneheads,eachtattooedinthemostartisticmanner

possible…TheLiverpoolpublicoweMajor-GeneralRobleyadebtofgratitudeforhis

kindnessinthusenablingthemtobecomeacquaintedwiththeserelicsofbarbarianart.”75

WhentheheadslefttheLiverpoolMuseumin1900,RobleywrotetotheNew

Zealandgovernmentandofferedhiscollectionforsale.Hisletterwasignored,andwhen

hereneweditthefollowingyear,hewasdenied.Robleyofferedhismokomokaito

museums,individuals,andthegovernmentofNewZealandseveralmoretimesbeforein

1907,brokeandinfailinghealth,hesoldthirty-fiveheads.Mr.MorrisKJessuppurchased

theheadsonbehalfoftheAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistoryinNewYorkfor£1,250.76

ManyscholarshavedrawnattentiontohiscontinueddesiretoselltheheadstoNew

Zealandasacommendableefforttowardsrepatriation,insistingthatthishadalwaysbeen

hisintentioninacquiringthem.77Atthistime,Robleyhimselfwrites,“Thiswriter,whenill,

couldeasilyhaveletthecollectiongoabroad–lotsofoffersnowon[it],butIwaitabitasI

knowwhereitoughttobeformyownconscience.”78Robleycontinuedtoofferhis

mokomokaitoNewZealand,butitmaynotbeaccuratetoclaimthatrepatriationwashis

mainconcerninamassinghiscollection.Indeed,onlyoneheadfromRobley’scollection

wasreturnedtoNewZealandduringhislifetime.

Robley’swritingsfromthistimealsodocumenthisintentiontokeepthecollection

intact:

IamnotsowellasIwasand[thecollection]maypasstoexecutorsandbe scattered todealerswho [would]gladlypay. I know thepresentMāorioutlooktogettingonandnohistoricallorebutIamsureifitwasplacedtothem[thattheoptionswere]toguardthetapus(sanctity)inNew Zealand or let [the heads be] scatter[ed] [throughout theworld].”79

Here,Robley’swordsagainareatoddswithhisactions,asthirty-fiveofhismokomokai

Murphy 25

weresoldtotheAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory,whilefiveofhisfavoriteheadswere

keptinhispossessionbeforebeingofferedoncemorewithoutsuccesstodifferent

collectorsandinstitutionsinNewZealand.80Robleyexperiencedamoralconflictregarding

thefutureofhiscollectionashenearedtheendofhislife.Theseexcerptsclearlydisplay

hisattachmenttothesedetachedheadsandhishopethattheybecaredforresponsibly.

Whilebothconcernsofrepatriationandmaintainingtheintegrityofthecollectionwere

raised,financialinterestsultimatelyprevailed.

AsRobley’scollectiongrew,sodidhisnotoriety.Ithasoftenbeensaidthatnokind

ofpressisbadpress.InJulyof1894,Judy,theLondonSerio-comicJournal,publisheda

comicmockingRobley’spenchantforadvertisingformokomokaiinlocalnewspapers

(Figure11).Thecomic,entitledSoMuchforBuckingham,isareferencetothequote,“Off

withhishead!SomuchforBuckingham!”fromColleyCibber’spopularadaptationof

Shakespeare’sRichardII.81ItbeginswiththepostingofanadvertisementintheDailyPaper

inwhichColonelR(hereassumedtobeRobley)stateshisdesiretopurchasea“dried,

tattooed,NewZealandhead.”Inthetext,amanwhoaddresseshimselfasLunatic82hopes

toreplytoRobley’sadanddescribesadreaminwhichhesailstoNewZealandandmeetsa

Māorichief.WhenLunaticinquiresaboutpurchasingmokomokai,thechiefrepliesthathe

iscurrentlyoutofheads,butisexpectingashipmenttocomeinfromEngland.Atthistime,

Lunatictakesmattersintohisownhandsandcutsoffthechief’sheadtopreserveit

himself.

WhenLunaticgetsbacktoLondon,however,hisfriendinformshimthatcuttingoff

thechief’sheadwasunnecessary,astheadhadsimplycalledfora“dried,tattooed,New

Zealandhead”andhadnotspecifiedthattheheadneededtobehuman.Lunaticthen

Murphy 26

decidestodryandtattootheheadofasheephimselfinordertosellit.AlthoughRobley

ultimatelyrefusestopurchasethetattooedsheep’sheadandkickedLunatic“intospace,”

thetextsatiricallyaddresseslargerissuessuchasthemoralityandprovenanceofRobley’s

headsandtheoverallpracticeofcollectingmokomokai.Thechief’sresponsethatheis

“expectingashipment(ofmokomokai)tocomeinfromEngland”revealsjusthowdetached

thenewly-commodifiedmokomokaiwerefromtheirearlier,sacredpurposeandlandof

origin.Furthermore,thefactthatJudy,apopularsatiricalnewspaper,wouldpublishsuch

acaricatureistellingofhisreceptionamongsthiscontemporaries.Thisisespecially

significantwhenconsideringthatthiscomicwaspublishedatatimewhentraveling

exhibitionsandhuman“zoos”featuring“specimen”fromaroundtheworldwasrelatively

common.

VI. PeopleonDisplay

Inthe1820s,CaptainSamualHadlockfromMainetookhistravellingexhibitionof

indigenouspeopleontouraroundEurope,visitingLondon,Berlin,Hamburg,Prague,

Dresden,andVienna.AlthoughthemainattractionofHadlock’sshowwasanInuitcouple

andInuitartifacts,healsotravelledwithobjectsfromtheSouthPacificandaMāori

Chieftan83whohehadmetinEngland.WhentheMāorimandied,hisheadwaspreserved

likeamokomokaiandreattachedtoamodelofhisbody.Incontinuingtoshowhisremains,

Hadlockwasabletofurtherdisplayingandexploitingthechiefevenafterhisdeath.84This

exhibitionreinforcedthecommonly-heldstereotypesabouttheMāoriassavages.After

seeingtheshow,oneviewerremarked,“wedidnotevenneedtheCaptain(Hadlock)’s

Murphy 27

wordforittobeconvincedthatthismanfromNewZealand,beforehewastakenaboard,

reallyhaseatenotherpeople,becausethat’sindeedthewayhelooks.”85

Exhibitionsofthistypewerenotafleetingcraze,butcontinuedwellintothe

twentiethcentury,ofteninlargeExpositionsmeanttoshowoffthegreatwealthand

technologicalinnovationsofrespectivecountries.Intheopeningremarksofthe1924

BritishExposition,KingGeorgeVdescribedtheBritishempireasa“familyofnations.”86

FollowingtheendofWorldWarI,thegovernmentaimedtopresentawealthy,thriving

nationtobothBritishcitizensandvisitorsfromaroundtheworld.Expositionsincluded

thePalaceofIndustry,thePalaceofEngineering,thePalaceoftheArts,and“Racesin

Residence.”TheOfficialGuidefortheExpositionnotesthatthecolonialpavilions

presented“representativesoftheirlocalinhabitantsatworkinlocalconditions.”87People

wereabletoobserveotherhumansastheywouldanimals,stressing“localconditions”

similartothewaythatazoomightrecreatethenaturalhabitatofawildanimal.

Thegrowthoftheseexpositionsisintrinsicallylinkedtosentimentsofethnic

superiorityandnationalismthatcharacterizetheexpansionofthecolonialsystem.Charles

Rau,thecreatoroftheethnologicalexhibitsatthePhiladelphiaCentennialExhibitionin

1876describedthisfalsesenseofsuperiorityusingideasfromtherecentlypublished

theoriesofCharlesDarwin.Hesays,“Theextremelownessofourremoteancestorscannot

beasourceofhumiliation;onthecontrary,weshouldgloryinourhavingadvancedsofar

abovethem,andrecognizethegreattruththatprogressisthelawthatgovernsthe

developmentofmankind.”88People presented in world’s fairs and colonial exhibitions during

the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were not seen as individuals, but unnamed specimens.

Murphy 28

Indigenous cultures were presented as evolutionarily inferior, despite the fact that these

civilizations came into existence long before Western societies. Exhibited in the nude or made to

wear traditional clothing, they were presented as being somehow less intelligent or less evolved

than the Western fairgoers. While there is no record of the Māori being exhibited in this way,

Aborigines from Queensland, Australia were on exhibit at the Frankfurt Zoo in 1885.89 The

exhibition, Austral Neger, was publicized in posters with the following text:

Male and female Australian cannibals…R.A. Cunningham, Director…Thefirstandonlyobtainedcolonyofthesestrange,savage,disfiguredandmostbrutalraceeverluredfromtheremoteinteriorwilds,wheretheyindulgeinceaselesslybloodyfeudsandforays,tofeastuponeachother’s flesh… The very lowest order of mankind, and beyondconceptionmostcurioustolookupon.90

TheculturaltraditionsofindigenousAustraliansandNewZealandershavemany

resemblances,sothelanguageusedtodescribetheseAboriginesisapplicabletoa

discussionofNewZealand.HadtheMāoribeenincludedinthisexhibition,itislikelythat

theirpracticeofcannibalismwouldbecommunicatedinasimilar,unreservedly

discriminatoryway.

Theseexploitativeepisodesfurtherextendedtotheculturaltraditionsofthepeople

displayedatthesefairs.Thelargestfaireverrecordedisthe1904LouisianaPurchase

Exposition.IntheareaofthefairdedicatedtoNewZealand,visitorswereabletoobserve

examplesofnativeplantsandwildlifeaswellasavarietyofculturalartifacts,including

mokomokai.91TheFinalReportoftheLouisianaPurchaseExpositionCommission,

publishedin1906,describestheNewZealandexhibitioninthefollowingmanner:

TheMāorihas longsincepassedthesavagestateandhasshownhisabilitytoattainthehigheststagesofmoderncivilization.Thecontrastbetween the position of the Māori in 1840 and 1904 constitutes aremarkableprogressinracialdevelopment.FormerlytheMāoriwasasavage, clever and enterprising, but ferocious, cruel, and a cannibal.

Murphy 29

Todayhetillsthesoil,speaksEnglish,andsendshischildrentoschool…Contact with a highly civilized community has diverted the naturalintelligence of the Māori to useful channels, while Christianity hasdevelopedthebestinstinctsofafineraceofpeople.Inthetoday[sic]theMāoristandssidebysidewiththewhiteman,awelcomecomradeinthebuildingofanewnation.92

ThisdiscussionofracialdevelopmentreflectsaDarwinistperspective,common

throughouttheWesternworldinthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcentury.The

commission’sreportpraisestheMāorifortheir“naturalintelligence.”Althoughthismayat

firstappeartobecomplimentary,thisgeneralizationisproblematicasittypifiestheirrace

asakindof“species”thewayonemightdrawattentiontotheclevernessofaparticular

breedofdog.Moreover,thecommissioncreditsthe“progress”oftheMāoritoChristianity

andcontactwiththeWest.IntheeyesoftheLouisianaPurchaseExpositionCommission,

theWesternworldistheculturalacmetowhichallcivilizationsshouldaspire.Asaresult

oftheirassimilation,theMāoricametobeviewedas“welcomecomrades.”

Inanotherareaofthefairgrounds,theLouisianaPurchaseExpositionpresents

indigenouspeoplefromthenewlyacquiredPhilippineIslandsinanentirelydifferentlight.

Inthenearlytwomillion-dollar“FilipinoReservation”exhibit,subjectswerepresentedas

savages,headhunters,anddogeaters.93Fortheviewingpleasureofthepublic,sacred

ritualswereperformedoutofthecontextoftheircreation.Infrequentritualslikeancestral

memorials,marriages,andelectionsofchiefswererepeateddayafterday.94Thecontinued

performanceofthesesacredritualsservedtostripthemoftheirmeaningandtransform

themintoaheartlesssequenceofwell-rehearsedmotions.Thedisrespectfulexploitation

ofthesacredPhilippineritualsmeritsdiscussion,asitmirrorsthesamewaythatthe

ritualsassociatedwiththecreationofmokomokaiweredesecratedfollowingtheir

commodification.

Murphy 30

VII. WesternDisplaysofMāoriArtandArtifacts

Whethertheyweregenuinetoimokoor“manufactured”mokomokai,theseheads

movedfromNewZealandduringthisperiodofcolonizationandendedupinWestern

museumsandprivatecollections.Ascolonizingcountriesbecamemorepowerfulinthe

lateeighteenthcentury,preservedheadsandotherMāoriartifactsweredisplayedas

evidenceofthiscolonialexpansionanddominance.Theearliestcollectionsofartifacts

fromNewZealandwereshownunderthelabelof“artificialcuriousoftheSouthPacific.”95

ThewaysinwhichMāoritaonga(treasures)wereexhibitedhasvariedgreatlysincethese

earliestdisplays.

AsevidencedbythejournalsofJosephBanks,theturnofthecenturywitnesseda

keendevelopmentinaninteresttotypifythehumanrace.Assystemsofclassificationand

Darwin’slatertheoriesofevolutiongrewinpopularityinthebeginningofthenineteenth

century,institutionssuchastheBritishMuseum,theRoyalCollegeofSurgeons,the

UniversityofEdinburgh,theUniversityofOxford,andtheUniversityofCambridge

presentedhumanremainsinanattempttodemonstrateevolutionarysequences.96Under

thisscientificpretext,Māoriworkswerecollectedasexamplesofnaturalhistory,

displayedas“primitiveartifacts.”

Later,inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,Māorisocietybegantocollapse

asaresultoftheMusketWarsandthedisputesoverlandownership.Asthecivilization

facedathreatofextinction,theirartifactswereshownas“primitivecurious”ofadyingrace

heedingtoBritishprogress.97Itwasalsoatthistimethatmuseumsthemselvesbeganto

playapartinthetradeofhumanremains.Whilemuseumstodayareoftenviewedas

moralinstitutionswiththepowertoenactsocialchange,thiswascertainlynotthecasein

Murphy 31

the1870s.Inparticular,theAucklandMuseuminNewZealandplayedalargeroleinthe

exportofremainsandartifactsaroundtheworld.ThomasCheeseman,thecuratorofthe

AucklandMuseumduringthistime,wenttogreat,illicitlengthstoexpandhiscollection.

InexchangeforitemsfromNewZealand,themuseumsolicitedantiquitiesand

curiositiesfromallovertheworld.LettersexchangedbetweenCheesemanand

representativesfromtheFlorenceMuseumandtheSmithsonianInstitution,respectively,

illustratethiseffort:

DearSir,IsafelyreceivedyourletterofDecember14threlativetotheexchange of specimens. As I gathered from it that your chiefdesideratumwasaseriesofMāoricraniaIatoncesetaboutcollectinga number, and now have the pleasure of informing you that I haveshippedacasecontaining21goodskullstoouragentatSanFrancisco…ShouldyourequiremorecraniaIcaneasilyobtainthem[sic].98Dear Sir, On the part of the AucklandMuseum, I take the liberty ofwriting toyou toascertainwhether itwouldbepossible toopenanexchangeofspecimenswiththemuseumunderyourcharge…Icouldsend: … New Zealand insects …. New Zealand shells … ethnologicalspecimensrelatedtotheMāorirace–alsoaseriesoftheircraniaetc.…Weprincipallywish tohave in return specimensof SouthEuropeanmammals and birds, but we should gladly receive specimens in allbranchesofNaturalHistory.99

Afterthe1920s,thecollectingofnaturalspecimensbyEuropeaninstitutions

decreaseddramatically.Despitethis,localcollectionsinNewZealandgrewlargerwiththe

increaseinstatusofmuseumsinthecolonies.In1928alone,approximatelyfifty-five

humanremainswereaccessionedbytheAucklandMuseum.100AsNewZealand’snational

identitygrewfollowingthefirstWorldWarandtheconstructionoftheAucklandWar

Memorial(1929),bothindividualcollectorsandthepublicatlargelookedtosupportthe

developmentoftheirnewmuseumbymakingdonations,oftenintheformofhuman

remains.101

Murphy 32

Itwasn’tuntilthe1960sthatthevocabularysurroundingtaongachangedagainand

“primitivecurios”waswidelyreplacedwiththeterm“primitiveart.”102Althoughthis

timelinereflectsaclearprogressindevelopingaculturallysensitivenarrative,itisfarfrom

politicallycorrect.Thedescriptionofnon-Westernartas“primitive”iscriticizedby

contemporaryarthistoriansasitsuggestsanundeveloped,unsophisticatedquality.This

ethnocentricideologystemsfromacolonialnarrativeofsuperiority.Additionally,while

referringtotaongaas“art”ratherthan“curios”impliesthattheseobjectsarebeingviewed

withmoredignity,thistoocanbeproblematicwhenconsideringtheintentionbehindtheir

creation.

Inherarticle,TheMuseumasaWayofSeeing,SvetlanaAlpersdiscussesthe

“museumeffect,”orthetendencytoturnallobjectsintoworksofart.103Thistendencyis

unfavorableinthecaseofmanyMāoriartifacts,suchastoimoko,thatwerecreatedfor

purposesotherthanaestheticenjoyment.Alperscautionsthatinconcentratingone’s

attentiononthevisualqualitiesoftheseobjects,thedeeper,ritualmeaningandcultural

significancecanbelost.Atthesametime,notaddressingthemasworksofartmay

overlookthebeautyintheseobjectsorsuggestthemtobe“lesser”thanWesternart.While

thereisnoflawlessmodelforpresentingnon-WesternartinWesternmuseums,

cooperatingwithindigenouspeopleregardingthepresentationoftheirobjectscanbea

comprehensivesolutiontothisissue.

In1984,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArtexhibitionTeMāori:MāoriArtfromNew

ZealandCollectionstravelledthecountry,alsobeingshowninChicago,St.Louis,andSan

FranciscobeforereturningtoNewZealandexactlythreeyearslater.Theshowembodieda

desiretochangetherepresentationoftheMāoriandtheirartifactsintheworldof

Murphy 33

museums.TeMāoriwashistoricinthesensethatitwasthefirstshowinwhichtheMāori

displayedtheirnativeartinternationally.AlthoughMāoriarthadbeenexhibitedoverseas

inthepast,thiswasthefirsttimeinwhichthepeoplethemselveswereinvolvedinthe

process.104KaraPuketapu,theSecretaryforMāoriAffairsheadedtheexhibition’s

managementcommittee.Asub-committeecomposedofMāorirepresentativeswasalso

formed.Thisgroupwaschargedwithresponsibilityfordetermining“howtheMāori

peoplewouldparticipateinthisexhibitionoftheirartisticheritage,whatparttheywould

playintheopeningceremonies,andwhattheywouldconsiderasgenerallyappropriatefor

theirtaonga(treasures).”105

Themembersofthiscommitteewerenotsymbolicfigureheads,butplayedanactive

roleintheshow’sorganizationandpresentation.Theyaccompaniedtheexhibitionas

caretakers,weretrainedasguides,andtookpartinatraditionalceremonycelebratingthe

openingofTeMāori.106Thiskarakiaceremony,heldatdawn,wasusedtoinvokespiritual

guidanceandservedasaformalwelcome.SpiritualleaderscarriedtheTeMāoristone,the

life-forceoftheexhibitionintotheculturalcenterandplaceditinthesacredmeetinghouse

builtwithinthespace.107Thus,theMāoriweregivenresponsibilityovertribal

kaitiakitangi108(customarypracticesrelatingtotheauthorityandguardianshipover

taonga).Thiscontroloverthepresentationoftheircultureandartifactsrepresentsaclear

shiftfromthewaythatthemokomokaiweretakenoutoftheirsacred,ritualcontextand

exploitedinawaythatbenefittedthetraders.

ThedecisionnottoincludepreservedheadsinTeMāoriwasundoubtedlya

consciouschoiceonthepartofthoseorganizingtheexhibition.Duetothepopularityand

elementofshockvalueassociatedwiththeirpreservedheads,muchofMāoriartatthis

Murphy 34

timewasassociatedwiththeseobjects.Greatcarewasgiventotheprocessofselecting

artifactsforthishighlyanticipatedshow.HadtheMāoriwishedtodisplaytoimoko,

withoutadoubt,theywouldhavebeenincluded.Inchoosingnottoexhibittheirancestral

remains,theshowmadeapowerfulstatementabouttheownershipanduseofthese

objects.Ultimately,theyarenottobegawkedatinmuseumsettings,butrespectfully

preservedinawaythatacknowledgestheirtapu(sanctity)andmana(spiritualauthority).

TheexhibitionwasalsoinnovativeinitspresentationofMāoritaonga.Theworks

ondisplaywerepresentedaspiecesofartratherthanethnographicartifacts,astheyhad

beeninthepast.NewZealandhistorianandMāorileaderHiriniMokoMeaddescribedthis

shiftinthestatusofMāoriartsaying:

TheMetropolitanissynonymouswithinternationalart.Itisthecenteroftheworldofart.BytakingourarttoNewYork,wealtereditsstatusand changed overnight the perception of it by people at home andabroad.WebroughtMāoriartoutofthecloset,outfromobscurity,outfrom anonymity, and out of the cupboard of primitivecontextualization. In fact,we rescued and freed it from the limitingintellectualclimateofNewZealand,releasingitsoitcouldbeseenbytheworld.109

TeMāoriisregardedbyMāoriandmuseumprofessionalsalikeasasuccessstoryofcross-

culturalunderstandingandcooperation.Itisconsideredtobeemblematicofalarger

movementknownastheMāoriRenaissance.Atthiscriticalmoment,NewZealandbeganto

riditselfofitsidentityasadyingBritishcolonyandstrovetofindnewmeansofself-

representation.

VIII. MāoriRenaissance

Thelatterhalfofthetwentiethcenturysawthegrowthofasocio-cultural

movementknownastheMāoriRenaissance.Thisperiodsawatremendousincreasein

Murphy 35

Māoriliteraryandartisticachievement,languageprograms,andMāoristudiesprogramsin

universities.110Afterdecadesofexploitationandsubjugation,fortunesbegantochangefor

theMāori.Nolongerviewedasa“dyingrace,”thecommunitybegantofightforpolitical

andeconomicrightsbothwithinNewZealandandonaninternationalscale.Inthiseffort

toreasserttheiridentity,severalhighprofilemarchesanddemonstrationswereorganized.

TheMāoriLandMarchin1975,oneofthelargestandmostpublicized,wascreated

byTeRōpūMatakite(ThosewithForesight)todrawattentiontotheongoingalienationof

Māoriland.TheissuesoflandownershipthatwereexacerbatedbytheTreatyofWaitanga

in1840continuedtoplaguethecommunityuntilwellintothetwentiethcentury.Fifty

marchersleftthenorthernsettlementofTeHāpuaonSeptember14,rallyingbehindtheir

nearly80-year-oldleader,WhinaCooper.111Asthehīkoi(march)continuedthe1000-km

trektoWellington,theystoppedovernightattwenty-fivedifferentmarae(community

houses)whereCooperspokeandleddiscussionsregardingthepurposeofthemarch.

Chanting,“notonemoreacreofMāoriland,”thegroupgrewinnumberandvisibility,

gatheringsignaturesalongtheway.BythetimetheyreachedParliamenteightmonths

later,thefivethousandmarchershadgathered60,000signaturesfortheircause.112

Despitethisoverwhelmingsupportandpublicity,manypeoplefeltthatthe

governmentdidnotdoenoughtoaddresstheirgrievances.Intheyearsfollowingthe

MāoriLandMarch,severalotherprotestsregardinglandalienationwereorganized.In

1977,Takaparawhā(BastionPointreserve),wasoccupiedinprotestofthegovernment

sellingthelandoftheNgātiWhātuatribethattheybelievedhadbeenwrongfullytaken

fromthembetweenthe1850sand1880s.113Ultimately,thegovernment’soffersof

settlementinFebruaryof1978wereviewedas“toolittle,toolate,”andinAprilofthatyear

Murphy 36

theSupremeCourtruledthattheprotestorsweretrespassingbyoccupyinglandthat

belongedtotheBritishCrown.OnMay25,506daysaftertheyhadarrived,policeevicted

all218oftheoccupants.114

Incontinuingtocometogetherforacommoncause,peoplebelongingtodifferent

iwi(tribes)begantodeveloponesingularMāoriidentity.Byfindingpowerinnumbers

ratherthanisolatingthemselvesbasedontheconcernsofindividualtribes,these

movementsgrewinstrength.Recognizingtheneedforcooperation,theManaMotuhake

(self-determination)politicalpartywasformedin1980.115In1987,theMāoriLanguage

ActresultedintereoMāoribeingrecognizedasanofficiallanguageofNewZealand.116A

numberofinitiativesatthistimeresultedinanoticeableresurgenceoftheuseofthis

language.

AstheRenaissancecontinuedtogainstrengthandpeoplesearchedforwaystore-

establishtheiridentities,mokoexperiencedagreatsurgeinpopularity.Tamokotattooing

wasawayinwhichtheMāoriwereabletoestablishaconnectionwiththeirlarger

community.IninstillingfearintheMāori,Europeanheadhuntersdeprivedthemofthis

uniqueformofculturalheritage.MāoriactivistTameWairereIte,animportantfigurein

theRenaissancemovement,notes:

TheresurgenceoftamokoamongMāoriisadirectmeansofreassertingourtonorangatiratanga(absolutesovereignty).Itisindefianceofpastandpresentpoliticalagenda,laws,andregulationthatcontinuallydenyaccesstoourlands,language,customs,andbeliefs.117

ItisthissameimpulsetobringbackwhatwastakenfromtheMāorithatpromptedthe

formationofofficialprogramsofrepatriation.AsthemoralanchoroftheMāori

Renaissance,repatriationallowsforthere-attachingculturaltraditionsandvaluestothese

detachedheads.

Murphy 37

IX. RepatriationPractices

Peoplebecamemoreinformedaboutmuseumethicsandtherightsofnativepeople

astheMāoriRenaissancegrewinstrengthandvisibility.Asaresult,establishmentsin

possessionoftoimokoandotherkindsofhumanremainshavebeencriticized.In1988,

Bonham’sauctionhouseinLondonproposedthesaleofamokomokai.Theinclusionof

sacredhumanremainsatamodern,highlypublicizedauctionstirredagreatdealof

controversyintheartworld.Consequently,theheadwaswithdrawnfromsaleand

returnedtoNewZealandforburial.118

NewZealandestablishedanofficialprogramin2003forthereturnofmokomokai

andotherskeletalremains,calledkoiwitangatathroughtheirnationalmuseumTePapa

TongaweraandtheKarangaAoeteroaRepatriationUnit.119Repatriationistheprocessof

returningapersontotheirplaceoforiginorcitizenship.Inthiscase,itreferstothereturn

ofhumanremainstotheirnation,allowingthedeadtobereunitedtheirancestral

homeland.TePapa(meaning‘ourplace’)hasrepatriatedmorethantwohundredMāori

ancestralremainsfrominternationalinstitutions.Still,themuseumestimatesthatthere

aremorethansixhundredancestralremainsthathaveyettobereturnedtoNew

Zealand.120Ideally,theseheadswillbereturnedtotherelevantiwi,ortribe.

Understandably,itisoftendifficulttoestablishprovenance,particularlywhenthereare

strictlimitsregardingthescientificteststhatcanberunontheseobjects.Toimokoare

highlysacredartifacts,soremovinghairorfibersamplesisprohibited.121Donor

information,museumaccessionrecords,oralhistories,andarchaeologicalsitesareall

usefulinhelpingtoidentifytheprovenanceandtribalassociationofindividualheads.The

iwiareindividuallyresponsiblefordiscerningthemostappropriatefatefortheirancestors.

Murphy 38

Theycanchoosetokeeptheremainsinthelongtermcareofaspecial,wahitapu

(consecratedspace)builtwithininthemuseum.122Whiletheywillneverbeexhibitedon

displaytothepublic,thetoimokomaintainedinthesespaceswithinTePapaareaccessible

tobothtribesandresearchers.

Insomecases,in-groundburialisselectedasthebestoptionfortherestingplaceof

toimoko.Thisoptionisoftencontested,asirreversibledecompositionhappensrapidlyif

theenvironmentisnotcarefullycontrolledforfluctuationsintemperatureandhumidity.

MuseumtheoristElaineGuriandiscussesthisnotionofpurposefuldecompositionby

drawingattentiontothenotionthat,“allpeopledonotholdthepreservationofobjectsasa

universalgood.”123Toillustratethispoint,shedrawsacomparisontotheTibetanLamas

whocreateintricatesandpaintingsonlytodestroythem.Comingfromaculturethatvalues

theconservancyofobjectsforfuturegenerations,itmaybedifficulttounderstandwhya

groupofpeoplewouldwanttointentionallydestroytheirownirreplaceableartifacts.Yet,

ifwerecognizethatthemokomokaibelongtotheirMāoridescendants,thenwemustalso

recognizethattheyareentitledtodestroythemiftheyseefit.

Alternatively,vaultburialwithprovisionforfutureaccessisanotheroption.Inthis

case,tribescanbecomfortedthatthespiritsoftheirancestorsareatrestinarespectful,

permanentsetting.Atthesametime,thetoimokocanbepreservedinaclimate-controlled

environmentsothatfuturegenerationscanperformfurthernon-invasiveresearchif

necessary.Attitudesregardingthedisplayandcareofhumanremainshavebeensubjectto

changethroughouthistory,sothisisoftenthoughttobeareasonablealternativeto

completeburial.

Murphy 39

Issuesregardingrepatriationbecomeparticularlycomplexwhentakinginto

accountthegrotesquecommodificationandMāoricomplacencythatresultedinthe

creationoffalsifiedmokomokai.Theseheads,farfromtraditional,ancestralmokomokai

cannotbeassociatedwithaparticulariwi(tribe).Theywerenotmadetocommemorate

departedancestors,andtheirmokopatternscannotbeassociatedwithanytribeor

geographicalarea,asitwascompletelyfabricated.Thisposesanimportantquestion:if

theseheadsarewithoutprovenance,shouldtheystillberepatriated?Whilethisdelicate

issueisupfordebate,TePapaTongaweraandtheKarangaAoeteroaRepatriationUnit

believethattheyshould,astheyarethestillremainsofsomeone’sancestorsanddeserveto

betreatedwithrespectanddignity.Incaseswhereprovenancecannotbeestablished,the

headsareheldandcaredforinthewahitapubuiltwithinTePapawhileresearchcontinues

anddiscussionsareheldtodetermineapermanentrestingplace.124

X. LegislationRelatingtoRepatriation

Threemainpiecesoflegislationhavedeterminedthewaysinwhichhumanremains

arecurrentlyhandledinNewZealand.Whilebynomeansanextensiveconsiderationofall

NewZealandlawsrelatedtotoimokoandrepatriationpractices,thisbriefsummaryis

meanttodemonstratethechangesinattitudetowardssacredMāoriobjects.In

chronologicalorder,theBurialandCremationAct,theProtectedObjectsAct,andthe

HeritageNewZealandPouhereTaongaActreflectamorecomprehensiveapproachtothis

delicateissueanddisplayaneffortonthepartofthegovernmenttoaddressandrectify

pastinjustices.

Murphy 40

TheBurialandCremationActof1964regulatestheburial,cremation,and

exhumationofhumanremains.Morespecifically,theactmakesitacriminaloffenseto

“removeanybodyortheremainsofanybodyburiedinacemetery,Māoriburialground,or

otherburialgroundorplaceofburialwithoutlicenseunderthehandoftheMinister.”125

ThespecificinclusionofthereferencetotheMāorishowsaclearinterestinprotectingthe

tapu(sanctity)inherentintheirplacesofburial.Nolongerwillthegovernmentturna

blindeyetothedesecrationofMāoriburyingplacesastheyhadinthenineteenthcentury.

TheProtectedObjectsAct,passedin1975,regulatesculturalitems.Itoutlinesrules

concerningthesale,trade,andownershipoftaongatuturu(definedbytheMinistryfor

CultureandHeritageasallfinisheditemsmadeorusedbythe Māori).126WhiletheSydney

Actof1831stoppedtheexportofmokomokai,thisbroaderlawfurtherconsidersthe

sanctityofotherculturalobjects.Additionally,theexportofprotectedNewZealandobjects

andtheunlawfulimportandexportofprotectedNewZealandandforeignobjectsis

controlledbythisact.

Mostrecently,in2014,theHeritageNewZealandPouhereTaongaActwasenacted.

HeritageNewZealand,the“statutoryauthorityandleadagencyforthepromotion,

identification,protection,preservation,andconservationofthehistoricalandcultural

heritageofNewZealand,”127isresponsiblefortheadministrationofthelegislation.The

HeritageNewZealandPouhereTaongaAct(HNZPTA)workslargelytoprotectandidentify

archaeologicalsites.TheHNZPTAdefinesanarchaeologicalsiteas:

anyplaceinNewZealand,includinganybuildingorstructure(orpartofabuildingorstructure),that–i)wasassociatedwithhumanactivitythatoccurredbefore1900oristhe site of awreck of any vesselwhere thatwreck occurred before1900;and

Murphy 41

ii) providesormayprovide, through investigationby archaeological methods,evidencerelatingtothehistoryofNewZealand.128

Inprovidingthisbroaddefinition,thegovernmentfurtherdisplayedtheircommitmentto

preservingtheirheritage.Moreover,theprocessofrepatriationallowstheMāoritotake

ownershipandresponsibilityfortheirownculturalheritage.

XI. Conclusion:CeremonialRepatriation

Whenhumanremainsarereturnedhome,arepatriationceremonyisperformed.In

thisceremony,theMāorilamentthestrugglesoftheirancestorsandreciteancient

incantationstoclearaspiritualpathwayforthemtoreturnhome.Theorderofeventsand

otherdetailsoftheceremonydifferbetweendifferentiwi(tribes).Still,acloserlookatone

specificceremony,inWellington,NewZealandin2007,willofferfurtherinsightintothe

practice.

In1893,atthebeginningoftheWorld’sFair,theFieldMuseuminChicago

purchasedacollectionofmokomokaifromaNewYorkcollector.129Afterbeingheldatthe

museumfor114years,theheadswerefinallybroughthomeinwhatwasthefirst

repatriationofMāoriremainsfromamainlandmuseumintheUnitedStates.130While

Westernmuseumsarenotalwaysinvolvedinrepatriationceremonies,adelegationfrom

theFieldMuseumcametoWellingtontotakepartintheprocess.Atthestartofthe

ceremony,womencalledouttotheremains,carriedintothemuseumincratesdrapedwith

colorfulcloth.Next,atroupeofbare-chestedMāoriwarriorstraditionallyenacteda

challengetowardtheforeignpartytoensurethattheycameinpeace.131

Whatisperhapsthemostmovingpartoftheceremonyistheexchangeofan

importantMāorigreeting,calledhongi(Figure12).132Thehongi,duringwhichtwopeople

Murphy 42

pressnosesandshakehands,symbolizesthebreathoflife.Asthebreathofthetwopeople

mixes,itisseenasashowofunity.Inthiscase,thegreetingbetweenrepresentativefrom

theFieldMuseumandTePapacanbeseentohaveanevendeepermeaning.Itisnot

simplythesymbolictransferofthebreathoflife,butasymbolofforgivenessandthefirst

stepinhealingaftergenerationsofpainanddisrespect.Tothisdate,morethanforty

museumsworldwidehavecooperatedwithrepatriationprogramscreatedbytheMāori.133

Iftheseheadscouldtalk,theywouldtellstoriesofcolonization,domination,andviolence.

Throughrepatriation,theseheadscanalsotellastoryofcooperationandrespectthat

defiesgeographicaldistanceandculturaldifferences.

_____________________________________________________________

1PhilippeCharlieretal.,"MāoriHeads(mokomokai):TheUsefulnessofaCompleteForensicAnalysisProcedure."ForensicScience,Medicine,andPathology10.3(2014):371-379.2Differentsourceshaveusedavarietyofnamesfortheseheads,butIhavechosentorefertothemastoimoko,thetermusedbytheMinistryforCultureandHeritageandtheTePapaTongaweraMuseum.Thisdecisionandotherpossibleterminologywillbediscussedatgreaterlengthinthefollowingpages.3HoratioGordonRobley,Moko;orMāoriTattooing,(Southernreprints,1987),146.4Davidson1984,quotedinKoiwiTangataHumanRemains.Vol.8.(HeritageNewZealandPouhereTaonga,2014),11.5Ibid,11.6SteveGilbert,TattooHistory:ASourceBook:AnAnthologyofHistoricalRecordsofTattooingthroughouttheWorld.(NewYork:JunoBooks,2000).7HiriniMokoMead,TikangaMāori:LivingbyMāoriValues(Wellington,NZ:HuiaPublishers,2003),54.8Oppenheim,MāoriDeathandCustoms(Reed,Wellington:1973):16,quotedinBrianHole."PlaythingsfortheFoe:TheRepatriationofHumanRemainsinNewZealand."PublicArchaeology6.1(2007),6.9JohnC.Moorfield,“Tupuna,”TeAkaOnlineMāoriDictionary,TeWhanake.2016.10Maning,OldNewZealand,1845,quotedinHoratioGordonRobley,Moko;orMāoriTattooing,(Southernreprints,1987).11“OceanicMythology:MāoriMythology."Mythology:Myths,Legends&Fantasies.ed.JanetParkerandJulieStanton.(CapeTown,SouthAfrica:Struik,2006),402-22.12Gell1993,225,quotedinChristinaPalmerandMervynTano,Mokomokai:CommercializationandDesacrilization(Denver:InternationalInstituteforIndigenousResourceManagement,2004).13MichaelKingandMartiFriedlander.Moko:MāoriTatooinginthe20thCentury.(Auckland,N.Z.:DavidBateman,1992).14Robley1998,11,quotedinPalmerandTano,Mokomokai15HoratioGordonRobley,quotedinChristinaThompson,"SmokedHeads."SalmagundiNo.152(2006):56-70.JSTOR.

Murphy 43

16PalmerandTano,Mokomokai17KingandFriedlander,Moko:MāoriTattooing.18Best,1934,223,quotedinPalmerandTano,Mokomokai.19Starzecka1996,40,quotedinPalmerandTano,Mokomokai.20Blackburn1999,13,15,quotedinPalmerandTano,Mokomokai.21Robley,1896,quotedinNewell,‘HumanRemainsfromNewZealand:BriefingnoteforTrustees.’22JohnC.Moorfield,“Tapu,”TeAkaOnlineMāoriDictionary,TeWhanake.Web.2016.23Ibid,“Mana.”24Oppenheim,MāoriDeathandCustoms,16,quotedinHole,"PlaythingsfortheFoe,”6.25TonyBallantyne,WebsofEmpire:LocatingNewZealand'sColonialpast.(Wellington,N.Z.:BridgetWilliams,2012),144.26JohnWilson,'EuropeandiscoveryofNewZealand:AbelTasman',TeAra,TheEncyclopediaofNewZealand,lastmodifiedDecember9,2015.27IanBarber,"LostinTransition;NewResearchintoIconic,First-contactViolencebetweenEuropeansandIndigenousNewZealanders."(lectureatUniversityofOtago’sWinterLectureSeries.RoyalSocietyofNZScienceHouseLectureTheatre,Thorndon,Wellington.22Sept.2010).28MerataKawharu,"Cook,TupaiaandMāori."BBC.BBC,17Feb.2011,accessed23Jan.2016.29JamesCook,ANewAuthenticCollectionofCaptainCook'sVoyagesroundtheWorld...WrittenbySeveralPrincipalOfficers,andOtherGentlemen,WhoSailedintheVariousShips.(MountPleasant:R.Martin,1790).30AnneSalmond,BetweenWorlds:EarlyExchangebetweenMāoriandEuropeans1773-1815(Viking,Auckland1997),68.31Ibid,23.32Ibid,22.33JohnHawkesworth,1715?-1773,ed.:AnAccountoftheVoyagesUndertakenbytheOrderofHisPresentMajesty…(London:PrintedforW.StrahanandT.Cadell,1773).34PaulKaufmann.BorrowingsoftheBristolLibrary,1773-1784.(Charlottesville:Biblio-graphicalSocietyoftheUniversityofVirginia,1960).35PaoraTapsell.'Māoriandmuseums–ngāwharetaonga-MāoritreasuresandEuropeanmuseums',TeAra-theEncyclopediaofNewZealand,lastmodifiedOctober30,201436JohnHawkesworth,1715?-1773,ed.:AnAccountoftheVoyages.37FrancesLarson,Severed:AHistoryofHeadsLostandHeadsFound(NewYork:LiverightCorporation,2014).38PatrickO’Brian,"Education."JosephBanks:ALife.(Chicago:UofChicago,1997)17-30.39Ibid,148.40JosephBanks.TheEndeavorJournalofJosephBanks.Ed.JohnCawteBeagelhole.Vol.2.(Australia:AngusandRobertsonLimited,1962):11.41Ibid,13.42"AFrontierofChaos?TheBoydIncident."NewZealandHistory.TheGovernmentofNewZealand,11Mar.2014,accessed15Jan.2016.43Ibid.44OrmondWilson,FromHongiHikatoHoneHeke:AQuarterCenturyofUpheaval.(Dunedin:J.McIndoe,1985).45JulieEvans.EqualSubjects,UnequalRights:IndigenousPeoplesinBritishSettlerColonies,1830-1910.(Manchester,UK:ManchesterUP,2003).46ClaudiaOrange,'TreatyofWaitangi',TeAra-theEncyclopediaofNewZealand,lastmodified7December2015.47Ibid.48HoratioGordonRobley,Moko;orMāoriTattooing,(Southernreprints,1987),178.49JennyNewellandJonathanKing,‘HumanRemainsfromNewZealand:BriefingnoteforTrustees’,(TheBritishMuseum,2006),30.50HoratioGordonRobley,Moko;orMāoriTattooing,169.51Hole,"PlaythingsfortheFoe,”6.52HoratioGordonRobley,Moko;orMāoriTattooing.53PalmerandTano,Mokomokai,6.54Ibid,6-7.55Ibid,7.

Murphy 44

56Charlieretal.,"MāoriHeads,”371-379.57Larson,Severed.58TimWalker,Robley:TeRopere,1840-1930,(Auckland:UofAuckland,1985).59Ibid.60JenniferWagele,MāoriArtinAmerica:TheDisplayandCollectionHistoryofMāoriArtintheUnitedStates1902-2006.Diss.(CityUofNewYork,2007),134.61RobleyVUW1507/2,quotedinWalker,Robley:TeRopere,49.62PersonalcommunicationwithDavidSimmons;1984–85,quotedinquotedinWalker,Robley:TeRopere,48.63Robley,Moko;orMāoriTattooing.64Ibid.65Ibid.66HoratioGordonRobley,Pounamu:NotesonNewZealandGreenstone.(London:TJSGuilford,1915).67JohnPatterson,ExploringMāoriValues.(PalmerstonNorth,N.Z.:Dunmore,1992),63.68Robley,Pounamu,vii.69E.G.Allingham,ARomanceoftheRostrum,BeingtheBusinessLifeofHenryStevensTogetherwithSomeAccountofFamousSales(1924)204-205,quotedinWellcomeLibraryrecordno.664088i.70T.E.Donne,AlexanderTurnbullLibrary,quotedinWalker,Robley:TeRopere,53.71Thehongi,atraditionalMāorigreetingwillbediscussedatgreaterlengthinconversationwithMāorirepatriationpractices.72Robleyisnottheonlyonetohavebroughthisseveredheadtoabanquet,asJosiahWilkinsonwasrecordedasbringingtheheadofOliverCromwellwithhimtobreakfastpartiesinthe1820s.ItisindeedpossiblethatRobley’sactionswereinspiredbythepreviousshowmanshipofWilkinson.Interestinglyenough,JosephBanks,thefirstEuropeanrecordedtohaveacquiredamokomokai,wasaskedtoviewtheheadin1813butrefused(Larson,2014).73Robley-Taine:1921T.E.R.HodgsonCollection,Wellington,quotedinWalker,Robley:TeRopere,53.74Walker,Robley:TeRopere,56.75LiverpoolDailyPost14/122/1898quotedinIbid.76TimWalker,Robley,59.77Ibid.78Robley1898,quotedinIbid58.79Ibid,5880Ibid,61.81ColleyCibber:TheTragicalHistoryofRichardIII.,alteredfromShakespeare,fromE.Cobham,Brewer’sPhraseandFable,accessedviabartelby.comsearch:“OffwithhisHead!SomuchforBuckingham”,Feb.072016.82Thelarge-noseddandyLunatic,oftenreferredtoas“Judy’sLunaticContributor,”wasareoccurringcharacterinJudy,theLondonSerio-ComicJournal.83ItisunclearwhetherornotthisparticularindividualhadthestatusofachieforwasonlyreferredtoassuchbyCamptainHadlocktobolsterthestatusofhisexhibition.84RaymondCorbey.“EthnographicShowcases1870-1930.”CulturalAnthropology8.3(1993),352.85StefanGoldmann,WildeinEuropa(Reinbek,Rowohlt:1985):256,quotedinIbid.86“Wembley:AnHistoricCeremony.”TheTimes24April1924:13.Microfilm,quotedinAnneClendinning,“OnTheBritishEmpireExhibition,1924-25.”87Lawrence,G.C.ed.OfficialGuidetotheBritishEmpireExhibitionLondon:Fleetway,(1924),126quotedinClendinning,“OnTheBritishEmpire”88RobertRydell,AlltheWorld’saFair(UofChicagoPress,1984),24.89Corbey,“EthnographicShowcases,”347.90Plakate1880-1914,quotedinIbid.348.91JenniferWagelie,“MāoriArtinAmerica:TheDisplayandCollectionHistoryofMāoriArtintheUnitedStates1902-2006,”Diss.(CityUofNewYork,2007),88.92TheLouisianaPurchaseExpositionCommission.FinalReportoftheLouisianaPurchaseExpositionCommission,1906(Washington:Govt.PrintOff.,1906):227.93MichelleSit,"ThePilipino'exhibit'atthe1904St.LouisWord'sFair,Missouri."SantaCruzReport2(2008):2MAIReview,accessedFebruary23,2016.94Ibid.

Murphy 45

95PaoraTapsell.“Māoriandmuseums”96PaulTapsell,“OutofSightOutofMind:HumanRemainsattheAucklandMuseum”LookingRealityintheEye:MuseumsandSocialResponsibilityed.RobertR.Janes,GeraldT.Conaty,MuseumsAssociationofSaskatchewan,UofCambridgepress,2005):15797Ibid,157.98Letterextract:CheesemantoProf.JosephHenry,Smithsonian,30April1878,quotedinIbid,159.99Letterextract:CheesemantoGiglioli,FlorenceMuseum,19September1877,quotedinIbid158-9.100Ibid.101Ibid.102PaoraTapsell.“Māoriandmuseums–NgāWhareTaonga”103SvetlanaAlpers,"TheMuseumasaWayofSeeing."ExhibitingCultures:ThePoeticsandPoliticsofMuseumDisplay.Washington:Smithsonian,1991.25-32.104'TeMāoriexhibitionopensinNewYork',(MinistryforCultureandHeritage),lastmodifiedJune8,2015,nzhistry.net105Ibid.106Ibid.107Ibid.108DavidButts,‘MāoriandMuseums:ThePoliticsofIndigenousRecognition.’Unpublishedpaper,2001.quotedin"TeMāoriExhibition."TaiAwatea/KnowledgeNet.TePapaTongawera,accessedMarch12016.109HiriniMokoMead,MagnificentTeMāori:TeMāoriWhakahirahira,(Auckland,Heinemann:1986).110LawrenceGrossberg,andJaniceRadway,eds.CulturalStudies.Journal.UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana,DukeUniversity;London:Routledge.(vol.9.1,1994).111“WhinaCooperLeadsLandMarchtoParliament,”MinistryforCultureandHeritage,lastmodified17September2015,nzhistory.net112Ibid.1113“OccupationofBastionPointbegins”MinistryforCultureandHeritage,lastmodifiedMarch12016,nzhistory.net114Ibid.115AnnSullivan,'Tōrangapū–Māoriandpoliticalparties',TeAra-theEncyclopediaofNewZealand,lastmodifiedSeptember25,2013.116“Māoribecomesofficiallanguage,”MinistryforCultureandHeritage,lastmodified18June2015,nzhistory.net117PalmerandTano,Mokomokai.118DorotaStarzecka,formerAssistantKeeper,Oceania,1992,quotedin“BriefingNoticeforTrustees.”119MuseumofNewZealandTePapaTongarewaAct1992,1992N.Z.Stat.No.19,9.120“TheKarangaAotearoaRepatriationProgram,”MuseumofNewZealandTePapaTongawarea,accessedFebruary2,2016,tepapagovt.nz.121Charlieretal.,"MāoriHeads,”371-379.122“TheKarangaAotearoaRepatriationProgram,”MuseumofNewZealandTePapaTongawarea.123ElaineGurian,“WhatistheObjectofthisExercise?”America’sMuseums128.3(1999):45124“TheKarangaAotearoaRepatriationProgram,”MuseumofNewZealandTePapaTongawarea.125Section51and55oftheBurialandCremationAct1964,quotedinKoiwiTangataHumanRemains.Vol.8.(HeritageNewZealandPouhereTaonga,2014):6.126KoiwiTangataHumanRemains,6127Ibid,8.128Ibid,6.129“WellingtonRepatriation2007”Onlinevideo.PacificAnthropologyattheFieldMuseum.Originallyairedon“TheWorld.”BBC,PRI,andWGHBBoston,7September2007.Web.March27,2016.130Ibid.131RayLilley,"U.S.MuseumReturnsTattooedMāoriHead,BonestoNewZealand."WellingtonAssociatedPress,11Sept.2007,accessedMarch312016,nbcnews.com.132MarkDerby,“MāorimannersandsocialBehaviour–ngāmahitika-Welcomeandhospitality,”TeAra-theEncyclopediaofNewZealand,lastmodifiedDecember13,2013.133“RepatriationofHistoricHumanRemains,”LibraryofCongress,TheLawLibraryofCongress,lastmodifiedSeptember06,2015.

Murphy 46

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Murphy 49

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Murphy 51

(Figure1)ImagetakenfromHoratioGordonRobley’sMoko;or,MāoriTattooing,231.

(Figure2)GeorgeSteinmertz,TraditionalMokoofMāoriActivistTameIti,1995.

Murphy 52

(Figure3)BiographicalInterpretationofthetamokoonthemokomokaiattheMuseumofNaturalHistory,Rouen(accordingtoMarkKopua),takenfromCharlier,etal."MāoriHeads,”7.

(Figure4)UnknownMāoricarver,Korere(feedingfunnel),1700-1850,Northland,TePapaTongaweraMuseum,imagefromtepapa.govt.nz.

Murphy 53

(Figure5)Detailsfrom“MajorGeneralHoratioGordonRobleywithhisCollectionofTattooedMāoriHeads,”1895.

(Figure6)Graphic(London,England).ArtistUnknown:RelicsofCaptainCook,collectedbyhimduringthevoyageofthe"Endeavour"andrecentlyacquiredbytheNewSouthWalesGovernment.TheGraphic,October1,1887,[page]356.Ref:A-433-012.AlexanderTurnbullLibrary,Wellington,NewZealand.

Murphy 54

(Figure7)“Ante-mortem(left)andpost-mortem(right)tattoos[mokomokaifromtheNaturalHistory,RouenandtheNationalMuseumofNaturalHistory(A),Paris,Respectively,”imagetakenfromCharlier,etal“MāoriHeads,”2.

(Figure8)HoratioGordonRobley,“FromlifebytheAuthor,showinggoodmarking,”ImagetakenfromHoratioGordonRobley’sMoko;or,MāoriTattooing,50.

Murphy 55

(Figure9)Hei-tikifiguremadeofpounamu,NewZealand,c.1810,PowerhouseMuseum,Web.Feb142016.

(Figure10)Stevens,Henry.MajorGeneralHoratioGordonRobleywithHisCollectionofTattooedMāoriHeads.1895.WellcomeLibrary,London.

Murphy 56

(Figure11)Judy,theLondonSerio-comicJournal,July18,1894.HathiTrust.Web.Feb2,2016.

(Figure12)FransLemmens,GettyImages,NationalGeographicTraveler,Web.23Feb2016.