work in progress for public discussion d ec ci q...

ENVIRONMENTALLY AND SOCIALLYSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Work in progress

for public discussion D ec CI q 8

Nlainstreaming Genderand Developmentin the World BankPrYogess ,.( Rcr omol/l/W//(1///S

|1 1111d

(iu '(}/, '_j/ 1o,yhr

C '((1/~~~~r

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized


Social Development

Mainstreaming Genderand Developmentin the World Bank

Progress and Recommendations

Caroline 0. N. MoserAnnika TornqvistBernice van Bronkhorst

The World BankWashington, D.C.

Copyright C 1999The International Bank for Reconstructionand Development/THE WORLD BANK1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

All rights reservedManufactured in the United States of AmericaFirst printing December 1998

This report has been prepared by the staff of the World Bank. The judgments expressed do notnecessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors or of the governments they represent.

Cover photo: Brian Moser/Hutchison Library, London. In the rural altiplano of Bolivia a traditionalgender-specific division of labor is essential to cultivate potatoes.

Caroline 0. N. Moser is lead specialist in Social Development, and Annika Tornqvist and Bernice vanBronkhorst are social development consultants, in the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Develop-ment network in the Latin America and Caribbean region of the World Bank.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Moser, Caroline 0. N.Mainstreaming gender and development in the World Bank: progress

and recommendations / Caroline 0. N. Moser, Annika Tomqvist, Bernicevan Bronkhorst.

p. cm. - (Environmentally and socially sustainabledevelopment. Social development)

Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 0-8213-4262-21. Women in development. 2. Women in development-Developing

countries. I. Tomqvist, Annika, 1962- . II. Bronkhorst,Bernice van, 1969- . III. Title. IV. Series : Environmentally andsocially sustainable development series. Social development.HQ1240.M67 1998305.42-dc2l 98-39050

CIP

,9 The text and the cover are printed on recycled paper, with a flood aqueous coating on the cover.

Contents

Preface v

Acknowledgments vii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1Review Objectives and Background 1Methodology 2Notes 4

Chapter 2 Searching for a Common, Bankwide Gender Rationaleand Language: Review Findings 5

Finding 1: World Bank Gender Policy 5Finding 2: World Bank Country Gender Studies, Strategies, and Regional Gender

Action Plans 8Finding 3: World Bank Staff Consultations 9Finding 4: The Global Agenda on Gender: Equality and Sustainable Development 10Finding 5: World Bank Socially Related Action Plans 11Note 14

Chapter 3 Mainstreaming Gender and Development in the World Bank:Recommendations 15

Recommendation 1: Define a Rationale and Framework for Genderand Development 15

Recommendation 2: Ensure Consensus in Gender Analysis 16Recommendation 3: Agree on Common Concepts and Language 18Recommendation 4: Define the Components of a Gender Analysis 18Recommendation 5: Apply Gender Analysis in Other Networks 20Concluding Comment 20Note 20

iii

iv Mainstreaming Gender and Development in the World Bank

Appendixes 211 World Bank Gender Policy and Beijing Documents 21

1.1 World Bank Gender Policy Documents 211.2 World Bank Beijing Documents 22

2 World Bank OED Documents, Country Studies, and Strategies 232.1 World Bank OED Documents 232.2 World Bank Country Studies 242.3 World Bank Country Strategies 26

3 World Bank Regional Action Plans 273.1 World Bank Regional Gender Action Plans 273.2 Social Development Task Group Report 30

4 Bilateral and Multilateral Donor Policies 314.1 Bilateral Donor Policies 314.2 Multilateral Policies 33

5 Steps for Conducting a Gender Diagnosis 35

References 36

Boxes1.1 Brief definitions of basic gender and development concepts 31.2 Organizing concepts to assess gender and development rationale, language,

and policy approach 32.1 WID or GAD? 62.2 WID/GAD policy approaches, 1970-90 72.3 Consultations on rationale and language for gender and social development 102.4 Current GAD rationales in selected international agencies 122.5 Mainstreaming gender into participation and social development action plans 133.1 Defining a rationale and framework for GAD: The "Moser Methodology"

of gender planning 163.2 Diversity in current definitions of gender analysis 173.3 Definitions: Gender roles, needs, interests, and approaches 183.4 Potential components of a gender analysis 19

Preface

The creation of the World Bank's Social De-M , ' ore than three decades have passed velopment (SDV) Family in 1997 provided thesince the issue of women's role in opportunity for a Bankwide review of existingdevelopment was first placed gender and development rationale, language,

squarely on the international agenda at the 1975 and operational procedures from a social devel-First World Conference on Women, held in opment perspective, which could, in turn, con-Mexico City. Since then numerous fundamen- tribute toward mainstreaming gender andtal changes have been introduced by social development into the Bank's lending andpolicymakers and practitioners working on is- nonlending operations at the policy, program,sues related to low-income women in devel- and project level.oping countries. Two issues stand out as The review focused on a number of types ofparticularly noteworthy: the shift in focus from World Bank materials, including gender-fo-women in development (WID) to gender and cused documents (such as gender policies,development (GAD) and the widespread ef- country gender studies, and gender actionforts made to mainstream gender and devel- plans) and non-gender-specific documentsopment into operational practice in a wide (such as social development and participationrange of government, nongovernmental, bilat- action plans). It also included a brief review oferal, and multilateral institutions. the gender policy documents of a number of

The World Bank is no exception. Over the bilateral and multilateral development institu-years different regions, departments, and di- tions. In addition consultations were held withvisions have sought to develop new policies, staff both inside and outside the World Bank.approaches, and tools for mainstreaming gen- The review also examined the extent to whichder into the World Bank's operational work. social assessments, as the most important BankDespite these efforts the Bank still lacks a com- procedures related to social development, hadmon, institution-wide rationale, common Ian- mainstreamed gender to provide guidelines toguage, and clearly defined policy approach to assist task managers. Other Bankwide proce-gender and development. Increasingly, coun- dures, such as poverty and environmental as-try clients and operational staff have expressed sessments, remain to be reviewed.confusion regarding appropriate language, pro- Consultations with the Bank's Gender andcedures, and tools to be used in their day-to- Social Development Thematic Team during theday work.

v

vi Mainstreaming Gender and Development in the World Bank

course of the review led to the conclusion that mately, a considerable amount of work remainsthe findings could be of relevance to all Bank to create a Bankwide consensus on an issue asstaff concerned with the operational main- complex as gender. Nevertheless, a stock-tak-streaming of gender and development. Conse- ing review of this sort is intended to contrib-quently, the document was expanded to be of ute to the ongoing debate on mainstreamingrelevance throughout the Bank. gender in development in the World Bank;

The findings and recommendations in this hopefully it will assist in reaching final conclu-volume cannot provide all the answers; ulti- sions on this important process.

Caroline 0. N. Moser

Acknowledgments

T his volume is based on a review and bean Section, UNIFEM; Rosina Wiltshire,consultation process carried out between deputy director, Social Development andFebruary and July of 1997 by Caroline Poverty Elimination Division/Bureau for

0. N. Moser, in collaboration with consultants Policy and Programme Support (BBPS), UnitedAnnika Tornqvist and Bernice van Bronkhorst, Nations Development Programme(UNDP);for the Social Development Family of the En- Sarah Murrison, programme officer, Socialvironmentally and Socially Sustainable Devel- Development and Poverty Elimination Divi-opment Network of the World Bank, under the sion/BBPS, UNDP; and Stephanie Urdang,direction of Gloria Davis. consultant.

A number of people assisted the authors in Useful documentation was received fromthis work; their contributions are gratefully ac- gender specialists of the Canadian Internationalknowledged. The World Bank's Gender and Development Agency, Swedish InternationalSocial Development Thematic Team provided Development Agency, Danish Internationaladvice and consultation throughout the writ- Development Cooperation, Netherlands Devel-ing and review process. Members of the team opment Cooperation, and the British Depart-include Lynn Bennett, Mark Blackden, Maria ment of International Development. SupportCorreia, Christine Jones, Veena Mayani, Josette for consultants was provided by both the Neth-Murphy, Michael Bamberger, Monica Fong, erlands and Swedish World Bank ConsultantWendy Wakeman, Najma Siddiqi, and Sonomi Trust Funds.Tanaka. World Bank NGO liaison officers pro- This document was presented to the Gen-vided useful feedback during a session held at der Board in February 1998; final Social Devel-the World Bank NGO Specialist Learning Fo- opment Family reviews and clearances for therum in May 1997. ESSD Series/Social Development Subseries

Gender specialists outside the World Bank were provided by Lynn Bennett and Ceciliaprovided important alternative institutional Valdivieso of the World Bank.perspectives on mainstreaming gender into The authors also wish to acknowledge thetheir organizations. These included Misrak editorial contributions of Alison Raphael, andElias, chief, Gender and Development publishing coordination by Bonnie Bradford,Programme Section, UNICEF; Ana Maria Alicia Hetzner, and Virginia Hitchcock.Brasileiro, chief, Latin America and the Carib- Gaudencio Dizon desktopped the volume.

vii

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

T his report presents the main findings of sustainable interventions. It requires agreementa recently completed desk study under- on a common rationale, or justification, for thetaken for the Social Development Fam- importance of the issue-whether it arises in a

ily of the World Bank's Environmentally and short mission statement, a 'business case,' or aSocially Sustainable Development (ESSD) Net- lengthy policy statement. The consensus mustwork. The primary objectives of the review are also include acceptance of a common languageto: (a) identify the current rationale, language, and an understanding of the policy approach(es),and underlying policy approach to Gender and or goals, underlying associated interventions.Development (GAD) adopted by the World Among the new issues that have arisen re-Bank; (b) evaluate the extent to which these cently are the environment and the redefinitionare shared across the institution; and (c) make of poverty associated with the 1990 World Devel-recommendations concerning future steps to- opment Report on poverty (World Bank 1990b),ward mainstreaming gender in the World 1991 Poverty Strategy, and the Poverty ReductionBank. Although the origins of the review re- Handbook (World Bank 1993a). Another such is-late to needs specifically identified by ESSD, sue is gender; 20 years of work in this area hasthe issues raised go beyond social develop- placed it firmly on the World Bank's develop-ment, and are relevant to all Bank staff con- ment agenda (Murphy 1995; 1997). Reflectingcerned with mainstreaming gender and changingapproachesindevelopmentthinking,development into World Bank lending and first Women and Development and then Gen-nonlending operations at the policy, program, der and Development have been institutional-and project level. ized in the Poverty Reduction and Economic

Management (PREM) Network's Gender Unit;Review Objectives and Background in regional gender units/focal points; and, most

recently, in the Social Development Family. TheAs new substantive or sector-level concerns 1994 policy paper, regional gender action plans,arise (or reappear) on the development agenda, and numerous sector-level interventions allagencies such as the World Bank, governments, represent important initiatives designed toacademics, and nongovernmental organiza- operationalize gender concerns.tions (NGOs) all seek to reach institutional con- While World Bank task managers know thatsensus concerning definitions and usage. This gender matters, they are less clear on two im-is essential to ensure consistently effective and portant questions:

1

2 Mainstreaming Gender and Development in the World Bank

1. Does the World Bank have a common sis, stakeholder analysis, and social assess-rationale, language, and policy approach on ments." (CODE 1997)gender?

Poverty-focused task managers across the MethodologyBank share a common rationale on poverty re-duction that links labor-intensive growth, hu- This study is based on an extensive documentman capital, and safety nets. Is it not possible review and consultation process. Four sets offor task managers mainstreaming gender con- documents were reviewed specifically incerns collaboratively across sectors, disciplines, terms of their gender rationale, language, andand regions to share a common rationale on the policy approaches underlying recom-gender and development? mended interventions. These documents in-

2. What is a gender analysis? clude:Economists across the Bank share a common 1. Formally cleared World Bank documents

understanding of the components of a cost- with a gender focus, includingpolicy papers;benefit analysis. Do those concerned with country strategies; and regional-level social,mainstreaming gender issues into operations participation, and gender action plansshare a commonly agreed set of tools and tech- 2. Gender and development policy documen-niques? tation from various bilateral and multilat-

In taking stock of the current status of general institutionsder and development work at the World Bank, 3. Selected social assessments, as the most im-this review is driven by a concern to address portant social development procedures,these two questions. It was undertaken as a were reviewed in terms of their integrationconsequence of a number of initiatives relat- of gender analysis1

ing to the recent consolidation of the social de- 4. Selected literature reviews of gender and de-velopment agenda in the World Bank. These velopment theory and practice.include, first, the completion of the Task Group Consultations were held with a variety ofReport, Social Development and Results on the interested parties, including: World Bank staffGround; second, the establishment of a Social both within and outside of ESSD, visiting WorldDevelopment Family within ESSD; and third, Bank NGO Liaison/Social Analysis officersthe preparation of regional social development from field offices, GAD staff at various Newaction plans. In five out of six regions the inte- York-based United Nations agencies, and rep-gration of gender as a social development con- resentatives of bilateral development agencies.cern was identified as one of three top The World Bank's Gender and Social Develop-intervention priorities. ment Thematic Team provided an important

Two other recent, gender-focused interven- peer-review function, commenting on earlytions in the World Bank have also identified drafts and participating in a feedback sessionthe importance of gender as a social develop- on the findings organized by the Leadershipment concern. The recent Operations and and Learning Center (LLC).Evaluation Division (OED) Update on The review adopts familiar working defini-mainstreaming gender noted that "efforts in the tions of a number of basic gender and develop-Bank ...to understand the social dimensions of ment concepts. These include "sex and gender,"development, and to involve stakeholders in "gender relations," "gender roles," and thedecisions that affect their lives...should include critical distinction between WID and GAD (seegender concerns in order to be more effective." box 1.1).(Murphy 1997,43). In addition the Report from To undertake a comparative review it is alsoThe Committee on Development Effectiveness necessary to define a set of common organiz-(CODE) on the OED Update stressed that "the ing concepts with which to compare WorldSocial Development Family should include in Bank gender-focused documentation. These areits forthcoming guidelines on social assess- derived from the extensive international gen-ments a discussion of how to link gender analy- der and development analytical literature and

Introduction 3

Box 1.1 Brief definitions of basic gender and development concepts

Sex and gender. While sex refers to the biological man. In most societies women have a triple role, in-state of being male or female, gender refers to the cluding reproductive, productive, and communitysocially defined aspects of being male or female. management activities, while men undertake produc-

Gender relations. This refers not to men or women, tive and community political activities.but to the social relationships between them; like Women in Development (WID) or Gender and De-relations of class, ethnicity, nationality, and religion, velopment (GAD). While WID identifies women as agender relations are socially constructed. They vary special, or separate, interest group, GAD identifiesacross time and culture and are not fixed or immu- gender as an integral part of a development strat-table. egy. Under GAD the situation of women is no longer

Gender roles. Those activities that are considered analyzed independently of, but rather in relation to,by a given culture to be appropriate to a women or a that of men.

Sources: World Bank (1994a); Moser (1989, 1993); Overholt and others (1985); Pfannenschmidt and McKay (1997).

its associated operational tools and analytical necessarily imply an analysis of the underly-techniques. Four organizing concepts were ing reasons for such differentiation. 2

identified to examine the gender rationale, lan-guage, and framework in each document (see Disparity in access to and control over resourcesbox 1.2). and power. The second organizing concept ad-

dresses women's and men's access to and con-Diversity/differentiation. The first organizing trol over resources and power. "Disparity"

concept identifies whether the document refers refers to the imbalance in power relations be-to men's and women's differences, either bio- tween women and men, both in terms oflogical or social. More specifically, it reviews decisionmaking and access to and controlwhether each document explicitly acknowl- over resources. "Access" refers to use rights,edges gender roles, divisions of labor, or prac- and "control" refers to power over decision-tical gender needs. Recognition of gender making regarding resource allocation. 3 This"difference" or "diversity," however, does not concept provides a deeper analysis of the dy-

Box 1.2 Organizing concepts to assess gender and development rationale, language,and policy approach

Diversity/differentiation Social institutions where constraints and opportunities* Biological (sex) occur in access, power, or participation* Social relations (gender) identified through: * Household: Intrahousehold access and control

* Roles (reproductive, productive, commu- * Inside/outsidenity) * Community: Village committees/councils

* Gender division of labor/resources * Market: Firms, corporations, farms, labor markets* Practical gender needs/interests * State: Legal, administrative, military, police

* Development institutionsDisparity/access to and control over resourcesand power Stated WID/GAD policy* Access (rights) to household and community- * Welfare

based assets such as land and housing, labor, ser- * Antipovertyvices, credit, knowledge * Equity

* Strategic gender needs/interests * Efficiency* Control (power over) of these same assets * Empowerment/autonomy* Control (power over) of decisionmaking * Equality

Sources: Overholt and others (1985); Moser (1989,1993); SEGA (1996); Longwe (1994); UN (1995).


namics of social relations between men and Noteswomen, and why they may or may notchange. 1. See forthcoming Social Development Note en-

titled "Mainstreaming Gender into Social Assess-

Social institutions in which constraints and op- ments," to be published by the Social Developmentportunities occur in access, power, or participation. Family.The third organizing concept examines social 2. The concept of gender diversity/differentiation

is universal to all gender and development frame-structures by identifying institutional levels works, including the Gender Planning Methodologywhere opportunities and constraints may (Moser 1989,1993), the Harvard Framework (Overholtexist for women and men in terms of access and others 1985), and the Longwe Method/Women'sto power and participation. The six types of Empowerment Framework (UNICEF 1994).

social institutions identified here are not nec- 3. For detailed discussions on access to, and controlessarily mutually exclusive; social institu- over, resources and power see the Harvard Frameworktions may exist at the household, community, (Overholt and others 1985).

market, or state level. Additionall social in- 4. In her work on East Asia Lynn Bennett makes amarket, or state level. Additionally, social in- distinction between the private and public spheres;stitutions may be further characterized as in- women work primarily in the private sphere of theside/outside, 4 or development institutions. 5 home, carrying out reproductive tasks, while men areThis concept captures some of the structural outside the home in the public sphere where economicbarriers and opportunities in institutions that and political power is transacted (Bennett n.d.).the concepts of "diversity" and "disparity" are 5. This draws on the social relations framework,not able to cover, from the Institute of Development Studies, Sussex (see

Kabeer 1994).6. The first four policy approaches are drawn from

Stated WID/GAD policy. The fourth organiz- Moser's work on gender planning (Moser 1989;ing concept identifies the policy of the docu- 1993). Equality, the most recent policy approach, wasment, whether stated or implied, regarding its added after the Fourth International Conference onWID or GAD approach. Policies are identified Women, held in Beijing in 1995 (UN 1995). (For fur-as welfare, antipoverty, equity, efficiency, em- ther description of policy approaches see chapter 3. )powerment, and finally, equality. 6 The identifi- 7. To systematize the findings from the differentcation of a policy approach reflects the documents reviewed, key concepts of diversity (D),

access to and control over resources (A/C) and insti-underlying rationale for implementing a par- tutional level (L) are all included within the key con-ticular strategy. The application of these concept column. For each document the goal/rationalecepts is illustrated in the detailed review of a and policy approach is separately identified. Figuresvariety of World Bank documents in appendixes in parentheses refer to the page number of the reviewed1-4.7 document.

CHAPTER 2

Review Findings: Searching for a Common,Bankwide Gender Rationale and Language

T he following five findings synthesize the Finding 1: World Bank Gender Policyconclusions of the review:

World Bank policy documents on gender lack a com-1. World Bank policy documents on gen- mon conceptual rationale, language, and underly-

der lack a common conceptual ratio- ing policy approach.nale, language, and underlying policyapproach. The study reviewed four recent World Bank

2. World Bank country gender studies and policy documents. The first two set out thestrategies-including gender action Bank's policy on gender and development andplans-vary extensively in terms of their provide the operational directive that under-conceptual rationale and language. pins it (see appendix 1).

3. World Bank staff express a need to de- * Enhancing Women's Participation in Economicvelop a common gender rationale and Development, World Bank Policy Paperlanguage, as well as tools and training (1994a)for mainstreaming gender and devel- * "The Gender Dimension of Development,"opment. World Bank Operational Policy (O.P. 4.20)

4. Most bilaterals and multilaterals are (1994b)adopting a policy approach to gender The second two documents were originallythat integrates equality and people- prepared by the World Bank for distribution atcentered sustainable development, re- the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Womenflecting a combination of the messages at Beijing (Beijing Conference), and as such dofrom the Rio, Copenhagen, and Beijing not present specific Bank policy, although theysummits. raise a number of relevant issues about the

5. World Bank socially related action plans institution's policy and operational work.have limited success in integrating gen- * Towards Gender Equality: The Role of Publicder as a social development priority. Policy, Development in Practice Series (1995i)

* Advancing Gender Equality: From Concept toEach of these conclusions is discussed in Action (1995a)

detail below, along with the implications for The review identified a general movementWorld Bank policy and programs. away from a "Women in Development" (WID)

5


approach toward one of "Gender and Devel- The accompanying Operational Policyopment" (GAD) (see box 2.1). This shift did not (1994b) identifies policies in terms of gender, butoccur in isolation. Just as in past decades para- target groups in terms of women as a separatedigms for economic development have shifted, group. For example, in the first paragraph, theso too views about women's role in the devel- document states that: "The Bank aims to reduceopment process have undergone changes as gender disparities and enhance women's partici-women's contribution to development has been pation.' Similarly, it proposes "gender-sensitive"reassessed. In this respect the World Bank con- policies, but as a means of improving women'scurs with the development community, follow- access to assets and services.ing rather than leading bilaterals, NGOs, and In terms of policy approaches there has beenother U.N. agencies in developing both policy a shift from a welfare policy approach targetingand operational directives on GAD (Buvinic women as a "vulnerable group," to one thatand others 1996). Momentum gathered during emphasizes economic efficiency, which is identi-the 1980s, but it was not until 1994 that the fied as a direct link to the World Bank'sWorld Bank formulated a specific policy, overarching mandate of poverty reduction. The

Despite this overall shift, however, there is Bank's policy paper on gender, for instance,still a widespread tendency to "mix," or con- emphasizes the importance of "focusing onfuse, approaches. For example, the World strong economic arguments showing thatBank's 1994 Gender Policy (1994a) starts by women can and must play a role in economicidentifying GAD as its framework, but fre- development." (1994a, 15)quently refers to women as a separate target Coinciding with preparations for the 1995group, rather than identifying women's priori- Beijing Conference, the Bank's Gender Policyties or needs in terms of men's; in addition the also, however, endorsed a concern for socialterm gender is used interchangeably with justice, stating that: "Investing in women iswomen, such that the distinction between the thus an important part of development strat-two is not clear and the terms are often con- egy as well as a matter of Social Justice" (1995i,fused. 14).

Box 2.1 WID or GAD?

Description Women in development Gender and development

Approach * An approach that views women as * An approach to developmentthe problem

Focus * Women * Relations between men and womenProblem * The exclusion of women (half the * Unequal relations of power (rich and

productive resources) from the poor, women and men) that prevent eq-development process uitable development and participation

Goal * More efficient, effective development * Equitable, sustainable development withboth women and men as decisionmakers

Solution * Integrate women into the development * Empower the disadvantaged and women;process transform unequal relations

Strategies * Women's projects * Identify/address practical needs deter-* Women's components mined by women and men to improve* Integrated projects their condition* Increase women's productivity * At the same time, address women's* Increase women's income strategic interests* Increase women's ability to look after * Address strategic interests of the poor

the household through people-centered development

Source: Dayal and others (1993).

Review Findings 7

Both of the World Bank documents pre- including a discussion of the unitary and col-pared for distribution at the Beijing Confer- lective household models. Here again, links toence refer to equality linked to efficiency as inequality are highlighted, as demonstratedtheir underlying policy approach (see box 2.2). by the following statement: "In recent yearsIn the introduction, for instance, "Toward Gen- attempts to explain persistent gender in-der Equality: The Role of Public Policy" states: equalities in the accumulation and use of

human capital have focused on the key rolePersistent inequality between women and of household decisionmaking and the processmen constrains a society's productivity of resource allocation within households."and, ultimately, slows its economic (1995i, 21).growth ... This report is intended as a ref- Despite the challenging approach intro-erence to strategies for promoting gender duced in the Beijing document-linking equal-equality and, consequently, enhancing eco- ity to efficiency-the review found that this hasnomic efficiency. (1995i, vii) not been adopted across the board as the Bank's

policy approach to gender. While economic ef-One of the most innovative aspects of the ficiency (not necessarily linked to equality) is

Beijing documents was the introduction and probably the single most common approachdetailed analysis of intrahousehold dynamics, adopted, it is by no means universal. An eclec-

Box 2.2 WID/GAD policy approaches, 1970-90

Approach Description

Welfare Earliest approach, 1950-70. Its original purpose was to bring women into development asbetter mothers. Women are seen as passive beneficiaries of development. It recognizes thereproductive role of women and seeks to meet practical gender needs/priorities in thatrole through top-down provision of food aid, measures against malnutrition, and familyplanning.

Equity The original WID approach, used in the 1975-85 U.N. Women's Decade. Its purpose is togain equity for women, who are seen as active participants in development. It recognizeswomen's triple role, and seeks to meet strategic gender needs/priorities through directstate intervention, by giving political and economic autonomy and reducing inequalitywith men. It challenges women's subordinate position.

Antipoverty The second WID approach, a toned down version of equity, adopted from the 1970s on-wards. Its purpose is to enhance the productivity of low-income women. Women's pov-erty is seen as a problem of underdevelopment, not subordination. It recognizes theproductive role of women and seeks to meet their practical gender needs/priorities toeam an income, particularly in small-scale, income-generating projects.

Efficiency The third WID approach, adopted particularly since the 1980s debt crisis. Its purpose is toensure that development is more efficient and effective through women's economic con-tribution, with participation often equated with equity. It seeks to meet practical genderneeds/priorities while relying on all three roles and an elastic concept of women's time.

Empowerment The first post-WID approach, articulated by women in developing countries. Its purposeis to empower women through greater self reliance. It recognizes the triple role, and seeksto meet strategic gender needs/priorities indirectly, through bottom-up mobilization ofpractical gender needs.

Equality The most recent GAD approach, emerging from the Fourth World Conference on Women(Beijing, 1995), and widely adopted by governments and aid agencies. It introduces equal-ity as a human right, and emphasizes that power-sharing and more equitable partner-ships between women and men are political, social, and economic prerequisites forsustainable, people-centered development.

Sources: Moser (1989,1993); UN (1995).


tic approach relying on a combination of all five This concept relates, to some extent, to dif-policy approaches is more common. ferentiation, access, and control, as well as level

of institutions, but is region-specific. The house-Finding 2: World Bank Country Gender hold is identified as a collective and the site ofStudies, Strategies, and Regional Gender gender-based power variations and motivations. TheAction Plans emphasis is on removing gender-specific con-

straints and increasing women's access to keyWorld Bank country gender studies and strategies- inputs.including gender action plans-vary extensively in This review also identified variation withinterms of their conceptual rationale and language. the same region (see appendix 2). While all

three studies in the South Asia Region use theWorld Bank work on gender and development concept of inside/outside dichotomy, they dif-at the program and project level is highly di- fer in the use of other key concepts:verse. There is ample variation not only in the * The India Country Study (1991) uses the con-quality of analysis, but also in the concepts and cept of gender and discusses "...ultimatelyframeworks used by different regions and, changing the prevailing gender ideology."within them, different sectors. A review of a * The Country Study on Pakistan (1989b), innumber of the Country Studies series (1989-93) contrast, does not use the term gender butreflects this heterogeneity. (See appendix 2 for refers instead to women, identifying them asa detailed, comprehensive matrix.) a separate, vulnerable group, and using* The Kenya Country Study (1989a) focused terms such as "disadvantaged" and "dis-

on women's roles in agriculture, treating crimination."women as a separate group rather than ex- Other regional-level efforts, such as Worldamining their roles in relation to those of men. Bank country gender strategies, also show dif-

• The Turkey Country Study (1993), in conferences in language and concepts used. Fortrast, analyzed changes in gender relations instance:as the economy underwent a transition from * The Nigeria Strategy (1992) focuses on un-agricultural production to industrialization. derstanding gender relations, women's multipleKey concepts such as gender-segregated la- roles, and triple burden' and analyzingbor markets, disparities, and gaps reflect an women's productive and reproductive roles.analysis that takes into account differences It also focuses on gender-specific constraints toand institutions outside the household. "human capital" and "economic productiv-

* The South Asian Country Studies (1989b, ity," and gives specific recommendations on1990, 1991) introduced a very different ap- how to remove these constraints in differentproach to gender and development with their sectors and at different levels, such as train-key concept of "inside/outside (private/pub- ing, health, agriculture, and the legal system.lic) dichotomy." According to these studies: * The El Salvador (Gender Approach) Strat-

egy (1996d), in contrast, focuses on genderPart of the cultural definition of the fe- differences and stereotypes, gender-based behav-male in India is her association with the ioral differences, discriminatory practices and oninside, the home and courtyard where the how to "gender" institutions, recommendingfamily is cared for. This in contrast to measures to mainstream gender into insti-males who belong outside in the fields tutions undergoing modernization in a post-and the bazaar, where livelihoods are conflict context.earned and economic and political During the past three years World Bank re-power is transacted. Since education, gions have prepared and implemented a num-healthcare, and labor force participation ber of mandated action plans relevant to genderall involve interaction with the "out- and social development. These include not onlyside," girls and women face special bar- gender action plans (1997e), but also partici-riers in these areas. (1991) pation and social development action plans.

Review Findings 9

Regional gender action plans (RGAPs) reflect * The ECA Region has adopted a strategy ofa variation in depth and use of concepts and "selectivity in terms of focusing on genderframeworks similar to that of the country stud- issues that have potentially large payoffs inies and strategies (see appendix 3A). Justifica- terms of welfare and efficiency gains." (ECAtion and stated policy vary widely, as the Gender Action Plan 1997c, 1)following examples from two very different Concepts used in World Bank work on gen-regions of the world illustrate: der and development vary to reflect regional* The Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) variations in the nature and intensity of gen-

Gender Proposal "sets out a program to pro- der-based disparities, as well as the receptiv-mote gender-responsive development.. .that is, ity of client governments. But even taking thesedevelopment that considers gender differ- variations into consideration, the concepts areences and constraints, and works towards re- frequently not clearly defined. Consequently,ducing gender barriers."(1997b) the same term may be used in different way,

* The Africa Region Gender Action Plan making it particularly difficult to develop(1997a) identifies gender as an issue of eco- Bankwide indicators. For example, OED'snomic efficiency, stating that: "By identifying evaluation of Gender in World Bank Lendinggender differentials in economic capacity as Programs (Murphy 1995; 1997) uses the con-a key strategic issue for Africa, the RGAP cept, "gender-related activity." Lack of a clearreflects the centrality of gender in Africa's definition as to what constitutes such an activ-economic development... .Gender-based dis- ity not only means that it may refer to very dif-crimination limits economic growth. This ferent interventions, but also results indiscrimination markedly affects macroeco- unsystematic monitoring of the mainstreamingnomic efficiency and equity." of gender and development issues into WorldThe RGAPs illustrate the critical importance Bank lending operations.

of contextualizing gender analysis and strat- The fact that OED was unable to use moreegy within region-specific circumstances. The specific indicators reflects the lack of aconcepts used reflect regional similarities as Bankwide set of definitions of key concepts andmuch as differences-at times also including limits the utility of current evaluations. Recog-the dominant paradigms coming from the re- nition of the confusion resulting from the lackgions' women's NGOs and academics. The fol- of a common rationale or clarity on conceptslowing example of the types of language led Murphy to conclude her OED study by stat-differences that predominate in RGAPs from ing: "What is needed is a conceptual frameworkdifferent regions reflects this diversity: or an agreed upon mode of analyzing and us-* Africa/ECA: Gender roles and differentiation ing a gender perspective that suits or broad-* South Asia: Gender ideology, gender-based dis- ens the institution's objectives and information

parities, inside/outside dichotomy requirements. (Murphy 1995,107)* LAC: Gender-responsive development.

Some RGAPs are highly detailed, with coun- Finding 3: World Bank Staff Consultationstry gender profiles and individually tailoredstrategies for the different countries in the re- World Bank staff express a need to develop a com-gion. The Asia Region, for example, has gen- mon gender rationale and language, as well as toolsder profiles for most of its countries. Planned and training for mainstreaming gender and devel-interventions, nevertheless, vary from the very opment.practical to the more strategic. For example:* South and East Asia have sets of country- Consultations held for this review showed that

specific actions and a set of region-wide World Bank staff, such as task-managers andactions. (1997h; 1996b) NGO liaison officers, have experienced prob-

* Latin America and the Caribbean has a gen- lems as a consequence of the confusion in theeral strategy for the whole region. (LAC Bank's rationale and language on gender. InCapacity Building on Gender 1997b and f) one Central American country, for instance,


country clients experienced problems when dif- reduction (and most recently to inclusion andferent task managers working within the same social justice), the team also noted that this isproject used different justifications and lan- not an excuse for careless language or a lack ofguage for gender. While some viewed women conceptual rigor. Within a common Bankwideas a separate "vulnerable group," suggesting a rationale and language, regional-level justifi-welfare approach, others recognized the impor- cations will vary in focus and emphasis; thetance of incorporating women into the project critical point is that the two should not contra-to ensure its effectiveness. dict each other (see box 2.3).

In addition participants at the recent NGOliaison officer (NGOLO) Specialist Learning Finding 4: The Global Agenda on Gender:Forum argued that they can only communicate Equality and Sustainable Developmentclear messages on gender and social develop-ment to NGOs and civil society in their coun- Most bilaterals and multilaterals are adopting atries if the World Bank is clear on its gender policy approach to gender that integrates equalityrationale and language. Ensuring that staff and people-centered sustainable development, reflect-across the institution understand each other- ing a combination of the messages from the Rio,in field offices as much as in Washington-re- Copenhagen, and Beijing summits.quires the development of a common set ofappropriate tools and techniques and their dis- This review also examined the rationale, lan-semination through training. Representatives guage, and policy approach to gender and de-from the Africa Region, in particular, priori- velopment in a number of development agenciestized the need for such tools and training (see outside the World Bank. This process involved abox 2.3). review of the policy documents of several bilat-

Finally, peer review by members of the Gen- eral agencies, as well as consultations with Newder and Social Development Thematic Team York-based U.N. agencies such as the Unitedprovided an important confirmation of the Nations Development Programme (UNDP), theneed to develop an overall, Bankwide common United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), andrationale and language. While the team agreed the United Nations Development Fund forthat some lack of clarity is consistent with fun- Women (UNIFEM).damental shifts occurring as the Bank's core The review revealed that, as with differentmission has expanded from growth to poverty parts of the World Bank, the level to which a

Box 2.3 Consultations on rationale and language for gender and social development

The NGO Specialist Learning Forum was held in Consultations were also held with the GenderMay 1997 for Bank mission-based NGO liaison of- and Social Development Thematic Team at the So-ficers. During preparation the NGO coordinator cial Development Family Retreat in May, 1997, pro-found that participants did not identify gender as a viding an opportunity to share interim findings. Twopriority issue. Nevertheless, given the importance questions served as the basis for discussion:of participation, social development, and gender 1. Do we need a common language for gender andaction plans to NGOLO work programs, the forum social development?included a one-hour session on "Gender Analysis: Docia neelommont?Main-streamning Gender into Social Development. 2. Docwe need ommntider

After a brief overview of preliinnary review find-ings, regional focus groups discussed the rationale While the group agreed on the need for Bankwidefor gender and social development as it relates to agreement on definitions of analytical concepts-each region. This limited knowledge of gender by using a common language and framework-the ra-NGOLOs led to a clearly articulated demand from tionale or justification for gender and socialvarious regions for appropriate tools and techniques development may vary according to region. Never-to mainstream gender into participation and social theless, throughout operations it is important todevelopment work. Training was identified as criti- move away from a rationale that defines women ascal, particularly by African NGOLOs. victims or as a vulnerable group.

Review Findings 11

clear rationale has been developed varied be- cies of the Beijing Platform for Action, recog-tween and within different agencies. Neverthe- nizing the importance of equality as a humanless, a number of informative trends can be right to people-centered development.identified. First, an institution-wide common The following examples highlight some ofmission statement, or guiding principle, is con- the rationales and language and policy ap-sidered to be an essential starting point by all proaches adopted by different agencies.agencies. Such a statement should be crafted * Canada's CIDA treats gender relations andafter considerable discussion and debate to differences within an equity and efficiencyensure institutional consensus. In this regard approach.other agencies seem to be far less concerned * The Development Action Committee, whichwith regional differences than is the case in the serves as the OECD's counseling body onWorld Bank. gender, has adopted equality as a develop-

Second, the current rationale on gender and ment goal, as have Britain's ODA anddevelopment in the agencies consulted has Sweden's Sida.been heavily influenced by the concepts intro- * The Netherlands in contrast, uses the con-duced during the three recent U.N. conferences cept of autonomy as the pillar of its policy.addressing socioeconomic issues, culminating Despite such differences in language, allin the 1995 Fourth World Conference on these institutions not only have clearly definedWomen. Key concepts from each of these inter- mission statements, but also identify equalitynational conferences are reflected in the final at all levels in society as a policy goal. Such de-Beijing document. velopments provide useful lessons for the• The U.N. Conference on Environment and World Bank as it moves toward formulating its

Development (UNCED) held in Rio de own approach.Janeiro in 1992, for example, identified theconcept of "sustainable development," Finding 5: World Bank Socially Relatedbringing environmental concerns to the core Action Plansof the development process.

* The Social Summit, held in Copenhagen in World Bank socially related action plans have lim-1995, introduced "people-centered develop- ited success in integrating gender as a social devel-ment," reflecting the need for a participatory opment priority.approach.

* The Beijing Platform for Action incorporated Turning to the specific challenges presented bya policy of empowerment at all levels, and the recent consolidation of the World Bank'sintroduced a rationale of equality as a hu- social development agenda, the review exam-man right: ined the different development action plans.

The Bank embarked on a process of addressingEquality between women and men is a social development in 1995 by mandating thematter of human rights and a condition regions to prepare and implement participationfor social justice and is also a necessary action plans (PAPs). The institution was seek-and fundamental prerequisite for equal- ing "opportunities to support government ef-ity, development, and peace. A trans- forts to promote a more enabling environmentformed partnership based on equality for participatory development within clientbetween women and men is a condition for countries"(World Bank 1994b).people-centered sustainable development. Assessment of PAPs from a gender perspec-(UN 1995) [Emphasis added.] tive shows that, with the exception of Middle

East and North Africa (MENA) and East Asia,Third, as illustrated in box 2.4, bilateral and the plans do not incorporate gender as a di-

UN agencies each maintain their own indi- mension or component of participation. Bothvidual rationale on gender. At the same time, the MENA and East Asia PAPs mention womento varying degrees, they have adopted the poli- as a marginal or "voiceless" group that, as stake-


Box 2.4 Current GAD rationales in selected international agencies

Organisation of Economic Co-Operation and Develop- poverty, and a more equitable distribution of thement (OECD)/Development Action Committee (DAC) socioeconomic benefits of development." (CIDAGender Actions Framework 1995, 4)"To uphold human rights and to achieve sustain-able, people-centered development, equality in the The Netherlands Ministryfor Foreign Affairsroles and treatment of men and women is essential. "The concept of autonomy, which refers to author-Adopting gender equality .... is viewed as a central ity, freedom, and opportunity for each individual,issue for society." (UN 1995) should be understood in the framework of combat-

ing poverty and inequality on the grounds of class,Swedish International Development Agency (Sida) gender, and race ... Development cooperation based"Gender equality is a development goal in itself. The on the principle of autonomy for women means en-focus on gender equality makes visible the interde- dorsing a vision of the distribution of power in allpendence of the spheres of production and repro- its manifestations." (Netherlands, Ministry for For-duction, between paid and unpaid work, and eign Affairs 1992, 14-15)provides a basis for the formulation of strategies insupport of equitable human development ... Gender United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)equality is one of the four strategic foundations in "The human development paradigm, which putsSida, alongside poverty elimination, democratic de- people at the center of its concems, must be fullyvelopment, human rights, and sustainable develop- engendered. Equality of rights between women andment." (Sida 1995, 7) men must be enshrined as a fundamental principle.

Legal, economic, political, or cultural barriers thatOverseas Development Administration (ODA), United prevent the exercise of equal rights should be iden-Kingdom tified and removed .... The engendered development"The reduction of gender inequality is not only a model ... should not predetermine how different so-goal in its own right, but also a significant contribu- cieties exercise these choices. What is important istion towards sustainable development. ODA aims that equal opportunities to make a choice exist forto tackle disparities between men and women both men and women." (UNDP 1995)throughout society.. .This also means supportingwomen's efforts to achieve partnership in political United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)and economic decisionmaking, to exercise their hu- "UNICEF is accelerating its advocacy for universalman rights." (ODA 1996, 3) ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the

Child (CRC), a task almost accomplished, and theCanadian International Development Agency Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Dis-(CIDA) crimination Against Women (CEDAW). In its work"CIDA is committed to ensuring that its develop- with countries to promote implementation of thement activities benefit women as well as conventions, UNICEF places priority [on] support-men... Investing in women leads to lasting economic ing a gender-sensitive 'rights' approach to programsgrowth, improved family welfare, a reduction in for children and women." (UNICEF 1995)

holders, needs to be included to mainstream recognizes human and social capital asparticipatory approaches (see box 2.5). The East critical factors in sustainable developmentAsia PAP goes further by focusing on gender .... Poverty reduction is now the overarch-as a key area of emphasis for the region. ing objective of our activities. Human re-

Social Development and Results on the Ground source development has grown from a(World Bank 1996h), the report of the Task fringe Bank activity to one of our largestGroup set up to consolidate the Bank's social sectors ... But much remains to be done. Indevelopment agenda, points to the critical im- spite of economic growth, inequity andportance of social development in the follow- social alienation persist and are oftening terms: increasing .... To take account of these

changes, the social dimensions of devel-The development paradigm has evolved opment need to be fully incorporated into... to a more people-centered approach that the work of the Bank.

Review Findings 13

The Task Group report identified gender as (2) "Gender is a major social factor in achiev-one of the top intervention priorities for the fol- ing growth and equity, therefore projectslowing two reasons: need to mainstream gender" (see appen-(1) "Women's participation in economic and dixes 2 and 4).

social development is essential both for pro- As part of the process of mainstreaming so-moting economic efficiency and for reduc- cial development concems, the Bank's regionsing poverty." (5) were mandated to formulate social develop-

Box 2.5 Mainstreaming gender into participation and social development action plans

Action plan Gender included Gender strategy

LAC Participation (1995f) No n.a.

LAC Social Develop- Yes Gender treated as a separate priority area; not integrated.ment (1996f) Refers to RGAP: "Integrating stronger targeting, delivery, and

monitoring/ evaluation systems to address gender issues."

MENA Participation Yes Use of participatory techniques to support the mainstreaming(19 95g) of stakeholder involvement in its development work. Women

treated as a separate "underrepresented or marginalized"group.

MENA Social Develop- n.a. n.a.ment (1996)

ECA Participation (1995e) No n.a.

ECA Social Development Yes Refers to RGAP integrating gender in labor market, health,(1996e) land and capital assets, ethnicity, and (where relevant)

conflict. Local capacity building. Prepared several genderissue papers.

AFRICA Participation No n.a.(1995b)

AFRICA Social Develop- Yes Strategic gender initiatives; gender analysis, and planningment (1996a) integral to participatory CAS and projects with social assess-

ments; women in context of "specific social groups." Refersto RGAP.

SAS Participation (1995) No n.a.

SAS Social Development Yes Gender treated as integral part of social development(1996i) (mainstreamed). Gender is key area of emphasis. Gender

and participation action plans complement the socialdevelopment action plan.

EAP Participation (1995c) Yes Mainstream participatory approaches to encompass primarystakeholders and "voiceless" groups. Key emphasis in socialscreening data sheet is gender.

EAP Social Development Yes Gender treated as integral part of social development. "To1996c) provide people-centered development;" gender, participation,

and social development action plans are complementary.

ESD Participation (1995) Yes Gender is not mentioned in main document, only referred toin the section on Urban Water and Sanitation: communitymen and women (7); gender tool kit (9)


ment action plans. Most regions that have pro- With the exception of the Africa Region,duced such plans have integrated gender. How- which has folded the PAP and the genderever, there is great variation between regions action plan into a single comprehensive so-in terms of the depth and approaches taken. cial development action plan, there is no sys-For example, Latin America and the Caribbean tematic coordination between the differenttreats gender as a separate social development plans. The extent to which coordination willpriority area to be addressed by LAC's regional occur in practice depends on the institutionalgender action plan, while the South and East structures and operational procedures devel-Asia development action plans have oped for main-streaming such concerns (seemainstreamed gender into all of their social de- box 2.5).velopments strategies.

The most visible conclusion of the review of Noteall regional participation, social development, 1. The triple burden comprises productive, repro-and gender action plans produced so far is that ductive, and community management responsibilitiesthey are essentially free-standing documents. (Moser 1993).

CHAPTER 3

Mainstreaming Gender in the World Bank:Recommendations

O verall, this review points to the need owns what, and who controls what within afor a Bankwide rationale and frame- community. (Overholt and others 1985)work that sets out the fundamental * The Moser Methodology breaks gender-

reasons for mainstreaming gender and devel- specific needs into practical needs and stra-opment into operational practice. This neces- tegic interests, thereby providing a meanssarily includes agreement on a common of determining whether gender-specificlanguage-rather than the current situation in needs will have only a practical benefit orwhich, for instance, the terms gender and women will have a strategic, equity-enhancingare often used interchangeably. Finally, linked impact. The methodology further definesto both the common rationale and language, the concept of women's triple role in rela-is the need for consensus on an underlying tion to men's dual role (Moser 1993). (Seebroad policy approach, or approaches, within box 3.1.)which differences in regional emphasis can be * The Longwe Framework outlines a concep-accommodated. tual continuum of women's empowerment.

Answers to such complex issues go well (Longwe 1994)beyond the scope of this review. Nevertheless, The critical point is that the three frame-the following section provides some very ru- works build upon, and complement, onedimentary ideas as to how this might be another. Therefore, most development organi-accomplished. zations work with a combination of the key con-

cepts from the three frameworks, rather thanRecommendation 1: Define a Rationale and any one alone.Framework for Gender and Development Consultations with task managers and the

Gender and Social Development Thematic TeamAs a recent "state of the art" review (Pfannen- on early drafts of this review generated anschmidt and McKay 1997) stated, three main institution-wide debate on the need to identifytheoretical frameworks for integrating gender a common rationale. Two approaches, "eco-issues into development work tend to under- nomic efficiency" and "equality," were identi-pin all subsequent writing on the topic. The fied as those most commonly used within theauthors summarize these as follows: World Bank.* The Harvard Framework, the first developed,

underscores the importance of examining, 1. Economic efficiency. The focus is on genderamong other things, who does what, who differences; the key objective is the achievement

15


Box 3.1 Defining a rationale and framework for GAD: The "Moser Methodology'of gender planning

* The goal of gender planning is the emancipa- changing roles in society, but they also have dif-tion of women from their subordination, and ferent needs).their achievement of equality, equity, and em- * These principles, in tum, translate into tools andpowerment. techniques for a gender-planning process.

* The knowledge base explored in recent feminist * These tools demonstrate how the five differentand WID/GAD development debates provides WID/GAD policy approaches (welfare, antipov-the conceptual rationale for several key analyti- erty, equity, efficiency, and empowerment) recog-cal principles, relating to gender roles and prac- nize different roles, meet different needs, and relytical and strategic gender needs, as well as to on varying participatory planning processes.control over resources and decisionmaking in the * Gender planning is operationalized through a di-household, civil society, and the state (that is, the versity of procedures at the policy, program, andrecognition that because men and women have project levels.different positions within the household and * Equally, gender planning is mainstreamed into ex-different degrees of access to and control over isting institutions, rather than establishing sepa-resources, they not only play different and rate gender-specific organizational structures.

Source: Moser (1989, 1993).

of economic growth. Differences can be based components of a gender analysis therefore de-on: pend on the institution's approach to gender* Sex/gender (social relations) issues. In order to assist task managers, who* Roles (reproductive/productive/commu- may wish to undertake a gender analysis in a

nity) wide variety of sectors and at different stages* Gender division of labor/resources of project cycles, consensus as to both the defi-* Practical gender needs/activities. nition and the components of a gender analysis

This approach does not implicitly assume may be the most important mechanism forthat gender inequality is an issue; therefore, it Bankwide collaboration on gender issues.is not seen as confrontational. As illustrated in box 3.2, there is currently

no consistent definition of what constitutes2. Equality. The focus is on gender disparities; a gender analysis within the World Bank (or

the key objective is to reduce gender-based in- outside it). Although some similarities of lan-equality and thus to achieve greater inclusion guage exist (such as roles, needs, activities,and social justice. Disparities can be based on: and opportunities), the difference in defini-* Access to and control over resources and tions-between PREM's World Bank Gender

power Net and their Guidelines for Gender Analy-* Strategic needs/interests/activities sis in the CAS, for example-may confuse,* Social institutions where constraints in ac- rather than clarify, issues for task managers.

cess, power, or participation occur. Building on the distinction between the ef-Ultimately an approach that combines effi- ficiency and equality approaches identified

ciency and equality as the necessary basis for above, a working definition of gender analy-sustainable development may be the most ap- sis that is inclusive of both might be wordedpropriate rationale for the World Bank. as follows:

Gender analysis consists of the techniquesRecommendation 2: Ensure Consensus and approaches intended to bring to light twoin Gender Analysis sets of issues, within a specific context:

* Gender-based differences and disparities inGender analysis is based on the institutional roles, constraints, needs, and opportuni-rationale for gender and development. The ties. The extent to which these differences

Recommendations 17

Box 3.2 Diversity in current definitions of gender analysis

Source Definition

Bennett, "A Quick Guide for "Gender analysis focuses on understanding and documenting theGender Analysis," Asia differences in gender roles, activities, needs and opportunities in aSymposium, n.d., 1. given context. Gender analysis involves the disaggregation of

Jacobs, "Social Assessment qualitative and quantitative data by gender. It highlights theand Participation: Overview of different roles and learned behavior of men and women based onMethods and Tools," 1997, 35. gender attributes. These vary across cultures, class, ethnicity,

World Bank Participation Source- income, education, and time. Thus gender analysis does not treatbook, 1996j, 201. women as a homogenous group nor gender attributes as immu-

table."

Minh Chau-Nguyen, "Gender "Gender analysis looks at quantitative and qualitative data on theAnalysis in the CAS Process," different roles, activities, needs, and opportunities of men and womenPoverty Reduction and in economic as well as non-economic activities in a particularEconomic Management setting to determine how they differ, and how they affect and, inNetwork, 1997. turn, are affected by interventions and policies." (p.1)

Poverty Reduction and Economic "Gender analysis examines the access and control men and womenManagement Network, "World have over resources. This includes analyzing the sexual division ofBank Gender Net," 1997d. labor and the outputs (benefits) of their labor. It also refers to a

systematic way of determining men's and women's often differingdevelopment needs and preferences and the different impacts ofdevelopment on women and men. Gender analysis takes intoaccount how factors of class, race, ethnicity, or other factors interactwith gender to produce discriminatory results."

Dayal and others, "Gender Analy- "Gender analysis captures men's and women's different opportuni-sis and Planning in the Bank ties, constraints and responsibilities, and access to and control overProject Cycle," 1993. resources."

SEGA, "Socioeconomic and Gender "Gender analysis: the study of the different roles of women andAnalysis Programme," 1996. men to understand what they do, what resources they have and

what their needs, responsibilities, and priorities are."

U.N., Women 2000, 1992. "The systematic effort to document and understand the roles of menand women within a given context. Key issues include (a) thedivision of labour for both productive and reproductive activities; (b)access to and control over resources and benefits; and (c) social,economic and environmental factors that influence both of the above."

Pfannenschmidt and McKay, "Gender analysis is the systematic study of the differences in"Through a Gender Lens: condition (material welfare) and position (status) of women versusResources for Population, men in a given population. Gender analysis provides importantHealth, and Nutrition Projects," contextual information that can be used as a community-basedUSAID, 1997. needs assessment to plan projects or to evaluate their progress or

impact."

Hartigan, "Gender, Environment, 'Gender analysis is an approach which has its purpose to identifyand Health: Incorporating a analyze and act upon inequities that arise from belonging to oneGender Approach in Environ- sex or another .... fundamental to applying an analysis of a healthmental Health Work," PAHO, situation from a gender perspective is the consideration of access1997. and control of resources necessary to protect health."


and disparities are significant for the ac- nitions, they can be crafted to fit institutionalcomplishment of specific policy, sector, or requirements.program objectives.

Recommendation 4: Define the ComponentsRecommendation 3: Agree on Common of a Gender AnalysisConcepts and Language

Gender analysis is the most critical tool to en-Agreement on common concepts and lan- sure that gender concerns are mainstreamedguage follows directly from the rationale and into the early stages of all World Bank opera-definition of tools and techniques-in this case tions. This includes not only projects, but alsogender analysis. Box 1.1 contained basic defi- economic and sector work (ESW) and countrynitions of the most common gender and devel- assistance strategies (CASs).opment concepts, including "sex and gender," Providing guidelines to task managers"gender relations," "gender roles," and "WID concerning the different components of a gen-and GAD." Based on the proposed working der analysis will ensure consistency in cov-definition of gender analysis, further system- erage across the institution. This becomesatic clarification is required for such well- much easier once a common rationale andknown concepts as "gender roles" and "gender language have been agreed upon. Obviously,division of labor/resources," as well as the defini- a single checklist solution fails to address alltion of "gender needs/interests/approaches." concerns; however, a recommendation forSome potential definitions are elaborated in box gender analysis would include the following3.3; they are not definitive and, as with all defi- components:

Box 3.3 Definitions: Gender roles, needs, interests, and approaches

Gender roles define what a society considers to be point, it is useful to distinguish between two typesappropriate for a man or a woman, reflecting a di- of gender needs:vision of labor. Both women and men play multiple Practical gender needs are needs women and menroles in society; while men play their multiple roles identify in their socially accepted roles in society.sequentially, women play their roles simultaneously, They are practical in nature, often concem inadequa-and must balance competing claims on limited time cies in living conditions (such as water provision,for fulfillment of each. health care, employment), and respond to immedi-* Productive role. Work done both by women and ate needs identified within a specific context. While

men for pay in cash or kind; includes both mar- such needs arise out of gender divisions of labor,ket production with an exchange value and sub- meeting them does not change the position of eithersistence/home production with actual use value, women or men in society.but also potential exchange value Strategic gender needs are those needs formulated

* Reproductive role. Child bearing/rearing respon- from the socially structured subordinate position ofsibilities and domestic tasks required to guaran- women to men in society. Such biases vary accordingtee the maintenance and reproduction of the to particular contexts and may indude gender-basedlabor force; includes not only biological repro- discrimination in the division of labor and in house-duction but also the care and the maintenance of hold management; factor and product markets (includ-people living in the household ing access to and control over productive resources);

* Community roles. Voluntary activities contribut- legal status and rights; and participation ining to the welfare, development, or political or- decisionmaking at the household, community, or na-ganization of the community tional level. Meeting such needs through policies toBecause men and women have different gender improve women's status and promote equity entails

roles they also have different gender needs/interests! actions to remove systematic biases against women,approaches. From both a policy and operational view- thereby changing women's position in society.

Sources: Moser (1989, 1993); Blackden and Morris-Hughes (1993); Hartigan (1997).

Recommendations 19

Box 3.4 Potential components of a gender analysis

Component Description

Needs assessment * What are the priority needs of men and women?* What are the underlying causes of the problem?* How can these problems be addressed?* Which problems can be solved at the local level?* Which need external intervention?

Activities profile * Who does what?* What do women, men, and children do?* When do they do it-daily? seasonally?* Where is the activity performed?* How flexible or rigid is the division of labor?

Resources, access, and * What resources are available to men and women to conduct their activities?control profile * What resources (land, produce, knowledge, cash, tools, institutions) do

women and men have access to (use)?* Which resources do they control, who has power to decide whether a

resource is used, how it is used, and how it is allocated?

Benefits and incentives * Benefit analysis refers to resources, access, and control, and goes furtheranalysis to analyze who controls outputs or benefits.

* Incentive analysis taps into user preferences, values placed on output, andthe risks involved, which affect motivation.

* Incentives include: taste, risk, convenience, time savings, reduced conflict,marketability, prestige, and byproducts.

Institutional analysis * Gender analysis of social institutions.

(a) Intrahousehold * The household is a system of resource allocation.dynamics * All members of a household have different roles, skills, interests, needs,

priorities, access to, and control over resources.* Any development intervention that affects one member of the household will

positively or negatively affect all others.* It is important to understand these interdependent relationships-the rights,

responsibilities, obligations, and patterns of interaction among householdmembers.

(b) Interhousehold * Individuals and households belong to larger groupings (such as professionalrelations or religious groups or extended families).

* With these they are involved in labor exchanges, flows of goods, and otheralliances for survival.

* It is important to understand the social organization of these larger networksand the gender differences in roles, functions, and access.

Institutional constraints * Policies, laws, regulations, and procedures from the national agency level toand opportunities the community level.

* Agency organization, responsiveness, activities, training, gender, mobility,and skills of personnel.

* Planning and evaluation procedures.* Information flow and outreach activities.

Sources: CEDPA (1996); Kabeer (1994); Derbyshire (1996); Moser (1989,1993); Overholt (1985).


* Needs assessment across all four World Bank networks. This could* Activities profile include procedures such as poverty assess-* Resources, access, and control profile ments in the Poverty Reduction and Economic* Social institutional analysis Management Network (PREM) and environ-* Benefits and incentives analysis mental assessments in ESSD, as well as other* Institutional constraints and opportunities procedures in the Human Development (HD)

analysis. and Finance, Private Sector, and InfrastructureA gender analysis comprising these compo- (FIPSI) networks.

nents provides the necessary framework foridentifying gender-based differences and dispari- Concluding Commentties in roles, constraints, needs, and opportuni-ties. It implies the need to understand access These very provisional recommendations con-to and control over resources and power, as cerning future steps toward mainstreamingwell as social institutions in which constraints gender into World Bank operations are not in-to access, power, or participation occur (see tended to be either definitive or conclusive.box 3.4). The extent to which these differences Their purpose is more to illustrate the types ofand disparities are significant for the accom- guidelines that could facilitate a more consis-plishment of specific policy, sector, or program tent approach to mainstreaming gender at theobjectives can then be analyzed from the results policy, program, and project level across theof the different components identified above.1 Bank, while respecting regional, sector, or other

types of variations.Recommendation 5: Apply GenderAnalysis in other Networks Note

Once the components of a gender analysis are 1. An alternative, simplified version of the above,clarified, they can be introduced, or main- identified as a 'gender diagnosis," was recently de-streamed, ntny many operationaluprcea,uore- veloped by the Pan American Health Organization forstreamed, into many operational procedures- an excellent new training manual (PAHO 1997) usingnot only social assessments and CASs, but also a similar rationale and language, and is illustrated ina diversity of additional tools and techniques appendix 5.

APPENDIX 1

World Bank Gender Policy and Beijing Documents

1.1 World Bank Gender Policy Documents

Interventionl StatedPublication Level/date Goals/rationale& Key conceptsb proceduresa policy

Enhancing World Bank "Investing in women is critical for pov- (D) Gender: differentiation, gaps, "Focus on strong economic argu- EfficiencyWomen's Policy Paper erty reduction. Speeds economic de- analysis, roles/ needs, disparity1 ments showing that women can andParticipation in (1994) velopment by raising productivity and must play a full force in economic Anti-Development promoting more efficient use of re- (A/C) Gender differences in ac- development." (15) poverty

sources ... produces significant social cess/control resources; barriersreturns." (22) Institutional interventions as in OP Equity

Gender: relations, issues,"...important part of development strat- -neutral, -sensitive, dimensionegy and a matter of Social Justice."(14)

"The Gender World Bank "To reduce gender disparities and en- (D) Gender disparities; gender 1. Design gender-sensitive policies EfficiencyDimension of Operational hance women's participation in eco- analysis (a) Identify barriersDevelopment" Policy (1994) nomic development." (b) Improve access through legal Equity

(A/C) barriers; access to assets and regulatory frameworksand services 2. Train in gender analysis

3. Obtain financing and collabora-Gender-sensitive policies; equita- tion with other agenciesbly beneficial; gender issues 4. Analyze gender issues through

poverty assessments and incor-porate into CASs

a. Numbers in parentheses refer to pages in cited text.b. (D): differentiation; (A/C): access/control; (L): level of institution.

1.2 World Bank Beijing Documents

Interventionl StatedPublication Level/date Goals/rationalea Key conceptsP,b procedures policy

Toward Gender Development "Persistent inequality between women (D) Gender in/equality (1); gap Governments to improve economic EquityEquality: The in Practice and men constrains a society's pro- (9); differences (15); equalize status of women by:Role of Public series (1995) ductivity and, ultimately, slows its rate opportunities between men and * Modifying legal framework EfficiencyPolicy of economic growth." (vii) "This report... women; wage disparity (3); women * Ensuring equal land and property

is intended as a reference to strate- agents of change rights Equalitygies for promoting gender equality * Promoting gender equality in la-and.. enhancing economic efficiency." (A/C) Constraints on women's op- bor market and employment(vii) portunities (employment) (4); in- * Ensuring gender equality in fam-

tra-household decisionmaking ily and financial lawprocess (1); intra-household allo- * Generating gender-disaggre-cation of resources (1); collective gated datavs. unitary household model (22) * Interaction with public institutions

and civil society(L) Household; market; institu-tional norms (1)

Advancing World Bank (D) Variations in gender relations * Modifying legal framework EfficiencyGender (1995) (4); gender: issues, inequality, * Ensuring equal land and propertyEquality: From -specific constraints, -neutral, rights EquityConcept to -based labor market segmenta- * Promoting gender equality in la-Action tion (23), discrimination (7); bor market and employment Equality

women's time (7); women's par- * Ensuring gender equality in fam-ticipation (9); segregation of ily law and financial laws andwomen (23); culturally based gen- regulationsder stereotypes (27) Gender and structural adjustment

in Africa (donors).(A/C) Barriers for women (5); gen-der-based constraints; women'saccess to financial services (6);inside/outside (4)


APPENDIX 2

World Bank OED Documents, Country Studies, and Strategies

2.1 World Bank OED Documents

Interventionl StatedPublication Date Goals/rationalea Key conceptsa,b procedures policy

Gender 1995 "Gender differences are at the core of (D) Gender: roles, differences, (a) Country involvement and EfficiencyIssues in human resource development. They differentiated outcomes (80), commitment to gender-relatedWorld Bank are relevant for alleviating poverty.. triple role (3,22,23) actions EquityLending Understanding the responsibilities and (b) Clear integration of gender-re-

roles of women and men among vari- (ANC) Constraints (23,58) lated objectives with overall Anti-ous income and ethnic groups will help project objectives povertyborrowers plan and implement effec- (L) Household/ community Gen- (c) Gender issues to be addressedtive development strategies... Atten- der-related action/activities (1), in ESW and CASstion to gender issues is essential to gender: issues (2), -related is- (d) Presence of staff with gender ex-achieve the Bank's mandate of pov- sues (79), -related problem (81), perienceerty alleviation and economic growth." -related objectives (3), experi- (e) Supervision/attention to gender(22) ence, focus (23), assessment, action

work; WID-focus (23)

Mainstreaming 1997 "World Bank involvement in gender (D) High quality/substantial gen- (a) Gender concerns should be fully EfficiencyGender in issues on the basis of improved effi- der analysis ( ii,10,14) Differen- addressed in social assess-World Bank ciency, poverty alleviation, and equity." tial benefits for men and women ments EquityLending: An (2) The arguments most frequently (box 2.3,.12) Gender gap (26/27) (b) Integration with other WorldUpdate used to justify gender-related activi- Bank concerns Anti-

ties were: (a) equity, (b) poverty; (c) (ANC) lntrahousehold decision pro- (c) Breakdown of key indicators by povertywelfare, and (d) economic efficiency cesses (30) Gender issues, action, gender(16). goals, -related actions/activities, (d) Set clear targets Welfare

roles, objectives, supervision,components, aspects, outcome


2.2 World Bank Country Studies


Gender and 1991 "If the objective is to change current (D) Inside/outside dichotomy; Increase women's access to key in- EfficiencyPoverty in patterns (as one key means of increas- map of inside/outside dichotomy puts, such as:India ing women's productivity, reducing * Education Empower-

their dependency, and ultimately (A/C) Access to key inputs (edu- * Training mentchanging the prevailing gender ideol- cation, credit); control (over re- * Creditogy), then..." (5) "Increasing women's sources) * Landeconomic productivity is a necessityto achieve key development goals." (L) Household as collective; site

of intrahousehold, gender-basedpower variations and motivations(6) Welfare inputs; productiveoutputs

Women in 1989 "Development is held back-and the Invisible labor (xx); status of (a) Investing in human resources EfficiencyPakistan: An gains of growth are not widely women; disadvantaged (xiii) ; dis- (education and health)Economic and shared-if half the population cannot crimination (xxvii) (b) Improving economic productivity WelfareSocial participate effectively either as con- (c) Removing overt discriminationStrategy tributors or as beneficiaries. Increas- (D) Purdah; inside/outside (xxi,xxii)

ing opportunities for women will be class (xxii)essential to improve economic perfor-mance, promote equity, and slow (A/C) Access/constraints to in-Pakistan's rapid population growth." puts and services (xxiv, xxv)(iii)

Bangladesh: 1990 "Bangladesh could benefit significantly (D) Inside/outside (xvii); invisible (a) Removal of gender-specific con- EfficiencyStrategies for in terms of increased productivity, en- labour (xviii, 2) straintsEnhancing the hanced family welfare (particularly (b) Investment in women: education, EquityRole of amongst the poor), and reduced popu- (A/C) Access to inputs; gender- health, access to productive re-Women in lation growth by focusing on the de- specific constraints of culture and sources such as creditEconomic velopment potential of its women." tradition (xvii, xviii, 1) (c) Participation by womenDevelopment (xviii, 2)

I ln themselves, these extremely ad- (L) Household; Economy (xvii)verse conditions justify major effortsto mitigate Bangladeshi women's suf-fering...." (xxix)

(Table continues on the following page.)

2.2 World Bank Country Studies (continued)

Interventionl Stated

Publication Date Goalslrationalea Key conceptsab procedures policy

Kenya: The 1989 "[Kenya's]...experience shows that in- (D) Families ... headed de facto by (a) Intensification of the agricultural Efficiency

Role of tegration of women in development is women; women-headed house- extension program

Women in a cost-effective way to pursue eco- holds;female heads of household (b) Improvement of secondary Equity

Economic nomic progress for the whole popula- (xix-xx); women's groups; women education for girls

Development tion." (xi) farmers (1); division of agricul- (c) Expansion of "safe mother- WIDtural labour by gender (6); hood""women's crops" (28) (d) Exploration of options in credit Welfare

(e) Expansion of rural water sup-(A/C) Female head of household plies(x); lack of access to credit (29) (f) Potential for women's employ-

ment outside agriculture(L) Household

Turkey: 1993 "...to enhance the participation of (D) Limited economic opportuni- (a) Remove barriers for women's Efficiency

Women in women in the economic development ties (xii); women's subordinate participationDevelopment process" (xi) positions in economy and house- (b) Education/schooling: broaden-

"Turkey can benefit significantly in hold (xii); gender-segregated ing women's skill rangeterms of increased productivity, en- -labor market (xvi), employment (c) Eliminate gender segregation inhanced family welfare, and reduced status, disparity ( xx), gap (xxi), employment equity initiativespopulation growth by focusing more on -neutral policies (xxii); female la- (d) Eliminate segregation of boys/

the development potential of its bor participation (xii) girls separate schools and cor-women." (xi) responding bureaucratic struc-

(A/C) Women's access to services tures in Ministry of Education(xxii); barriers (e) Integrate women into activities

in all ministries(L) Male-dominated institutions;household vs. labor market


2.3 World Bank Country Strategies

Interventionl StatedPublication Date Goals/rationalea Key Conceptsa,b proceduresa policy

El Salvador, 1996 "...identifies and discusses gender (D) Gender: differences, -based Three strategic goals (ix): GADMoving to a differences and inequities that affect behavioral differences, inequities, (1) Eliminating gender perceptionsGender women's and men's contributions to disaggregated data, stereotypes, in society that inadvertently GenderApproach: El Salvador's economic and human approach; discriminatory practices lead to discrimination and bi-Issues and development." (ix) "Gender differences (ix); inequities that affect women's ases ApproachReccommenda- have important economic and human and men's contribution to eco- (2) Supporting men's and women'stions development implications. Differences nomic and human development; behavioral tendencies that re- Efficiency

and inequities in health status; edu- societal based gender-roles (47); duce inequitable access to in-cational attainment, access to land gender-based labor trends and come opportunities andtenure and affordable credit affect inequalities; gender- related par- resourceshuman well-being, economic produc- ticipation indicators (xi) (3) Creating a more gender equi-tivity and rates of investment." (xii) table division of labor in the

(A/C) Family law: common spouses householdland rights (xi); gender lending

(L) Household headship

Towards a 1992 'The major objective of the Bank in (D) Gender relations (1); roles; (a) Training programs EfficiencyGender Nigeria is to support the government multiple roles (5); productive/re- (b) Women's participation inStrategy for efforts to alleviate poverty and raise productive roles (iii); division of decisionmaking processes EquityNigeria: the standard of living in a sustainable labor; gender-disaggregated (c) Awareness programs on creditIntegrating manner... In this context, the under- data; inequities (1); triple burden facilities Empower-Women's standing and full development of both (1) (d) Agricultural extension mentIssues into the productive and reproductive roles of (e) Family planning, health, andDevelopment women are critical to bring about eco- (A/C) Barriers: formal/ informal/ nutritionAgenda nomic success in the country." (iii) legal/ institutional to: access to (f) Nonformal education

factors (education, credit, prop- (g) Legislative and policy reformserty) (iii); gender-specific con- targeted at removing discrimi-straints to "human capital" and natory provisions in existing"economic productivity" (iv); intra- legislation and institutionalizedhousehold decisionmaking practices

(L) Household (as collective); in-stitutions


APPENDIX 3

World Bank Regional Action Plans

3.1 World Bank Regional Gender Action Plans

Interventionl Stated

Publication Date Goals/rationale8 Key conceptsa'b procedures policy

"Capacity 1997 "This proposal sets out a program to (D) Gender: differences, issues, (a) In-country workshops to create EquityBuilding on promote gender-responsive develop- inequities, -based investments, consensus on gender issuesGender in ment in Latin America and the Carib- goals, -disaggregated information1 and priorities, with the participa-Latin America" bean (LAC); that is, development that tion of government, nonprofit,

considers gender differences and con- (A/C) Gender: barriers, con- and private stakeholdersstraints and works towards reducing straints, intrahousehold resource (b) A gender operations support fa-gender barriers:' (1) allocation cility in LAC

(c) A gender review and monitoring(L) Household, institutions system

(d) Special studies and strategicevents on priority areas for gender

"MENA Region 1996 "MENA gender indicators are amongst (D) Gender: equality, equity, dispari- (a) Improved gathering and analysis Equity

Gender Action the worst in the world. This is true for ties, impact, -related activity, analy- of gender-disaggregated data

Plan" social indicators, participation of sis, issue, indicators; women's (b) Highlighting of gender issues in Efficiencywomen in the economy, political and participation in the economy; gen- selected CASs, economic re-legal rights, and in terms of institu- der-disaggegated data ports and overall country policytional concern with gender issues. dialogueHowever, MENA governments, with (A/C) Political and legal rights and (c) Continuing attention to issues ofrare exceptions, have been reluctant participation; advocacy; con- women's participation in theor at best timid in addressing issues straints on and niches for partici- economy (d) Support to all localof gender equality, and thus, while pation and access to services and women's groups, governmentthere has been some progress on productive resources (4). Intra- and nongovernmentalgender equality over the last decades, household distribution of resourcesit has been limited." (1)

(L) Household, institutions,economy


3.1 World Bank Regional Gender Action Plans (continued)


"South Asia 1997 "In some countries-particularly in (D) Invisibility of working women; "...The strategy that is common to EfficiencyRegion South Asia-gender-based dispari- subordination (i); Gender: analy- all countries in the region is the em-Gender Action ties are sharp and represent a major sis, relations, ideology; stratifica- phasis on strengthening women's EquityPlan" constraint on economic growth and tion, relations, issues, disparities, productive roles, while providing the

poverty reduction that must be ad- -based differentials, equity support for doing so through im- Anti-dressed as a top priority ... ln other (1,3,7); inside/outside (female/ provements in health and education. povertycountries gender asymmetries, while male) dichotomy (3) Further, improving the economicpresent, are more subtle ... A well well-being of the region's poorthought out and consistent gender (A/C) Barriers (to interaction with women must include not only ex-strategy is no less important in such "outside") (4) Access (to re- panding opportunities of employ-a country: significant welfare and effi- sources and opportunities) (1) ment and earnings, but makingciency gains are possible from reduc- specific efforts to enable women toing inequities in access to resources avail of the opportunities." (i,ii)and opportunities even when they areless acute." (1)

00

A set of country-specific actions anda set of region-wide actions.

"Europe and 1997 "Selectivity in terms of focusing on (D) Gender roles; asymmetric (a) CAS as entry point (PA, SA, gen- EfficiencyCentral Asia gender issues that have potentially gender outcomes; gender distor- der-specific analysis)Gender Action large pay-offs in terms of efficiency tions; gender issues (b) Research and monitor specific EquityPlan" and welfare gains." (1) areas: institutionalization of gen-

(A/C) Gender-based asymme- der issues in ECA; regional gen-tries der coordinator; gender group;

country managers; resident mis-sion focal points

(c) Tools: Regional good practicedissemination; training in genderissues

3.1 World Bank Regional Gender Action Plans (continued)

Interventionl StatedPublication Date Goals/rationale& Key conceptsa,b procedures policy

"Africa 1997 Overall regional goal: Sustainable (D) Women's economic capacity (a) Endorsement of RGAP by re- EfficiencyRegional Poverty Reduction: "By identifying (1); Gender: differentials (4), bias gional vice presidentsGender Action gender differentials in economic ca- (2), dimension (of poverty) (2), (b) Accountability to WB president EquityPlan (RGAP)" pacity as a key strategic issue for Af- barriers (4), disparity (4); female (c) Responsiveness to commit-

rica, the RGAP reflects the centrality poverty ( 6); women's labor time; ments made in SPA of integrat- Anti-of gender in Africa's economic devel- Triple responsibility (9); system- ing poverty and gender povertyopment." (1) "...gender-based dis- atic participation of women at all systematically into policy dia-crimination limits economic growth. levels (8) logue, economic reform opera- GADThis discrimination markedly affects tions, and strategic documentsmacroeconomic efficiency and (A/C) Inheritance and property (d) Country directors/ teams re- Empower-equity." (3) rights ...strongly asymmetrical by sponsible for specifying strate- ment

gender (4); inequality in intra- gic gender actions for eachhousehold resource allocation; country (gender analysis needswomen's education, health (6) to be part of SA and participa-

tion in CAS)(L) Household; labor market;policy

CAS to identify three priority gen-der actions.

"East Asia 1996 "In some countries.. gender-based (D) Gender: disparities, stratifica- (a) Set of country-specific actions EfficiencyRegional disparities are sharp and represent tion, -related activities, analysis, that focus on identifying the im-Gender Action a major constraint on economic equity, -disaggregated data, strat- portance of gender, priority is- Anti-Plan" growth and poverty reduction that egy; wage gap sues, and the Bank's role in poverty

must be addressed as a top priority.., addressing them in the contextIn other countries gender asymme- (A/C) Gender-based constraints; of each country Equitytries, while present, are more subtle... inequities in access (to resources (b) Set of regionwide actions thatA well thought out and consistent and opportunities); intrahouse- complement and facilitate thegender strategy is no less important hold allocation of resources process of mainstreaming gen-in such a country: significant welfare der into the Bank's work andand efficiency gains are possible from (L) Household; labor market; into the dialogue with its bor-reducing inequities in access to re- economy; society rowers and other partnerssources and opportunities even whenthey are less acute." (1)

a. Number in brackets refers to a page in cited text.b. (D): differentiation; (A/C): access/control; (L): level of institution.

3.2 Social Development Task Group Report

Interventionl StatedPublication Date Goals/rationalea Key conceptsa proceduresa policy

"Social 1996 "The development paradigm has Gender: Women's participation in Gender is a major social factor in EfficiencyDevelopment evolved ... to a more people-centered economic and social develop- achieving growth and equity, there-and Results approach that recognizes human and ment is essential both for promot- fore projects need to mainstream Equityon the social capital as critical factors in sus- ing economic efficiency and for gender. (Annex 2, 4)Ground" tainable development ... Poverty reduc- reducing poverty (5)

tion..In spite of economic growth,C poverty and social alienation persist,

and are often increasing."

(i) "People-centered Development,that is, development that puts people'swelfare and energy at the center of thedevelopment agenda." (i)

a. Numbers in parentheses refer to pages in cited text.

APPENDIX 4

Bilateral and Multilateral Donor Policies

4.1 Bilateral Donor Policies

Interventionl StatedPublication Level/date Goals/rationalea Key conceptsab procedures policy

Women in Netherlands "The concept of autonomy, which re- (D) Autonomy; self-determina- (a) Mainstreaming accompanied Autonomy/Development: Ministry of fers to authority, freedom, and oppor- tion; human development; (gen- by targets and screening pro- Empower-Advancing Foreign tunity for each individual, should be der) (1); class; race (15) cedures menttowards Affairs (1992) understood in the framework of com- (b) Active participation by womenAutonomy bating poverty and inequality on the (A/C) Autonomy: physical, eco- from recipient countries

grounds of class, gender, and race." nomic, political, sociocultural; (c) Strengthening of expertise and(14,15) 'Development cooperation distribution of power (15) development of toolsbased on the principle of autonomy for (d) Support for international women'swomen means endorsing a vision of (L) Household; community; soci- movement, particularly women'sthe distribution of power in all its mani- ety; market networksfestations.' (15)

CIDA's Policy Canadian "CIDA is committed to ensuring that (D) Gender: relations, equity, (a) To encourage, respond to, and Equityon Women in International its development activities benefit roles, gap, inequality, analysis support initiatives that: increaseDevelopment Development women as well as men .... Investing in (3); gender division of labor (4); women's participation in deci- Efficiencyand Gender Agency women leads to lasting economic systematic discrimination (6); sionmaking processes; improveEquity, 1995 (1996) growth, improved family welfare, and practical needs (6) women's income levels and eco- Empower-

a reduction in poverty-a more equi- nomic conditions; improve menttable distribution of the socio-eco- (A/C) Empowerment (4); strate- women's access to basicnomic benefits of development." (4) gic interests (6) health, family planning ser-

vices, and education; promotethe human rights of women

(b) Promote the elimination of dis-criminatory barriers againstwomen

(c) Promote WID-integrated ap-proach within CIDA and amongpartners


4.1 Bilateral Donor Policies (continued)

Interventionl StatedPublication Level/date Goals/rationalea Key conceptsab procedures policy

Fourth World British "...The reduction of gender inequality (D) Disparities; Gender (in)equal- Support:Conference Overseas is not only a goal in its own right, but ities (3) Gender issues (5) (a) Programs that help women and Equityon Women: Development also a significant contribution towards girls gain greater access to edu-Platform for Administration sustainable development ... ODA aims (A/C) Access (to productive re- cation, health, and incomes EfficiencyAction (1996) to tackle disparities between men and sources); control (of assets) (3) (b) Institutional development and

women throughout society..This also capacity building Empower-means supporting women's efforts to (L) Household, community, mar- (c) Revising legal frameworks for mentachieve partnership in political and kets, all levels of government (3) gender equalityeconomic decisionmaking, to exercise (d) Promoting women's participa-their human rights...." (3) Equal partnership (3) tion in government and politics

(e) Civil society institutions con-cerned with promotion of gen-der equality

Gender Swedish "Gender equality is a development (D) Gender roles (11); equality (a) Support empowerment of GenderEquality in International goal in itself. The focus on gender (7,8,9,11); people includes men women through special inputsDevelopment Development equality makes visible the interdepen- and women on equal terms. targeting women EqualityCooperation: Agency dence of the spheres of production (b) Mainstreaming a gender per-Taking the (1995) and reproduction, between paid and (A/C) Increased political and eco- spective into existing programsNext Step unpaid work, and provides a basis for nomic power-sharing between in all areas, emphasis on policy

the formulation of strategies in sup- men and women; the securing of development and concrete ac-port of equitable human development." human rights for both men and tivities within programs/agendaMfFA (7) "Gender equality is one of women. (11); gender equality a settingthe four strategic foundations in SIDA "societal issue" not a women's is- (c) Giving attention to genderalongside poverty elimination, demo- sue (15); girl child (15) equality at highest policy levelcratic development and HR and sus- in relation to the political, eco-tainable development." (7) nomic, and legal frameworks

(17)


4.2 Multilateral Policies

Interventionl StatedPublication Level/date Goals/rationale8 Key conceptsl.b procedures policy

DAC Gender DCD/DAC, "To uphold human rights and to (D) Women's education; eco- Endorsed goals for DAC-memberActions (1996 draft) achieve sustainable, people-centered nomic actors; managers of natu- aid agencies to:Framework development, equality in the roles and ral resources; men's behavior and (a) Endorse gender equality as

treatment of men and women is attitudes; gender: roles, differ- strategic objectiveeesential." ences, disparities, distortions, (b) Reemphasize sociocultural as-

issues, approaches (7), knowl- pects of development(4) "Adopting gender equality ... is edge, responsible, responsive, (c) Reconsider impact on womenviewed as a central issue for society.' (11), entry points, training, analy- of economic cooperation, trade, Gender(6) sis (11) enterprise development, and equality

nonproject forms of cooperation(A/C) Access to economic oppor- (d) Include gender implication in Humantunities analyses, policies, country, and rights

sector strategies* Emphasize ... accountibility and (e) Emphasize principles in areas

adequate monitoring. such as conflict resolution, HR,• DAC to establish a GenderAc- good governance, participation

tion Framework and Plan. (f) Help partners to strengthen in-stitutional capacitiy for address-ing gender equality


4.2 Multilateral Policies (continued)

Interventionl StatedPublication Levei/date Goals/rationalea Key conceptsD procedures policy

Fourth World UN (1995) "Equality between women and men is (D) Triple role; gender: roles, Governments, the international com- Empower-Conference a matter of human rights and a condi- perspectives, division of labor, munity and civil society, including menton Women: tion for social justice and is also a nec- equality; women's: roles, status; NGOs and the private sector, arePlatform for essary and fundamental prerequisite feminization of poverty; burden of called upon to take strategic action EqualityAction for equality, development and peace. work; discrimination; marginaliza- in the following critical areas of con-

A transformed partnership based on tion; inequality; human rights cern: Humanequality between women and men is (a) The persistent and increasing rightsa condition for people-centered sus- (A/C) Barriers to empowerment/ burden of poverty on womentainable development." (1) full equality; access to resources (b) Inequalities and inadequacies

and decisionmaking processes in and unequal access to edu-cation, training, health care,

(L) Household (family); institu- and related servicestions (private, public, social, cul- (c) Violence against womentural, political); international (d) The effects of armed or othercommunity kinds of conflict on women, in-

cluding those living under for-Inequality between men and eign occupationwomen in the sharing of power (e) Inequality in economic struc-and decisionmaking at all levels; tures and policies, in all formsinsufficient mechanisms at all lev- of productive activities, and inels to promote the advancement access to resourcesof women; lack of respect for andinadequate promotion and pro-tection of the human rights ofwomen


APPENDIX 5

Steps for Conducting a Gender Diagnosis

Who does what? How? Where? When?Gender roles analysis C*CC*C>C With whom?

Access and control Who has what? |

What are the differences between men'sMen's and women's needs ¢¢**c and women's health profiles?

Who needs what?

Formulation of objectivesWhat needs will be met?Whose needs will be met?What opportunities exist to meet them?What constraints hinder meeting them?

Practical Gender Approaches?Strategic Gender Approaches? A

How are men's and women's needs met?aPolicy approaches C* Who has access to what? T

Who has control over what?Is reduction of gender inequity a goal?Who participates in what, with whom, how,where, when, and to what end?

4++++++++++++++ +++++ ++4+++++++++++++4++++F' AL F T I C, I P A T I O N

a. Practical and Strategic Gender Approaches are used by PAHO to underscore that in health the key to achieving genderequity is in how (in this case) environmental health projects, policies, and programs are designed.

Source: PAHO (1997).

35

References

Bennett, L. n.d. "A Quick Guide for Gender Jacobs, Susan. 1997. "Social Assessment and Par-Analysis." Prepared for Asia Symposium, ticipation: Overview of Methods and Tools."World Bank, Washington, D.C. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Blackden, M. C., and E. Morris-Hughes. 1993. Kabeer, N. 1994. Reversed Realities. London:Verso."Paradigm Postponed: Gender and Economic Lingen, A. 1994. WID Policies of CIDA, DANIDA,Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa." Africa the Netherlands, the World Bank, and the DAC.Technical and Human Resources Division Comrnissioned by Secretariat for Analysis of(AFTHR), Technical Note 13. World Bank, Swedish Development Assistance. The Hague:Washington, D.C. Sida.

Buvinic, M., C. Gwin, and L. Bates. 1996. Invest- Longwe, S., and R. Clarke. 1994. Gender Equalitying in Women: Progress and Prospectsfor the World and Women's Empowerment. New York: UNICEF.Bank. ICRW Policy Essay 19. Washington, D.C.: Moser, Caroline. 1989. "Gender Planning in theInternational Center for Research on Women. Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic

CEDPA (Center for Development and Population Gender Needs." World Development 17:1.Activities). 1996. Gender Equity: Concepts and - . 1993. Gender Planning and Development:Toolsfor Development. Washington, D.C. Theory, Practice, and Training. London: Routledge.

CIDA (Canadian International Development Murphy, Josette. 1995. Gender Issues in World BankAgency). 1995. CIDA's Policy on Women in De- Lending. World Bank Operations Evaluationvelopment and Gender Equity. Hull, Quebec. Study, Washington, D.C.

Coady International Institute. 1989. A Handbook . 1997. Mainstreaming Gender in World Bankfor Social/Gender Analysis. Ottawa: CIDA. Lending: An Update. World Bank Operations

Dayal, R., A. R. Parker, and D. S. Svendsen. 1993. Evaluation Study, Washington, D.C."Gender Analysis and Planning in the Bank Netherlands, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 1992.Project Cycle." World Bank, Asia Technical and "Women in Development: Advancing towardsHuman Resources Division, Washington, D.C. Autonomy." The Hague.

Derbyshire, H. 1996. "Summary Sheets: Gender Nguyen, M. 1997. "Gender Analysis in the CASTraining Frameworks and Methods." ODA, Process." World Bank GenderAction Plan, Pov-London. erty Reduction and Economic Management

Hartigan, P. 1997. "Gender, Environment, and Network, Washington, D.C.Health: Incorporating a Gender Approach in ODA (Overseas Development Administration).Environmental Health Work." Washington, 1996. "Fourth World Conference on Women:D.C.: Pan American Health Organization. Platform for Action." London.

36

References 37

OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation . 1991. Gender and Poverty in India. Worldand Development), Development Co-operation Bank Country Study, Washington, D.C.Directorate (DCD)/Development Assistance . 1992. "Towards a Gender Strategy for Ni-Committee (DAC). 1996. "DAC Gender Actions geria: Integrating Women's Issues into the De-Framework.' DCD/DAC(96)18/REV2. Paris. velopment Agenda." World Bank Country

Overholt, C., M. Anderson, K. Cloud, and J. Aus- Strategy, Washington, D.C.tin. 1985. Gender Roles in Development Projects. _ . 1993a. Poverty Reduction Handbook, Wash-West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian Press. ington, D.C.

PAHO (Pan American Health Organization). 1997. . 1993b. Turkey: Women in Development."Facilitator's Guide: Workshop on Gender, World Bank Country Study. Washington, D.C.Health, and Development." Washington, D.C. . 1994a. Enhancing Women's Participation in

Pfannenschmidt, S., andA. McKay. 1997. "Through Economic Development. World Bank Policy Pa-a Gender Lens: Resources for Population, Health, per. Washington, D.C.and Nutrition Projects." Family Health Intema- . 1994b. "The Gender Dimension of Devel-tional. USAID, Washington, D.C. opment." World Bank Operational Policy 4.20,

Salmon, L. 1995. "Beneficiary Assessment: An Washington, D.C.Approach Described." World Bank, Environ- . 1995a. Advancing Gender Equality: FrommentDepartment Papers, Social Assessment Concept to Action. Washington, D.C.Series 023. Washington, D.C. . 1995b. "Africa Region Participation Ac-

SEGA. 1996. "Socioeconomic and Gender Analy- tion Plan." Washington, D.C.sis Programme." FAO and ILO, Rome. . 1995c. "East Asia and Pacific Region Par-

Sida (Swedish International Development ticipation Action Plan." Washington, D.C.Agency). 1995. "Gender Equality in Develop- . 1995d. "Environmentally and Sustainablement Cooperation: Taking the Next Step." Development ParticipationAction Plan." Wash-Stockholm. ington, D.C.

UNDP (United Nations Development Prog- . 1995e. "Europe and Central Asia Regionramme). 1995. Human Development Report 1995. Participation Acton Plan." Washington, D.C.New York: Oxford University Press. - . 1995f. "Latin America and the Caribbean

UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund). 1994. Region Participation Action Plan." Washington,"Gender Equality and Women's Empower- D.C.ment: A UNICEF Training Package." New - . 1995g. "Middle East and North AfricaYork. Region Participation Action Plan. " Washington,

-. 1995. "UNICEF and the Fourth World D.C.Conference on Women: Briefing Note." New . 1995h. "South Asia Region ParticipationYork. Action Plan." Washington, D.C.

UN (United Nations). 1992. Women 2000. Center . 1995i. Toward Gender Equality: The Role offor Social Development and Humanitarian Af- Public Policy. Development in Practice Series.fairs. Vienna. Washington, D.C.

. 1995. Fourth World Conference on Women: . 1996a. "Africa Region Social DevelopmentPlatformfor Action. Beijing. Action Plan." Washington, D.C.

World Bank. 1989a. Kenya: The Role of Women in - .1996b. "East Asia and the Pacific RegionalEconomic Development. World Bank Country Gender Action Plan." Washington, D.C.Study. Washington, D.C. - . 1996c. "East Asia and the Pacific Social

.1989b. Women in Pakistan: An Economic and Development Regional Action Plan." Washing-Social Strategy. World Bank Country Study. Wash- ton, D.C.ington, D.C. . 1996d. "El Salvador, Moving to a Gender

.1990a. Bangladesh: Strategiesfor Enhancing Approach: Issues and Recommendations." Worldthe Role of Women in Economic Development. Bank Country Strategy. Washington, D.C.World Bank Country Study. Washington, D.C. . 1996e. "Europe and Central Asia Region

_____. 1990b. World Development Report 1990: Social Development Action Plan." Washington,Poverty. New York: Oxford University Press. D.C.


. 1996f. "Latin America and the Caribbean . 1997c. "Europe and Central Asia GenderRegion Social Development Plan." Washington, Action Plan." Washington, D.C.D.C. - . 1997d. Gender Net. Washington, D.C.

. 1996g. "Middle East and North Africa On-line at internet address: http://ispace.Regional Gender Action Plan." Washington, worldbank. org/cgi-bin/frameit.fcg?http://D.C. gender/

. 1996h. "Social Development and Results . 1997e. "Inplementing the World Bank'son the Ground." World Bank Task Group Re- Gender Policies." Progress Report 11 (2). Re-port. Washington, D.C. gional Gender Action Plans. Washington, D.C.

. 1996i. "South Asia Social Development . 1997f. "Latin America and the CaribbeanRegional Action Plan." Washington, D.C. Regional Gender Action Plan." Washington,---. 1996j. The World Bank Participation D.C.Sourcebook. Washington, D.C. . 1997g. "Mainstreaming Gender in World

. 1997a. "Africa Regional Gender Action BankLending: An Update." The Committee onPlan." Washington, D.C. Development Effectiveness (CODE) Report.

.1997b. "Capacity Building on Gender in Washington, D.C.Latin America." LAC Region. Washington, . 1997h. "South Asia Regional Gender Ac-D.C. tion Plan." Washington, D.C.

Distributors of ~~~~~COLOMBIA GERMANY Tel: (52 5) 624-2800 POLAND Fax: (94 1) 432104Distributors of bOlnenlace Lnda. ULNO-Vettag ISRAEL Fax: (525) 624-2822 Internatlinal Publishing Service E-mail: [email protected]

W orld Bank Carreraf6No.51-21 PoppelsdorterAllee 55 Yozmeo Lierature Ltd. E-mail: [email protected] UI. Piekna 31D37Aparlade Aereo 34270 53115 Bonn PO. Box 560055 00677 Watzaw SWEDEN

Publications SaneaIt de BogotA, D.C. Tel: (49 228) 949020 3 Yohanan Hasandlar Street Mundi-Prensa Mexico S.A. de C.V Tel: (48 2) 628-6089 Wennergren-Williams AB

Prices and credit terms varyfrom Tel:(957 1)285-27988 Fax: (49228)212492 Tel Aviv61560 c/Rio Panuco, 141-ColoniaCuauhtemoc Fan: (48 2) 621-7255 P0. Box 1305cotmntrr,l to Con n ir it porFax: (57 1( 285-2798 E-mail: [email protected] Tet: (972 3)5285-397 06500 Mexrico, 0.F E-tmai: booka%[email protected] 3-1 71 25 Solna

cotmtry. Const your Fax: (972 3) 5285-397 Tel: (52 5) 533-5658 Tel: (46 8) 705-97450local distributor before placing an COTE D'IVOIRE GHANA Fax: (525) 514-6799 PORTUGAL Fax: (46 8) 27-00-71

order. Ceter d'Edition et de DrifusiGn Afriaines Ep, Books Services R.O.Y Intemational NPLAada Po ,ua Do mamlowwi-74(CEDA) PO. Bex 44 Po Box 13056 NEPAL Apartado 2681, Pea Do Caro 70-74

ARGENTINA 04 B.P 541 TUC Tel Aviv 61130 Everesl Meda Inleternational Services (P) Ltd 1200 Usioon SWITZERLANDOlicina del Libro Intemacional AAcicr 04 da Tel: (972 3) 5461423 GPO Box 5443 Tel: (1) 347-4982 Librairie Payot Service lnstuteionnel

Av. Cordoba 1877 Tel: (225)246510:246511 Fax: (9723) 5461442 Kathmrandu Fax:(t3470264 Coles-de-Moxthenon301120 Buenos Aires Fax: (275)250567 GREECE E-mail: ryillnetvision.net.il Tel: (977 1)472 152 ROMANIA 1002 Lassanee

Tel: (54 1) 815-8354ax (25) 5 067Papasotirieu S.A. .Fax: (9T7 1( 224 431 RMNATel: (41 21) 341-3229Fax: (54 1)815-8156 CYPRUS 35, Stoumara Str. Palestinian Authofity/Midde East ComoaniDeLbnaniBucrsbSA Fax:(4121)341-3235

E-mail: [email protected] esa 106 82 Aittens Index Ixtomnatiex Services NETHERLANDS Sir. Uipscani no. 26, sector 3E-mrail: olilbro@satlinkcom Cenler 6 or ApColied Research Tel: (301) 364-1826 PI.d. 19502 Jerusalem De LindeboEmLnOr-Publikati- Bucharest ADECO Van Diermen EditionsTechnixues

AUSTRALIA, FIJI, PAPUA NEW GUINEA, Cyprus CleeFax: (30 1) 364-8254 Tel: (972 2(6271219 PO. Ben 2D2, 7480 AE Haxlrshrgen Tel: (40 1(613 9645 Chi de Lacueez 41, 6, Diegexes Street, Engomi Fax: (8722) 6271634 Tel: (31 53) 574-Sn i Fax: (40 1)312 4000 CH1807 Blonay

SOLOMON ISLANDS, VANUATU), AND P0. Bee 2006HATFa:315)5296Te:411 4 67SAMOA Nlicosia HAITIn Fax:2n( 3153AN572-929FrTe: (41 21) 943 2673D.A. lnnatmxsi Servadiest u 31: (3572(44-1730 HONGKONG,CHINA;UAOCu Diffusien - ITALY E-mail: linde9 oo@wo54 RsANt Fe DRA N Fa (4121)943 3648. WInfrmationhers iead FTel: (357 2)4-20 5. Rue Capois Licose Coemissienria Sansoxi SPA 200lsatsny <Vex Mrax THAI

Meodriate313 DEN.R 257i,101 VianDRindePubtishebriUd Ut 9e,6 e Kdpchl 4e0x3n ThAND RIB

A-1011 Whitehorsen Road Fax: (357 2)46L 2051 CoPK 257 Via76-927-2085abria, NEW ZEALAND Moscow 101831 Central Books DistribuoSnleMftdlam 3132 ~ ~~~~~~~~~Porl-au-Prinrce Caselea Poetale 552 EBSCO NZ Ltd. Tel: (7 085) 9t7 87 48 306 Silom Read

Velr 51 CZECH REPUBLIC Tel: (509)2329260 80125 Firence Private Mail Bag 99514 Fax: V(605)81782 59 Bangkork 10500Tel: (61) 38210 7777 USIS. HIS Predeea Fax: (509) 2304856 Tel: (55)645415 NexT MakertiFAx:NG61ADE9210SH788 Hav160ova HI Fa (55) 641-257 AuicklJAand SINGAPORE; TAIWAN, CHINA- Tel: (86 2) 235-5400E-maouservicedadirec1.com.u 130 (402)2432148 ANGia 20 L CHId6NA Tel:C(64l9)A524-8119 MYANMAR;BRUNEI Fax: (0A2) 237-8321

DhaUSTRIA F.O.Box17424123 1486el(36 2000 3bO8024,3508025 Fax(813) 819 94 5bD 4ptM 7d AsheLpF (45ePubrishing Asia Pacific Pte. Ltd. TRINIDAD & TOBAGOFax:(63 8Fax: (4202)24231114 Sales & Ciraulation2 Deparent JAMAICA 41 Kaang Pudritg Rad #04-03ATAGerold end Cx. Seabird Heuse, exit 1101T-02 tax Penile Peblishers Ltd. NIGERIA Goldee Wheel BuikdTgS THE CARR1B2 EANWeibtUrggasse 26 DENMARK 22-28 WbrKnrox Street, Com 206 Old Hope Road, KiNkston 6 Universry Preen Lu ied gSystematics Studies Ltd.A-lOll Wiien SamnhandsLireratur Hong Kogl:apr (6)41-5106 EsenMied St. AugusinsSoiig xeneTel: (43 1) 512-47-310 Roseema ANr -Hyl: Kg040 Tel: 876-927-2085 Thme Crewns Bilding JerichoTel:657415166Ed St. AugGp ingenFax: (431)51247-31-29 d eCasi Er c1Fax: 876-97-0243 Private Mag Beg Fax: (65(2742-9356 Trinidad b Tboe, Westies

DKl(5 1)7 351942kber B-mat: sa8esila2526 oo.107 rE.mail [email protected] ledan E-mail: ashgate@asiancorsnect-cem dad: &88 T6bge5 Wes4InieBQ4GLADauitoax .Tel: (234 22) 41-1356 el(8 S8

BRANGLADESHFax: (45631)3037822 JAPAN Fax: (2343 2) 41-2056 Ema/Fax: (868) 645-8467Micro ladestries Developmenl HUNGARY Eastern Boet Service GosLo YENtA ik 20 Group ETrdiil: [email protected]

Assistc Seciety (MIDAS) ECUADOR BErn trtew S4 oervi Gedarehi Vesleik og GrvipeHoese 5. Peard 16 LriMeiMaroIsgeti Europa Ha 3-13 HongD 3-diomne, Bexnkyo-ku NORWAY Drma)ka cesla 5 UGANDA

Dhanmnroni R'Area Libreria ntxemaciDnxal H-16 ~Telry (113) 381C nIx A7nt13oo2 30tGstrorrdDhelrx 1209 P.O. Bex 17-01-3029 Tel: (361)3508024.3508025 Tel: (813) 3818-0861 Beek Departmentok Ppa ementstPsheoks 6512E EgerdlTd : T 3l: 618661)133PO347:13271230dGanstmuLtd.

Tel: (8180) 3259642Je Le 1Me01reu0 Tel: (36 1) 35 3550 Fee Kara: (81 3)738180864 N-PO. Dl Fax: (38661)1338030P e hiFax: (88521) 128862 n El n e 9rel Fax: (62 1) 3090 a28 TE-mail: order27 svt-13 s.co/ Tel: (47 22) 974500 E-nCail:repansetlgvestnik.si PIot 16/4 Jinja Rd.E-mail: po0 Cairo Fax:88 Qu82 E2). euro844315almalaihu Fax: (47 22) 9784545 Kampala

Tel: (593 2)9521-606; (593 2) 544-185 IDAKNASOUTH AFRICA, BOTSWANA Tel: (256 41) 251 467

JANADA FaxD (Lm t2)578el 504r e Allied Publishers Ltd. frirce Bek Service (BA.) Ud. PAIUSTAN Foer sigle 'tIes: Fax: (256 41)251 468Ranx De Rlis20n2 m 7uRdanx House, Mfan.gan Street Mirze Bek Agency Oxford UniversLiy Press Southem Africa B-malt: [email protected] Bmussels CODEU Madres -0 Ae 002 PO. Bex 45245 65, Shahrah-e-O1uid-e-Azam easce Boslevard, GoodweedTel: (32O2( 538-5169 Rel: d1 CSh i 7 Ei(91 44) 852-3936 NBeinbi Lahore 54 PO. Bex 12118, Ni City 7463 UNITED KINGDOMFax: (322)538-0841 PRixe Cilla 7t. #2 Fax: (81 44) 852-0649 Tel: (2542) 223 641 Tel: (92 42) 735 3601 Cape Town o, Microinfo Ltd.E-mail: pisor .depl@ kFax: (254s2) 330272 Fax: (82 42) 576 3714 Tel: (2721(595 4400 PD. Bee 3, Aftox, Hampshire GU34 2PG

BRAINA FINLANDtUniversi.;yotMabyCo INDONESIA Fax: (2721)5954430 BEglandPbRiAZIL Tcne nemcoai ta TeI'Fa: (593 2(507-383; 253-091 Pt. ncire Linied KOREA, REPUBLIC OF Oxlotli Uxiversily Press B-mail: [email protected] Tel: (44 1420) 86848

Ruiea TinncGica 20E9nomix E-mail: cDrleuormprat.net.ec Jwah BRerehder 20 Daeenn Treing Ce. LId. BRealoresam Town Fax: (44 1420)Z89889R149 sinaoe Gyuid. 200 PO. Bex 181 PO5 Be 34, Youida, 780 Seunx Bld Sharae Feisal Forsubscr-iption oerrs: E-mail- [email protected] Sax Ph e. Si DoEGYPT, ARAB REPUBLIC OF Jtkart 10320 44-6 Youido-Dong, Ye2ngchengpo-Ku P0 Bee 13033 Inlemational Subscriptien Service

TEleiin Tel (3801141 259(981)58-44 5970 Kuabumpu Disx:(51o 14)28662 Seouleen P.bx27

Tel: (55 11)258-6644 Fal Tel: (62 21)390-4290 eKaachi-75350 PD. Bee 41005 The Stationery officeFax: (55811)6258-6890 -Al Galaa Street Fax: (62 21(3804289 Tel: (2a2)785-1831/4 Tel: (82 21(-44307 Craighall 51 Nine Elms tneeE-mail: 66ostmasteriltiol.hr Cair Fax: (82 2)7 04-0315 Fax: (9 21) 4547640 JeheLAesburg 2024 Loedexn 589 SDR

Tel: (202) 578-6083 IRAN E-m3ail: ou7pak TheO4eice.net Tel: (27 11)388-1448 Tel: (44171)873-8400CAnADA PenlishingCo.Ltd.Fax: (20 2) 578-6833 Ketar Sama Go. Publishers LEBANON Fan: (27 11) 800-6248 Fax: (44 171)73-8242R36eCnnetPekln Roa Ld. Khaled Eslaxrbeli Axe., 6th Strmel Librreirix de Liban Pak Beek Corporation E-mrail: iss§is.co.za5369wa COnetari Read, The Middle East Observer Delalrooz Alley No. 8 PO. Rex 11-9232 Azic Chambers 21, Queen's Rend VENEZUELADTew: Ontaio KJ79J 41, Shert Streel PO. Ben 15745-733 Remirt Lahore SPAIN Tecni-Ciencia libros, S.A.

Te:(1)4-2665 Cairo Tehran 15117 Tel: (861 9) 217 944 Tel: (92 42) 63633222; 636 0865 Mendi-Prense Ldbrros S.A. Centro Cuidad Comercial TamnancoFax: (613) 745-7660 Tel: (20 2) 393-9732 Tel: (98 21( 8717819; 8716104 Fax: (801 9) 217 434 Fax: (82 42) 636 2328 Castello37 Nivel C2, CaracasE-mnail: [email protected] Fax: (20 2) 393-9732 Fax: (98021) 8712479 B-mrail: [email protected] 28001 Medrid Tel: (58 2) 859 5547, 5035; 8016

E-mnail: kelahi-sernBneda.et.ir MALAYSIA Tli: (34 1( 431-3399 Fax: (58 2) 959 5636CHINA FINLAND University of Malaya CDoperative PERU Fax: (34 1(6575-3998China Financial & Eononmi c Akreteeminen Kir)alhexppa Kowabrl Publishers Beokshoxp, Liketd Edioedal Desarrolle SA B-mail: [email protected] ZAMBIAPublishinig House PD. Bee 128 PDO. Ben 19575-511 P.O. Rex 1127 Apartndo 3824, Lima 1 Univemsiy Beeokshop, University of Zambia&, De Fe Si Deeg Jie FIN-00101 Helsinki Tehran Jalant Pantai Bern Tel: (51 14) 285380 Mendi-Prensa Barcelona Great East Reed CampusBeijing Tel: (35800) 121 4418 Tel: (98 21( 258-3723 59700 Keels Lumpur Fax: (51 14) 286628 Conseil de Cent, 301 P0O. Rex 32379Tel: (868 10) 6333-8257 Fax: (35860) 121-4435 Fax: (98 21) 258-3723 Tel: (803) 756-5000 009BreoaLsk

Fax: (86 10( 6401-7365 E-fmail: [email protected] Fee: (80 3) 755-4424 PHILIPPINES Tel: (34 3)480-3492 Tel- (260 1( 252 576IRELAND E-mail: [email protected]. rny International Booksource Center Inc. Fax: (34 3) 487-7659 -Fax: (280 1( 253 957

China Beek Import Centrer PRANCE Goenemmrent Supp9es Agency 1127-A Asl(polo St, Rerangey, Venezuela B-mail: [email protected]. Rex 2825 Wedd Renk Publicatiees Oilig ax ISalsitrair MEXICO Makaeti City ZIMBABWEBeijing 6,xexd'ea4-5 H-aroouit Road INFOTEC Tel: (63 2) 8966561: 6505: 6507 SRI LANKA, THE MALDIVYES Academic and Baebab Reeks (PvI.) Ltd.

7511ven6 Parisn Dublin 2 Ax. Sen Femanedo No. 37 Fax: (632( 896 1741 Lake House Bookrshop 4 Conald Road, GraniresideTel: (33 1) 40-69-30-56157 Tel: (353 1) 661-31 11 Col. Todello Guerra 100, Sir Ch0,iSir Orimpampm GardaineseraM atahha POO.BBen556

Fax: (3 1) 4-69-3068Tel: (3531(661-3111 Cx050 Texico,l Grirr Colombo 2 HaraemTel: (33 1)40-68-30-96/97 Fax: (3331)475-2670 14050 Mexico, D.E Tel: (94 1)32100 Tel: 2634755940353215 Tel 263 475503

Fax: (33 1)40-69-30-68 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Fax: 263 4781913

THE WORLD BANK

I181 II St,-cct . \V\

\\ Llhi)igton. I ).C( . 20433 L S \

TI.lclcphoIlc: 202-477-1234

IFacsiml1ic: 202-4717-6391

IClc\: \I(I 64145 \XORII)Ii\NI\

\I(1 24S423 \(| I. )ANl

\\(,,-I.I \\IlC \\. h: IIttp: IXX Xc )Il(,h.III .rIg

li-m,,il: hooks (ol\


\,, 1,,. /), X, 0-8213,4262-2

ISBN 0-8213-4262-2