work characteristics, personal resources, and employee well-being
TRANSCRIPT
Work characteristics, personal resources, and employee well-being: A longitudinal study among Finnish firefighters
People and WorkResearch Reports 109
Auli Airila
Work characteristics, personal resources, and em
ployee well-being: A
longitudinal study among Finnish firefighters
Airila A
uli
In today’s dynamic work life, employees are expected not only to be healthy and able to work efficiently, but also to be highly engaged and motivated. However, at the same time, the prevalence of mental health disorders and diseases of the musculoskeletal systems is also high. Therefore, understanding and enhancing employee well-being as a whole is essential. The present study examined the longitudinal effects of work characteristics (i.e., job demands and resources), personal resources and lifestyle on employee well-being, using data on Finnish firefighters.
This study showed that job demands, job resources, personal resources, and lifestyle all affect employee well-being over time. It offers new information for researchers, policy-makers, HRM at workplaces, and occupational health services about possibilities to enhance employee well-being, particularly work engagement, and consequently prevent ill-health and promote long working careers.
109
ISBN 978-952-261-525-1
Orders:Finnish Institute of Occupational HealthArinatie 3FI-00370 HelsinkiFinland
E-mail [email protected]
ISBN 978-952-261-525-1 (paperback)ISBN 978-952-261-526-8 (PDF)
ISSN-L 1237-6183ISSN 1237-6183
Cover picture: Saimi Airila
People and Work
Editor in chief Harri Vainio
Scientific editors Irja Kandolin Timo Kauppinen Kari Kurppa Anneli Leppänen Hannu Rintamäki Riitta Sauni
Editor Virve Mertanen
Address Finnish Institute of Occupational Health Arinatie 3 FI-00370 Helsinki Tel. +358-30 4741 www.ttl.fi
Cover design Mari Pakarinen Cover picture Saimi Airila, 6 years ISBN 978-952-261-525-1 (paperback) ISBN 978-952-261-526-8 (PDF) ISSN-L 1237-6183 ISSN 1237-6183
Press Suomen Yliopistopaino Oy – Juvenes Print, Tampere 2015
Work characteristics, personal resources, and employee well-being: A longitudinal study among Finnish firefighters
Auli Airila
People and Work Research Reports 109
Finnish Institute of Occupational Health Helsinki 2015
AcAdemic dissertAtion
to be presented, with the permission of the Faculty of social sciences of the University of Helsinki, for public examination in Auditorium XiV, University main Building (Unioninkatu 34, 3rd floor),on 20th march 2015, at 12 noon.
Author´s Auli Airilaaddress: centre of expertise for Work and Work organizations Finnish institute of occupational Health Helsinki, Finland
Supervisors: research director research Professor Jari Hakanen Helsinki collegium for Advanced studies University of Helsinki, Finland centre of expertise for Work and Work organizations Finnish institute of occupational Health Helsinki, Finland
Professor Anna-maija Pirttilä-Backman department of social research social Psychology University of Helsinki, Finland
Reviewers: Professor siw tone innstrand department of social Work and Health science the norwegian University of science and technology (ntnU) trondheim, norway
Professor saija mauno school of social sciences and Humanities University of tampere, Finland
Opponent: Professor Ulla Kinnunen school of social sciences and Humanities University of tampere, Finland
3
Contents
ABBreViAtions............................................................ 5
List oF originAL ArticLes .......................................... 6
AcKnoWLedgements ................................................... 7
ABstrAct .................................................................... 9
tiiVisteLmä ................................................................ 12
1 introdUction ......................................................... 151.1 conceptualization of employee well-being ................ 17
1.1.1 Affective well-being ...................................... 191.1.2 Health-related well-being .............................. 241.1.3 Life satisfaction ........................................... 29
1.2 theoretical frameworks for explaining employee well-being ............................................................ 30
1.2.1 Job demands-resources model ...................... 301.2.2 conservation of resources theory ................... 331.2.3 Broaden-and-Build theory .............................. 351.2.4 comparison of the theoretical frameworks ....... 36
1.3 study context: rescue services ............................... 371.4 Aims of the study .................................................. 40
2 metHods ................................................................. 432.1 Participants .......................................................... 432.2 measures ............................................................. 46
2.2.1 employee well-being ..................................... 462.2.2 Job demands ............................................... 492.2.3 Job resources .............................................. 502.2.4 Personal resources ....................................... 512.2.5 Lifestyle factors ............................................ 51
2.3 statistical Analyses ............................................... 53
3. resULts ................................................................... 563.1 relationship between work engagement and work ability (study i) .................................................... 563.2 Work engagement as a mediator between job resources, personal resources, and work ability (study ii) ......... 58
4
contents
3.3 mood trajectories and their relationship to work ability, self-rated health, and life satisfaction (study iii) ...... 613.4 Pain-depression trajectories, work characteristics, and individual factors (study iV) ............................. 63
4 discUssion ............................................................. 674.1 motivational state of work engagement associated with work ability ................................................... 674.2 motivational process and its health-related properties .. 70
4.2.1 Longitudinal evidence of the importance of job and personal resources ................................. 704.2.2 Health resources as drivers and outcomes of the motivational process in the Jd-r model ...... 71
4.3 mood trajectories were differentially related to well-being ............................................................ 734.4 developmental paths in musculoskeletal pain and depressive symptoms, and health-enhancing effects of job resources and individual factors ..................... 754.5 methodological considerations ................................. 794.6 implications for future research .............................. 824.7 Practical implications ............................................. 854.8 conclusions .......................................................... 87
reFerences ................................................................ 89
originAL ArticLes ..................................................... 109
5
AbbReviAtions
AIC Akeike’sinformationcriteriaBaB Broaden-and-BuildtheoryBIC BayesianinformationcriterionBMI BodymassindexCFA ConfirmatoryfactoranalysisCFI ComparativefitindexCI ConfidenceintervalCOR ConservationofResourcestheoryDPS DepressivesymptomsEFA ExploratoryfactoranalysisERI Effort-RewardImbalancemodelJDC JobDemand-ControlmodelJD-R JobDemands-ResourcesmodelMLE Maximum-likelihoodestimationMSP MultisitemusculoskeletalpainLCGM LatentclassgrowthmodelingOR OddsratioPOMS ProfileofmoodstatesRMSEA RootmeansquareerrorofapproximationSDT Self-determinationtheorySEM StructuralequationmodelingSRH Self-ratedhealthTLI Tucker-LewisindexT1 Time1(1996)T2 Time2(1999)T3 Time3(2009)UWES UtrechtworkengagementscaleWAI WorkabilityindexWHO WorldHealthOrganization
6
List oF oRiginAL ARtiCLes
I Airila,A.,Hakanen,J.,Punakallio,A.,Lusa,S.,&Luukkonen,R.(2012).Isworkengagementrelatedtoworkabilitybeyondworkingconditionsandlifestylefactors?International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health,85,915–925.
II Airila,A.,Hakanen,J.J.,Schaufeli,W.B.,Luukkonen,R.,Punakallio,A.,&Lusa,S.(2014).Arejobandpersonalresourcesassociatedwithworkability10yearslater?Themediatingroleofworkengagement.Work & Stress,28,87–105.
III Airila,A.,Hakanen,J.J.,Luukkonen,R.,Lusa,S.,&Punakallio,A.(2013).Positiveandnegativemoodtrajectoriesandtheirrelationshiptoworkability,self-ratedhealthandlifesatisfaction:A13-yearfollow-upstudy.Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,55,779–785.
IV Airila,A.,Hakanen,J.J.,Luukkonen,R.,Lusa,S.,Punakallio,A.,&Leino-Arjas,P.(2014).Developmentaltrajectoriesofmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptoms–theeffectsofjobdemandsandresourcesandindividualfactors.Psychology & Health,29,1421–1441.
Theoriginalarticlesarereprintedinthisreportwiththekindpermissionofthecopyrightholders,SpringerScience+BusinessMedia(I),Taylor&Francis(II,IV),andWoltersKluwerHealth,LippincottWilliams&Wilkins(III).
7
Acknowledgements
There are many people who have helped and supported me during my PhD project.
I am most grateful to my supervisors, Professor Anna-Maija Pirttilä-Backman and Research Professor Jari Hakanen. Thank you Anna-Maija for your support, thorough guidance and help throughout the study and writing process. It has been a huge privilege to work with Jari, an outstanding expert in positive work psychology and employee engage-ment. I would never have been able to complete my thesis without your endless encouragement, positive and constructive feedback, wise advice, and support. Thank you so much, Jari!
I also wish to warmly thank the reviewers of my thesis, Professor Saija Mauno from the University of Tampere and Professor Siw Tone Innstrand from The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, for their valuable comments on my manuscript.
I am also indebted to the co-authors of the original publications of my thesis. Dr. Sirpa Lusa and Dr. Anne Punakallio introduced me to the Finnish firefighters’ world of work and offered me the opportunity to use longitudinal research data on firefighters. Thank you both! Dr. Ritva Luukkonen has been a highly valuable guide in the world of statistics, thank you for all your help and supervision in the statistical analyses! I also want to thank Professor Wilmar Schaufeli from the Utrecht Uni-versity and Dr. Päivi Leino-Arjas from FIOH for their collaboration, guidance, and advice.
I have also learned a great deal from the doctoral seminars held by the discipline of Social Psychology at the University of Helsinki. I wish to thank Professor Anna-Maija Pirttilä-Backman and Professor Inga Jasinskaja-Lahti for their stimulating and insightful seminars. I also thank my peer PhD students from the seminars for commenting on my papers.
8
AcKnoWLedgements
Iextendmywarmestthankstoallmyco-workersatFIOH.IamgratefultoDr.AnneliLeppänen,DirectoroftheCentreoftheExper-tiseforDevelopmentofWorkandOrganizations,forallowingmetouseFIOH’sfacilitiesandresourcestocarryoutthiswork.IalsothankmyformerteamleaderDr.AriVäänänenforhissupport,forgrantingmestudyleaves,andforhisconstructivecommentsonmymanuscript.IamgratefultoallmycolleaguesatFIOHwithwhomIhavehadtheopportunitytowork,includingMinnaToivanen,BarbaraBergbom,PiiaSeppälä,MinnaJanhonen,JenniErvasti,KirsiYli-Kaitala,andmanyoth-ers.Thankyouforyourpeer-support,practicalcommentsonmywork,andinspiring,criticalandexcitingdiscussionsoverlunchandcoffeebreaksthroughouttheyears!IalsothankVirveMertanen-HalinenforprofessionaleditingofmythesisandAliceLehtinenforlanguageediting.
Financialsupportduringthisresearchprocesshasalsobeenimpor-tant.ForthisIthankTheEmergencyServicesCollegeandTheFinnishDoctoralProgramonLabourandWelfareStudies–LabourNet.Inaddi-tion,IthanktheUniversityofHelsinki,TheFinnishWorkEnvironmentFund,andtheFinnishConcordiaFundforofferingmescholarshipstointernationalconferences.
Mostofall,Iamgratefultomyfamilyandfriends.IowemywarmestthankstomyparentsTuireandSeppoforencouragingandsupportingmeovertheyears.Inparticular,IamgratefultomymotherandherhusbandAntti,andmyparents-in-lawEevaandMauriforalltheirsup-port,andfortheiressentialhelpwithchild-care.Combiningwork,PhDstudies,andfamilyhasbeenmucheasierwithyourhelp.IalsowanttothankmydearfriendsRiikkaandTiina,foryourfriendshipandsupport,forlistening,andforournot-always-so-scientific-but-highly-importantdiscussions!Alovingthankyougoestomydearchildren,Laura,Oskari,andSaimi.Thanksforinspiringme,andforourlovely,oftenamusingdiscussionsrelatedtomythesis.Youhavetaughtmemorethanyouknow!AndspecialthankstoSaimiforthepositivecoverillustration!Last,butdefinitelynotleast,IwanttothankmydearhusbandMarkus,forallyourencouragement,continuoussupport,helpinvariousways,andlove.
Kerava,March2015
Auli Airila
9
AbstRACt
Intoday’sdynamicworklife,employeesareexpectednotonlytobehealthyandabletoworkefficiently,butalsotobehighlyengagedandmotivated.However,atthesametime,theprevalenceofmentalhealthdisordersanddiseasesofthemusculoskeletalsystemsisalsohigh.There-fore,understandingandenhancingemployeewell-beingasawholeisessential.
Theaimofthisthesiswastoexaminethelongitudinaleffectsofworkcharacteristics(i.e.,jobdemandsandresources),personalresources,andlifestyleonemployeewell-beingbyapplyingthreetheoreticalframeworks–JobDemands-Resources(JD-R)model,ConservationofResources(COR)theory,andBroaden-and-Build(BaB)theory.Thesetheoreticalframeworkswerechosenastheyoffertheoreticalexplanationsfortheunderlyingpsychologicalprocessesbetweentheantecedentsandwell-beingoutcomes.Inthisthesis,employeewell-beingwasunderstoodasamultidimensionalconstructcoveringaffective,cognitive,andhealth-relatedcomponents.Throughthisconceptualization,bothpositiveandnegativeaspectsaswellasjob-relatedandcontext-freeindicatorsofwell-beingwereacknowledgedandstudied.
Morespecifically,thisstudyaimedtoextendcurrentknowledge,firstly,byexaminingtherelationshipbetweentheaffective-emotionalstateofworkengagementandworkabilityanditssub-dimensions.Assuch,thisstudycontributedtocurrentoccupationalhealthpsychologybyexaminingtheroleofworkengagementinrelationtoworkabilitybeyondlifestylefactorsandworkcharacteristics.Secondly,thisstudyaddednewcontributionbyinvestigatingtheroleofworkabilityinthemotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodel.Inaddition,thedevelopmentalpathsinpositive(i.e.,vigor)andnegative(i.e.,fatigue)affectivestatesandtheir
10
ABstrAct
relationtowell-being,aswellasintra-individualchangetrajectoriesinmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptomsandtherelatedantecedentswereinvestigated.Byapplyingaperson-centeredapproach,thisstudywasabletoidentifyindividualdevelopmentalpathsovertime.
ThedatawascollectedwithquestionnairesamongFinnishfirefightersduringa13-yearperiodwiththreemeasurementpoints(i.e.,1996,1999,and2009).Twoslightlydifferentdatasetswereusedinthefoursub-studies.Dataset1(StudiesI–II)consistedoffirefighterswhorespondedtothequestionnairesinboth1999(T2)andin2009(T3),andwerestillemployedintheirprofessionin2009(n=403).Dataset2(StudiesIII–IV)includedthosefirefighterswhorespondedtothequestionnairesateachmeasurementpoint,andwerestillemployedintheirprofessionin2009(n=360).Severalvalidatedmeasuresofworkcharacteristics,personalresources,lifestyleandwell-beingwereapplied.
Thestudyshowedthatapositivestateofworkengagementconsistingofvigour,dedication,andabsorptionwassignificantlyassociatedwithworkabilityevenafteradjustingforvariousindividualandworkchar-acteristics.Furthermore,lifestylefactors,workcharacteristicsandworkengagementweremorestronglyrelatedtothesubjectiveworkabilitydimensionsthanthetwomoreobjectivesub-dimensions(i.e.,numberofdiseasesandsickleave).ThesecondmajorfindingandatheoreticalcontributionofthestudywasthatthemotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodelalsohashealth-relatedproperties.Moreprecisely,jobandpersonalresourceshadlong-termeffectsonworkengagementandconsequentlyonworkability,thusexpandingthepotentialpositiveoutcomesofthemotivationalprocessincludedintheJD-Rmodel.Thus,thedualroleofworkabilitybothasapredictor(i.e.,health-relatedresource)thatmayfosterengagement,andasanoutcomeofthemotivationalprocesswasfound.
Inaddition,thisstudyshowedthatdifferentdevelopmentalpathsinpositive(i.e.,vigor)andnegative(i.e.,fatigue)affectivestatesarepos-sible.Typically,aratherhighlevelofvigorandlowleveloffatiguewasobserved.However,othercombinationsofpositiveandnegativeaffectivestatesalsoexisted,forexample,atrajectorywithhighbutdecreasinglevelofvigorandhighleveloffatigue.Theseresultssuggestthatthepositiveandnegativeaffectmaynotalwaysbedirectoppositesorindependenteither.Inaddition,althoughbothvigorandfatiguewereratherstableover
11
ABstrAct
time,somechangesoccurredoverthe13-yearfollow-upperiod.Moreprecisely,adeclineinpositivemoodandanincreaseinnegativemoodwereapparentbetween1996and1999whereasthechangeswereratherminimalduringthefollowingten-yearperiod.Moreover,developmentalpathsofaffectivestatesweredifferentiallyrelatedtowell-being.There-fore,theresultssuggestboththepossibilityandneedtofosterpositivedevelopmentalpathsinaffectivestates,i.e.,toincreasevigorandpreventfatigueatwork,inordertomaintainandimproveemployeewell-being.Similarly,differentdevelopmentalpathsinmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptomswereobserved,andchangesovertimeprovedtobepossible.Theresultsalsoindicatedthatjobdemands,jobandpersonalresourcesaswellaslifestylewerepartlydifferentlyrelatedtopain-depressiontrajectories.Thisneedstobeacknowledgedwhenplanninginterventionsforpreventingmusculoskeletalpainanddepres-sivesymptoms.
Toconclude,thebeneficialroleofjobresourcesandpersonalre-sources,andsimilarlythedetrimentaleffectofjobdemandsinexplainingemployeewell-beingwereshowninthislongitudinalstudy,andthus,provingfurthersupportfortheassumptionsoftheJD-Rmodel,CORtheory,andBaBtheory.Evidently,thefindingssuggestthatamotivatedandenergeticworker,whohasresourcefuljobandnottoohighmentalandphysicaldemandshasbetterwell-beingthanaco-workerwhoislessengagedandexperiencesamoreunfavourablesituationintermsofdemandsandresources.Moreover,agoodlevelofself-esteem,anoptimisticviewofthefutureandhealthylifestylehabitsmayincreasethelikelihoodofbeinghealthyandhappy.Overall,theseresultssuggestthatworkcharacteristicsmayplayamorecrucialrolethanlifestyleinenhancingemployeewell-being.Assuch,workorganizationshavegoodopportunitiestoreinforceandmaintainwell-beingoftheiremployees,andconsequentlypreventill-healthandpromotelongworkcareers.
12
tiivisteLmä
Jatkuvastimuuttuvatyöelämäasettaatyöntekijöilleyhäenemmänvaatimuksia.Hyväterveysjatyökykyeivätyksinäänriitä,vaantyön-tekijöidenoletetaanolevanmyösentistäsitoutuneempiajamotivoitu-neempiatyöhönsä.Samanaikaisestimielenterveysongelmatsekätuki-jaliikuntaelinvaivatovatyhäsuurempiaongelmiatyöikäistenkeskuudessa.Siksityöntekijöidenhyvinvoinninkokonaisvaltainenymmärtäminenjaedistäminenovatentistätärkeämpiä.
Tämäntutkimuksentavoitteenaoliselvittäätyöhönliittyvienteki-jöiden,yksilöllistenvoimavarojenjaelintapojenyhteyttätyöntekijöidenhyvinvointiin.Työhönliittyvinätekijöinätutkittiintyönvaatimuksiajatyönvoimavaroja(esimiestuki,työntekijöidenvälisetsuhteet,työ-tehtäväänliittyvätvoimavarat).Tutkimuksessahyödynnettiinkolmeateoreettistaviitekehystä,jotkaovattyönvaatimusten-työnvoimavaro-jen(TV-TV)malli,voimavarojensäilyttämisenteoriajapositiivistentunteidenlaajentumis-jarakentumisteoria.Nämäkolmeteoreettistaviitekehystävalittiin,koskaniidenavullaolimahdollistatarkastellavoimavarojen,elintapojenjahyvinvoinninvälisiäyhteyksiä.Työnteki-jöidenhyvinvointiontässätutkimuksessaymmärrettymoniulotteisenakokonaisuutena,jossaotetaanhuomioonhyvinvoinninaffektiiviset,terveyteensekäkognitiiviset(kutenelämääntyytyväisyyteen)liittyvätosa-alueet.Työntekijöidenhyvinvointiaontarkasteltumyönteisestäjakielteisestänäkökulmasta.Siksionselvitettysekätyönimuajatyökykyäettätuki-jaliikuntaelintenkipuoireitajamasennusoireita.
Tutkimuslaajensinykyistätietämystäselvittämällätyönimunyhteyttätyökykyynjaseneriosa-alueisiin.SamallaseselkeyttityökyvynrooliaTV-TV-mallinmotivaatiopolulla,jonkaonaiemminajateltusisältävänainoastaanmyönteisiäorganisatorisiaseurauksia,kutenhyväntyöstäsuo-
13
tiiVisteLmä
riutumisen.Lisäksitutkimuksessaselvitettiinmyönteisten(tarmokkuus)jakielteisten(väsymys)mielialojenkehityspolkujajaniidenyhteyttähyvinvointiinsekätuki-jaliikuntaelintenkivunjamasennusoireidenkehityspolkujajaniitäennustaviatekijöitä.Yksilökeskeinenlähestymis-tapamahdollistiyksilöllistenkehityskulkujenpaikallistamisen.
Tutkimusaineistonaolisuomalaisillepalomiehilletehtykyselytut-kimus.Aineistokoottiin13vuodenaikanakolmellakyselyllävuosina1996,1999ja2009.Neljässätutkimuksenosatutkimuksessakäytettiinkahtahiemanerilaistaaineistoa.Aineisto1(osatutkimuksetI–II)koostuiniidenpalomiestenvastauksista,jotkaosallistuivatkyselyynvuosina1999(T2)ja2009(T3)jatyöskentelivätedelleenammatissaanvuonna2009(n =403).Aineisto2(osatutkimuksetIII–IV)kattoiniidenpalomiestenvastaukset,jotkaosallistuivatkyselyynjokaisellakolmellamittauskerrallajajotkatyöskentelivätedelleenammatissaanvuonna2009(n=360).Tutkimuksessakäytettiinuseitavalidejamittareita,joillatutkittiintyönvaatimuksiajavoimavarojasekäyksilö-jaelintapatekijöitä.
Tutkimusosoitti,ettätyönimuelimyönteinentunne-jamotivaatio-tila,jokamuodostuutarmokkuudesta,omistautumisestajauppoutumi-sesta,olimerkitsevästiyhteydessätyökykyynsenkinjälkeenkunuseatyksilöönjatyöhönliittyvättekijätolivakioitu.Lisäksitutkimusosoitti,ettäelintapoihinjatyöhönliittyvättekijätsekätyönimuolivatvahvem-minyhteydessätyökyvynsubjektiivisiinulottuvuuksiinkuinsenobjek-tiivisiinulottuvuuksiin,kutentautienmääräänjasairauspoissaoloihin.
Toinentutkimuksenkeskeinenhavaintojateoriaakehittävätulosolise,ettäTV-TV-mallinmotivaatiopolkuunsisältyyterveyteenliittyviäominaisuuksia.Toisinsanoentyöhönjayksilöönliittyvillävoimavara-tekijöilläolipitkänaikavälinvaikutuksiatyönimuun,jokaedelleenoliyhteydessätyökykyyn.Näinollentutkimusosoitti,ettäTV-TV-mallinmotivaatiopolkuvoijohtaamyösparempaanhyvinvointiinjaterveyteen.Samallatyökyvynkaksoisroolisaitukea:työkykyonmotivaatiopolullasekäselittäjä(eliterveyteenliittyväyksilönvoimavara),jokaedistäätyönimua,ettämotivaatiopolunmyönteinenterveyteenliittyvälopputulema.
Tutkimusosoittilisäksi,ettäerilaisettarmokkuudenjaväsymyksenkehityspolutovatmahdollisia.Useimmitenpalomiehilläolikorkeatarmokkuudenjamatalaväsymyksentila,muttamuitakinmyönteistenjakielteistenmielialojenyhdistelmiäesiintyi.Tuloksetosoittivat,ettäkielteinenjamyönteinenmielialaeivätoleselkeästivastakkaisiataipääl-
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tiiVisteLmä
lekkäisiä.Vaikkamyönteisetjakielteisetmielialatosoittautuivatvarsinpysyviksi,joitakinmuutoksiakintapahtui13vuodessa.Esimerkiksivuosien1996ja1999välillätarmokkuuslaskivastaavastiväsymyksenkasvaessa,kuntaasseuraavankymmenenvuodenaikanamuutoksetmielialoissaolivatvarsinvähäisiä.Tutkimusosoittimyös,ettätarmok-kuudenjaväsymyksenerilaisetkehityspolutolivateritavallayhteydessähyvinvointiin.Tutkimusosoittikin,ettämyönteistenmielialojenkehit-täminenonmahdollista,sillätarmokkuudenedistäminenjaväsymyksentorjuminenmyötävaikuttavattyöntekijöidenhyvinvointiin.
Lisäksitutkimusosoitti,ettätuki-jaliikuntaelintenkipuoireetjamasennusoireetvoivatkehittyäeritavoin.Myöstyönvaatimukset,työ-hönjayksilöönliittyvätvoimavaratsekäelintapatekijätovateritavallayhteydessäerilaisiinkipu-masennus-kehityspolkuihin.Tämäonsyytähuomioida,kunkipu-jamasennusoireitapyritäänvähentämään.
Tutkimusosoitti,ettätyönvoimavarat,yksilönvoimavaratjatyönvaatimuksetvaikuttavattyöntekijöidenhyvinvointiinhyvinpitkälläkinaikavälillä.NäinollentutkimusvahvistaaTV-TV-mallin,voimavarojensäilyttämisenteoriansekäpositiivistentunteidenlaajentumis-jaraken-tumisteorianolettamuksia.Tutkimuksentuloksetosoittavat,ettämoti-voitunutjaenerginentyöntekijä,jollaonuseitavoimavarojasisältävätyösekäalhaisettyönhenkisetjafyysisetvaatimukset,voiparemminjaonterveempikuintyöntekijä,jokaonvähemmänsitoutunuttyöhönsäjajollaonepäsuotuisammatolosuhteettyönvaatimustenjavoimavarojensuhteen.Myöshyväitsetunto,optimistinensuhtautuminentulevai-suuteensekäterveellisetelintavatvoivatmyötävaikuttaatyöntekijänhyvinvointiin.
Tuloksetviittaavatsiihen,ettätyöolotekijätvoivatollaelintapate-kijöitätärkeämpiätyöntekijöidenhyvinvoinninedistämisessä.Näihintekijöihinmyöstyöpaikatvoivatvaikuttaa,jasitenedistäätyöntekijöidenhyvinvointiajamyötävaikuttaamyöstyöurienpidentymiseen.
15
1 intRoduCtion
Promotingemployeehealthandwell-beingisessentialinourever-changingworklifeinwhich,forexample,agrowthofinformationtechnologyisproducingnewrequirementsforemployees.Therefore,employeesareexpectedtobehealthy,productive,proactive,energized,highlycommitted,andhaveagoodworkabilityinordertoperformefficiently(e.g.,Leiter&Bakker,2010).Thus,bothhealth-relatedandaffectivequalificationsofemployeesarerequired:beinghealthyandabletoworkisnotsufficient.Inaddition,highlevelsofmotivationanden-gagementareneeded.However,simultaneously,everyyearover20 000peopleinFinlandretireondisabilitypensions,mostoftenbecauseofmentaldisordersanddiseasesofthemusculoskeletalsystems(FinnishCentreforPensions,2013).Thus,evidently,understandingandenhanc-ingemployeewell-beinginitsentiretyisessential:howtobuildahealthyworklifethatallowsemployeestousetheirfullcapabilitiesatworkandsimultaneouslyenjoygoodhealthandwell-being?
Traditionally,employeewell-beinghasbeenviewedfromanega-tiveperspective,thatis,asoccupationalstress,disease,mentalillness,weakness,andsymptoms.Thus,understandingthecausesandconse-quencesofill-healthwasthemainfocusofoccupationalhealthstudiesthroughoutthedecades(e.g.,Cooper,1998;Cooper&Marshall,1976;Dewe,O’Driscoll,&Cooper,2010;Karasek&Theorell,1990;Lazarus&Folkman,1984).Fromthebeginningofthemillennium,theriseofpositivepsychology(Seligman&Csikszentmihalyi,2000;Snyder&Lopez,2002)haspromptedinterestinpositiveaspectsofwell-being.Thefocushasthereforegraduallyshiftedfromstressandillnesstosocialpsychologicalprocessesthatcontributetoandenhancewell-being.Inparticular,thischangehasresultedinarapidincreaseinstudiesofpositive
16
1 introdUction
organizationalbehaviour,suchasworkengagement(Demerouti,Bakker,Nachreiner,&Schaufeli,2001;Schaufeli,Salanova,González-Romá,&Bakker,2002),andpsychologicalcapital(Luthans,Youssef,&Avolio,2007).Theincreasingamountofresearchonworkengagementandotherpositiveaffectivewell-beingstatesisnotsurprisingasthebenefitsofsuchaffectivestatesonbothemployeesandorganizationsarewidelyacknowledged.Indeed,previousstudiesindicatethatengagedemployeesperformbetter,areproactiveandmorecommittedtotheirjobs,havefewersicknessabsences,andaremorewillingtocontinuetheirjob(forareview,seeHalbesleben,2010).Thus,inordertobenefitfromthefavourableconsequences,itiscrucialtounderstandthedrivers(e.g.,jobresourcesandpersonalresources)ofsuchpositiveaffectivework-relatedstates.
Theideaofpositivepsychologywasnottoreplacetraditionalviewofpsychologyfocusingonill-healthandhealthproblems,rather,itwastocomplementandenlargethefield.Therefore,currentresearchonso-cialpsychologicalhealthstudiestriestofindabalancebetweenpositiveandnegativeaspectsofemployeewell-being,andaimstounderstandtheentirerangeofwell-being,notjustthepositiveornegativesideofit(e.g.,Schaufelietal.,2002;Schaufeli&Bakker,2004).Overall,inhealthpsychology,healthisunderstoodasaproductofnotonlybiologicalprocesses,butalsoofpsychological,behavioral,organizational,andsocialprocesses(e.g.,Engel,1977;Houdmont&Leka,2010;Odgen,2012).Similarly,thisstudyaimstoframeacomprehensiveviewofemployeewell-being,intakinganindividualandorganizationalperspective,andinexaminingbothpositivewell-being(e.g.,workengagement,workabilityandlifesatisfaction)aswellasnegativeaspectsofhealth,suchassymptomsofdepressionandmusculoskeletalpain.Inparticular,thefocusofthisstudyisonthepsychosocialprocessesrelatedtoemployeewell-being,specially,onthemechanismslinkingmotivational(i.e.,workengagement),situational(i.e.,jobresourcesandjobdemands),andindi-vidual(i.e.,personalresourcesandlifestyle)characteristicsonemployeewell-being.Thesemechanismslinkingmotivational,situationalandindividualcharacteristicsonwell-beingwereexaminedusingdatafroma13-yearfollow-upperiodonasampleofFinnishfirefighters.
Apparently,firefightersexperiencebothpositiveandnegativeaspectsofwell-being.Workasafirefightercanbehighlymotivatingasthejob
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includesawidevarietyoftaskswhichenablestheuseofone’sknowledgeandcompetence,aswellassupportiveteamwork.However,atthesametime,firefightersarefoundtohaveseveralhealthproblems,suchasmus-culoskeletaldisorders,sleepingproblems,post-traumaticstressdisorder,depressionandevenworkdisability(e.g.,Fullerton,Ursano,&Wang,2004;Haslam&Mallon,2003;Punakallio,Lusa,Luukkonen,Airila,&Leino-Arjas,2014;Regehr,Hill,Knott,&Sault,2003).Itisclearthathealth-protectingjobresourcesandpersonalresources,aswellasjobdemandsthatmayreducewell-being,formpartofthejoboffirefighters.However,sofar,previousstudiesonfirefighters’well-beinghavemainlyfocusedonthenegativeside,suchasriskfactorsofthejob,riskbehavior,andhealthproblems,insteadofpositiveaspectsofwell-being.
Thus,thisstudyaimstofillinthegapsincurrentliteraturebypro-vidingacomprehensiveperspectiveoffirefighters’well-beingthroughinvestigatingboththepositiveandnegativeaspectsofwell-beingandtherelateddemandsandresourcesbyusingalongitudinaldata.Moreover,byapplyingaperson-centeredapproachinexaminingemployeewell-beinginthelongtermthisstudybringsnovelinformationaboutthedevelopmentalpathsatindividuallevelaboutpositiveandnegativeaf-fectivestates,aswellaswithregardtomultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptoms.Theoretically,thisstudyaimstoexpandonprevi-ousresearchbyfocusingonhowmotivationalcharacteristics(i.e.,workengagement)maypredicthealth-relatedwell-being(i.e.,workability),andhowworkabilityitselfmaybeconsideredahealth-relatedresourcethatmayhaveabeneficialeffectonwell-beinginthelongterm.Despiteusingadataofasingleoccupation,thisstudyhasastrongtheoreticalbasis,anditisthereforeassumedthatthemodelsandresultscanlargelybegeneralizedtootheroccupationsaswell.
1.1 Conceptualization of employee well-being
Awidevarietyofconstructshavebeenusedtodescribewell-being(seeforexample,Ryan&Deci,2001).Asoutlined,inoccupationalhealthpsychology,well-beinghasfrequentlybeendistinguishedbypositiveandnegativeperspectives(e.g.,Mäkikangas,Schaufeli,Tolvanen,&Feldt,2013;Schaufelietal.,2002).Inaddition,conceptssuchasaffective
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well-being(Warr,1990,2007),subjectivewell-being(Diener,1984,2000),andpsychologicalwell-being(Ryff&Keyes,1995)havebeenapplied.Inaddition,adistinctionbetweenjob-relatedandnon-jobre-latedwell-beinghasbeenmade(Warr,1990).Comparedtothemodelofaffectivewell-being(Warr,1990)–whichisbasedonthedimensionsofpleasureandarousal–subjectivewell-being(Diener,1984,2000)andpsychologicalwell-being(Ryff&Keyes,1995)offerasomewhatmorecomprehensiveviewofwell-being.First,subjectivewell-beingreferstheextenttowhichpeoplefeelandthinkthattheirlifeisgoingwell.Assuch,subjectivewell-beingincludesbothaffectivedimensions(i.e.,moodsandemotions)aswellasacognitiveevaluationofone’ssatisfactioningeneral(i.e.,lifesatisfaction)(e.g.,Diener,2000;Diener,Suh,Lucas,&Smith,1999).Psychologicalwell-being,ontheotherhand,includesnotonlyaffectiveandcognitivecomponents,butalsobehaviouralandmotivationalaspectsofwell-being(Ryff&Keyes,1995).Tosumup,severalconstructions–partlyoverlapping–ofwell-beingexist,andatthemomentnosingleagreed-upondefinitionofemployeewell-beingexists(Salanova,DelLíbano,Llorens,&Schaufeli,2014).
Inthisstudy,employeewell-beingisunderstoodasamultidimen-sionalconstructcoveringaffective,cognitive,andhealth-relatedaspectsofwell-being.ThisstudycombineselementsfrommodelsbyWarr(1990),Diener(1984,2000),andRyffandKeyes(1995),withhealth-relatedviewsaboutwell-being.Assuch,threedimensionsofwell-beingarestudied:affective well-being(i.e.,workengagement,andpositiveandnegativeaffectivestates),health-related well-being(i.e.,workabil-ity,self-ratedhealth,andmultisitemusculoskeletalpain),andcognitivecomponentofsubjectivewell-being(i.e.,lifesatisfaction).Underthisclassification,bothpositiveandnegativesidesaswellasjob-relatedandcontext-freeindicatorsofwell-beingareacknowledged.Inthatsense,thisstudyisfollowingthelineofoccupationalhealthpsychologyresearchthatemphasizestheholisticviewofemployeewell-being(e.g.,Schaufelietal.,2002;Schaufeli&Bakker,2004;vanHorn,Taris,Schaufeli,&Schreurs,2004).Next,thesethreedimensions–affective,health-related,andcognitive–arepresentedindetail.
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1.1.1 Affective well-being
Asatheoreticalapproachtoaffectivewell-being,atypologyofaffectivewell-beingbyPeterWarr(1990)hasbeenapplied.InWarr’s(1990)typology,affectivewell-beingiscomprisedoftwoorthogonaldimen-sions:pleasureandarousal(seealsoRussell,1980).Inhismodel,anylevelofpleasuremaybeaccompaniedbyhighorlowlevelsofarousal,andsimilarly,aparticularlevelofarousalmaybeeitherpleasurableorunpleasurable.Tomeasureaffectivewell-being,threeaxesareused:discontented-contented,anxiety-comfort,anddepression-enthusiasm.Thus,themodelacknowledgesbothpositiveandnegativeaspectsofwell-beingwhichbothareofinterestinthecurrentstudy.FromWarr’smodel,thefocusofthisstudyisinthethirdaxis,i.e.,depression-enthusiasm,inwhichpositivefeelingssuchasenthusiasmandpositivemotivationaresituatedoppositefeelingsofdepressionandsadness.Moreprecisely,fouraffectivewell-beingindicatorsareexaminedthatcanbeincludedinthedepression-enthusiasmaxisofWarr’stypology(1990):workengagement,vigor,fatigue,anddepressivesymptoms,respectively.IntermsofWarr’smodel,work engagementandvigorrefertoenergeticandactivatedstates,andpositivepleasurefilledwithenthusiasm,andthus,theycanbelocatedatthepositiveendofthedepression-enthusiasmaxis.Whereas,feelingsoffatigueanddepressive symptomsarelocatedatthenegativepoleofthesameaxis.Hereafter,theconceptualizationoffouraffectivewell-beingindicatorsofthisstudywillbepresentedinmoredetail.
Work engagement
Workengagementhasemergedasanaffectivewell-beingconstructtomeasurethepositivework-relatedstateofmind(e.g.,Bakker,Schaufeli,Leiter,&Taris,2008).Researchonengagementatworkhasgrownconsiderablyduringthelast20years;however,acomprehensiveandcommonunderstandingofworkengagementasanacademicconceptdoesnotyetexit.Instead,therearediverse,andpartlycontradictory,conceptualizationsofthework-relatedengagement.
Personal engagement.ThefirstconceptualizationofengagementatworkwasmadebyKahn(1990)whodefinedpersonalengagementas“harnessingoforganizationmembers’selvestotheirworkroles:inen-
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gagement,peopleemployandexpressthemselvesphysically,cognitively,emotionallyandmentallyduringroleperformances(p. 694)”.Assuch,engagementissimultaneousself-expressionandself-employmentbyemployeesinroleperformances,thatis,employeesbothdrivepersonalenergiesintoworkroles(i.e.,self-employment),anddisplayselfwithintherole(i.e.,self-expression).Inotherwords,engagedemployeesbringtheirpersonalselvesintotheirworkastheyidentifywithit.Despitepresentingacomprehensivetheoreticalmodelofengagement,Kahnhasnotproposedanoperationalizationofthemodel(Schaufelietal.,2002).Inaddition,onlyafewempiricalstudiesbasedontheKahn’smodelexist(e.g.,May,Gilson,&Harter,2004;Rothbard,2001;Saks,2006).
Job engagement.AccordingtoMaslachandLeiter(1997)–thepio-neersofburnoutresearch–jobengagementcanbecharacterizedasapositiveantithesisofburnout.Tothem,engagementischaracterizedbyenergy,involvementandefficacy,whicharethedirectoppositesofthethreeburnoutdimensions(i.e.,exhaustion,cynicism,andreducedpro-fessionalefficacy).Therefore,engagementandburnoutareconsideredtoexistonthesameunderlyingcontinuum,withjobengagementatoneendandburnoutattheother.Assuch,thisconceptualizationlimitstheopportunitytoexamineengagementinitsownright(seeSeligman,2002;Seligman&Csikszentmihalyi,2000)asanindependent,distinctconceptofburnout.Inaddition,definingengagementandburnoutasdirectoppositesdisablestheinvestigationoftherelationshipbetweenthesetwoconcepts(Schaufelietal.,2002).
Work engagement.Athird–andthemostcitedandstudied–defini-tionofengagementconsidersworkengagementasindependentposi-tiveconstruct,althoughnegativelyrelatedtoburnout(Schaufelietal.,2002).Consequently,workengagementisdefinedasapositive,fulfilling,affective-motivationalstateofwork-relatedwell-being,characterisedbyvigor,dedication,andabsorption(Schaufelietal.,2002).Vigorreferstohighlevelsofenergyandmentalresiliencewhileworkingandthewillingnesstoinvesteffortinone’swork,andpersistenceeveninthefaceofdifficulties.Dedicationischaracterizedbybeingstronglyinvolvedinone’swork,andexperiencingasenseofsignificance,enthusiasm,inspira-tion,pride,andchallenge.Absorptionreferstobeingfullyconcentratedandhappilyengrossedinone’swork,wherebyhavingasenseoftimepassingquicklyanddifficultiesdetachingoneselffromwork.Assuch,
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workengagementisamultidimensionalconstructincludingbehavioural-energetic(vigor),emotional(dedication),andcognitive(absorption)components.Mostscholarsagreethatengagementincludesdimensionsofvigoranddedication,however,thesignificanceofthethirdindicatorofworkengagement(i.e.,absorption)islessunanimous(Bakkeretal.,2008).Inaddition,thedistinctionofworkengagementfromburnoutissupportedbyavastamountofempiricalevidence(forameta-analysis,seeHalbesleben,2010).Duetotheindependenceofworkengagement,itispossible,tosomeextent,tobeengagedandburn-outsimultane-ously,thatis,tohavebothpositiveandnegativeaffectivestatesatthesametime.Similarly,researchhasshownthatworkengagementisin-dependentofseveralrelatedconstructs,suchasflow(Csikszentmihalyi,1990;Schaufeli&Bakker,2010),jobinvolvement(Lodahl&Kejner,1965;Salanova,Agut,&Peiró,2005),jobsatisfaction(e.g.,Hackman&Oldman,1976;Hertzberg,1959;Schaufeli&Bakker,2010),andworkaholism(e.g.,Mäkikangasetal.,2013;Schaufeli,Taris,&Bakker,2008).Thus,despiteapartialoverlap,theconceptofworkengagementhasanaddedvalueovertheserelatedconceptsandmustthereforebedistinguishedfromthem(seealsoSchaufeli&Bakker,2010).
Previousstudiesonworkengagementhaveconsistentlyshownthatjobresources(e.g.,autonomy,socialsupport,skillvariety,andperform-ancefeedback)andpersonalresources(e.g.,self-efficacy,optimism,andself-esteem)facilitateengagement(e.g.,Christian,Garza,&Slaughter,2011;Crawford,LePine,&Rich,2010;Halbesleben,2010;Simpson,2009;Xanthopoulou,Bakker,Demerouti,&Schaufeli,2007),andconsequently,engagementisfoundtoberelatedtopositiveoutcomesatwork,includingorganizationalcommitment(e.g.,Hakanen,Bakker,&Schaufeli,2006),jobperformance(Salanovaetal.,2005),andwork-unitinnovativeness(Hakanen,Perhoniemi,&Toppinen-Tanner,2008a).However,evidenceoftherelationshipbetweenengagementandhealthisstillscarce(Bakkeretal.,2008;Bakker&Leiter,2010),andtherefore,thisstudyaimstoenlargecurrentknowledgebyexaminingtherelation-shipbetweenengagementandhealth-relatedwell-being,i.e.,workability.
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Positive and negative affective states
Asoutlined,workengagementreferstoapositivework-relatedaffectivestate.However,affectivestatescanalsobeconceptualizedascontext-freedispositionalconstructs,suchaspositiveandnegativeaffect(e.g.,Watson,Clark,&Tellegen,1988;Weiss&Cropanzano,1996).Bydefinition,affectcanbedistinguishedbymoodsandemotions.Moodsareregardedasmorestableaffectivestatesthanemotions,whichareconsideredmoreintenseandshort-lived(Brief&Weiss,2002;Cropanzano,Weiss,Hale,&Reb,2003).
Positiveaffectreferstofeelingslikeenergetic,active,alert,inspired,andenthusiastic,whichare,infact,closelyrelatedtothevigordimensionofworkengagement.Incontrast,negativeaffectreferstoaffectivestatessuchasbeingdistressed,upset,nervous,orafraid.(Watsonetal.,1988.)Bothpositiveandnegativeaffectscanbeconceptualizedasstateortrait:withstateaffectreferringtoone’sfeelingsatagivenpointintime,whereastraitrepresentsmorestableindividualdifferencesinthelevelofaffect(e.g.,Pressman&Cohen,2005).Severalscalestomeasurepositiveandnegativeaffectivestatesexist;thePositiveandNegativeAffectSchedule(PANAS;Watsonetal.,1988),andtheProfileofMoodStates(POMS;McNair,Lorr,&Droppelman,1971)amongothers.
Thereisnoconsistentviewastowhetherpositiveandnegativeaffectarebipolaropposites(e.g.,Russell&Carroll,1999)orindependentofeachother(e.g.,Watson&Tellegen,1999).Thediscussionhassimi-laritieswiththeaforementioneddiscussionbetweenworkengagementandburnout(e.g.,Maslach&Leiter,1997;Schaufelietal.,2002).Theindependenceofpositiveandnegativeaffectwouldmeanthatanincreaseinonedoesnotnecessitateadecreaseintheother(Cropanzanoetal.,2003),andthus,peoplecouldhavebothpositiveandnegativefeelingsatthesametime(e.g.,Cacioppo&Berntson,1994;Larsen&McGraw,2011;Larsen,McGraw,&Cacioppo,2001).Incontrast,thebipolarviewassumesthatpositiveandnegativeaffectareoppositeendsofabipolarcontinuum,andpeoplecannothavepositiveandnegativefeelingssimultaneously(e.g.,Green,Goldman,&Salovey,1993;Rus-sell&Carroll,1999).Inthisstudy,thefocusisonthreeaffectivestateswhichrepresentbothpositive(i.e.,vigor)andnegative(i.e.,fatigueanddepression)polesofaffect.Moreover,boththeindependenceandbipolarviewoftheaffectivestateswillbeexamined.
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Mostoftheconceptualizationsofvigorsharetheideathatvigorisapositiveaffectivestatethatischaracterizedbyhighlevelsofenergyandvitality.Forexample,RyanandFrederick(1997)havedefinedvigorasanindividual’ssubjectivefeelingofenergyandliveliness.Intheworkcontext,vigorhasbeendefinedasasetofinterrelatedaffectivestatesexperiencedatwork,andassuch,ischaracterizedbyfeelingsofphysicalstrength,emotionalenergy,andcognitiveliveliness(Shirom,2010).Asalreadynoted,vigorhasalsobeendefinedasacorecomponentofworkengagement(Schaufeli&Bakker,2010).Hence,vigorisdefinedashighlevelsofenergy,mentalresilience,andwillingnesstoinvesteffortinone’swork.Inthisstudy,vigorisviewedasapositiveaffectivestatecharacter-izedbye.g.,activity,energy,cheerfulness,andliveliness.Hence,vigorcanbesituatedatthepositivepoleofdepression-enthusiasmaxisinWarr’s(1990)affectivewell-beingmodel.Previousstudies,albeitthusfarmainlybasedoncross-sectionaldata,suggestthatvigorispositivelyrelatedtowell-being.Forexample,vitality–onecomponentofvigor–wasfoundtoberelatedtophysicalandpsychologicalhealth(Ryan&Frederick,1997).Moreover,Shirom,Toker,Berliner,Shapira,andMelamed(2006)foundthathighlevelsofvigorwerenegativelycorrelatedwithseveralinflammationbiomarkers.However,thereisapaucityoflongitudinalresearchinvestigatingtheeffectofvigoronemployeewell-being,andinparticular,thepossibleco-occurrencewithfatigue,thus,thisstudyaimstoanswertheseshortcomingsidentifiedinpreviousresearch.
Fatigue−anaspectofnegativeaffect–isrelatedtoaperson’senergylevelinasimilarwaytovigor.Intheworkcontext,fatiguecanbecon-ceptualizedasanexhaustioncomponentofburnout(Maslach&Leiter,1997).Exhaustionisdefinedasthedrainingofemotionalresourcesandfeelingsofchronicfatigue(Maslach&Leiter,1997),andassuch,itdi-rectlyreferstoaperson’sreducedenergylevel(seealsoSchaufeli&Buunk,2003).FollowingWarr’s(1990)typology,fatiguecanbesituatedatthenegativepoleofthedepression-enthusiasmaxis.Inthisstudy,fatigueisviewedasanegativeaffectivestatethatischaracterizedbyreducedemotionalresources.Previousevidenceshowsthatfatigueisrelatedtowork-relatedstressreactions,psychosocialoverload,subjectivehealthcomplaints(Sluiter,deCroon,Meijman,&Frings-Dresen,2003),andevendecreasedworkability(deCroonetal.,2005).Similarly,exhaustion–asevereformoffatigue–hasbeenfoundtoberelatedtolifesatisfac-
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tion(e.g.,Demerouti,Bakker,&Schaufeli,2005),andself-ratedhealth(Hakanenetal.,2006).However,thejointeffectsofaffectivestates(i.e.,fatigueandvigor)arelargelyunknown,aswellastheirrelationshiptoemployeewell-beinginthelongterm.Therefore,thisstudycontributestocurrentknowledgebyexaminingthelinksbetweentheseaffectivestatesandtheirrelationshiptowell-beingduringa13-yearperiod.
Similarly,depressioncanbedefinedasanegativeaffectivestate.Assuch,depressionischaracterizede.g.,bysadness,irritability,hopeless-ness,feelingsoffailure,andsocialwithdrawal(e.g.,Beck,Steer,&Gar-bin,1988).Hence,depressionreferstoawayofreactingtochallengesthatareperceivedasimpossible,amelancholicmoodortoaclinicalmentaldisorder(Gruenberg&Goldstein,2003).FollowingWarr’s(1990)typology,depressioncanbesituatedatthenegativepoleofthedepression-enthusiasmaxis.Inthisstudy,depressivesymptomssuchasfeelingmiserable,sad,hopeless,andlonelywereexamined.Consist-entevidenceindicatesthathighjobdemandsarerelatedtodepression(Bonde,2008;Netterstrømetal.,2008),andsimilarly,theprotectiveeffectsofwork-relatedpsychosocialfactors,suchassocialsupport,arelargelyevident(forreviews,seeNetterstrømetal.,2008;Stansfeld&Candy,2006).Inaddition,lifestylefactorssuchasalcoholconsumption,exercise,andsleepingproblemshavebeenfoundtobeassociatedwithdepression(e.g.,Lopresti,Hood,&Drummond,2013).However,therelationshipbetweendepressivesymptomsandmusculoskeletalpainislargelyunknowndespitethefactthatbothcauseanenormousamountofhealth-relatedproblems.Hence,thisstudyaimstobroadencurrentknowledgebyexaminingthelongitudinaldevelopmentpathsofbothdepressivesymptomsandmusculoskeletalpain,andtheantecedentsrelatedtothesepaths.
1.1.2 Health-related well-being
Inadditiontoaffectivewell-being,thisstudyaimstoexaminehealth-relatedaspectsofemployeewell-being.Apparently,healthasaconstructiscomplex,andseveralconceptualizationsofhealthexist.Forexample,healthcanhavemedical,physical,mental,andsocialcomponents(e.g.,seeWordHealthOrganization,1986).Traditionally,biomedicalmodelsofhealthdefinehealthastheabsenceofdiseaseordisability,andfocuses
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onthecausesofdiseases,preventionandcure(seee.g.,Engel,1977;Larson,1999).Inaddition,healthmaybedefinedasanabsenceofphysicaldisability,psychologicaldisabilityorpain(Brown,Kazi,Spitz,Gertman,Fries,&Meehan,1984).Inthisstudy,healthisviewedfromabroadperspective,thatis,coveringbothill-healthandsymptomsofpain,physicalandmental(dis)ability,andsubject’sownevaluationsofhis/hermentalandphysicalstate,andthus,ashealth-relatedwell-beingindicators,work ability,self-rated health,andmultisite musculoskeletal painareinvestigated.
Work ability
InFinnishworklife,theconceptofworkabilityhasbeenusedforseveraldecades.However,thereisnoclearconsensusonwhatworkabilityisorhowitshouldbedefined.Differentpractitioners,suchashealthcareprofessionals,pensionandrehabilitationauthorities,andresearchersmayhavedifferentperceptionsanddefinitionsofworkability.Inaddition,theconceptualizationofworkabilityhaschangedasworklife,andthedemandsrelatedtoit,haschanged.(Gould,Ilmarinen,Järvisalo,&Kos-kinen,2008.)Previously,workabilitywassimplydefinedasabalancebetweenthedemandsofworkandtheresourcesoftheindividual,fol-lowingtheideaofastress-strainmodel(e.g.,Rohmert,1986).Therefore,Ilmarinen,TuomiandKlockars(1997)havepostulatedthatworkabilityreferstoemployee’sabilitytocarryouthis/herworkinrelationtothedemandsoftheworkandhis/herhealthandmentalresources.Assuch,impairedworkabilityisbelievedtoresultfromanimbalancebetweenjobdemandsandindividualresources.Later,amultidimensionalviewofworkabilityhasbeenadoptedinwhichjob-relatedresourcesandmicroandmacroenvironmentsoutsideworklifehavebeenincorporatedinadditiontothatofjobdemandsandindividualresources(e.g.,Ilmarinen,Tuomi,&Seitsamo,2005;Järvikoski,Härkäpää,&Mannila,2001).Twodifferentworkabilityconceptsapplyingamultidimensionalviewexist:amultidimensionalworkabilitymodel(Järvikoskietal.,2001),andaholisticworkabilitymodel(Ilmarinenetal.,2005).Inthisstudy,theholisticworkabilitymodelhasbeenappliedasitisthemostemployedframeworkforexaminingworkability(e.g.,vandenBerg,Elders,Zwart,&Burdorf,2009).
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Intheholisticworkabilitymodel,developedbyIlmarinenetal.(2005),workabilityisdescribedasamultidimensionalconstructconsist-ingofboththeresourcesoftheindividualandfactorsrelatedtoworkandworking,andtheenvironmentoutsideofwork.Thedimensionsofworkabilityareoftendepictedintheformofa“Workabilityhouse”(Ilmarinen,Gould,Järvikoski,&Järvisalo,2008).Thefirstthree“floors”ofthehouseareformedbyindividualresources:healthandfunctionalcapacity;knowledgeandskills;andvalues,attitudes,andmotivation.Thefourth“floor”isthatofwork,consistingofworkingconditions;workcontentanddemands;workcommunityandorganization;andsupervi-soryworkandmanagement.Inaddition,family,closecommunity,andsocietyareincludedaspartofthemacroenvironmentofworkability.Basically,all“floors”playaroleincreatingsignificantprerequisitesforworkability,although,thebalancebetweenindividualresourcesandworkisthecoreoftheholisticmodel.
Awiderangeofpredictorsandconsequencesofworkabilityhasbeenexamined.Inparticular,individualcharacteristicsandwork-relatedriskfactorshavebeenextensivelyexaminedasantecedentsofworkability(forareview,seevandenBergetal.,2009).Forexample,individuallifestylefactors1suchasalcoholconsumption,exercise,andsleep(e.g.,Ilmarinenetal.,1997;Pohjonen,2001),andwork-relatedfactorssuchasmentalandphysicalworkdemands,andmanagement(e.g.,Pohjonen,2001;Tuomietal.,1991)havebeenfoundtobeassociatedwithworkability.However,sofar,themotivationalaspectsofhumanresourceshavenotbeenexaminedwiththesameintensityasbiographical,lifestyle,orwork-relatedfactors,despitethefactthataffective-motivationalfactors−suchasworkengagement−areconsideredessentialfactorsrelatedtoworkability(e.g.,Ilmarinen,2009).Moreover,health-relatedindicators,suchasworkability,maythemselvesbeimportantresourcesthatboostposi-tiveaffectivestates,suchasworkengagement,andconsequentlyfurtherimprovehealthandwell-being.Infact,TheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)defineshealthasapositiveconstructincludingphysical,mentalandsocialwell-being,thatis,“aresourceforeverydaylife”ratherthan
1Aspoorhealthbehaviors(e.g.,smoking,alcoholconsumption,andlackofexercise)mayhaveserioushealthconsequences(e.g.,Odgen,2012),lifestylefactorswereincludedinthepresentstudy.However,theemphasisofthisstudywasonthepsychosocialprocessesthatlinkjobresources,personalresourcesandemployeewell-being.
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theobjectiveofliving(WHO,1986).Thus,healthcanbeconceptualizedasakindofcapitalinwhichindividualsmayinvestinordertoachievepositivefuturehealthoutcomes(Williamson&Carr,2009).Inasimilarvein,itcanbearguedthatworkabilityisahealth-relatedresourcethatislikelytoberelatedtofuturewell-being.Therefore,thisstudyaimstobroadencurrentknowledge,byfirstly,examiningtherelationshipbetweenworkengagementandworkability,andsecondly,investigatingworkabilityasahealth-relatedresource.
self-rated health
Similartothatofworkability,self-ratedhealthcanbeconceptualizedasanindicatorofhealth-relatedwell-being.Conceptually,self-ratedhealth(SRH)isdefinedasaperson’sglobalassessmentofhis/hergeneralstateofhealth(DeSalvo,Bloser,Reynolds,He,&Muntner,2006).Althoughreflectingindividual’sownperceptionofhis/hergeneralhealth,SRHcanberegardedasavalidindicatorofone’soverallhealthstatusbecauseseveralmeta-analyseshaveshownthatSRHispredictiveofmorbidityandvariousobjectivehealthindicators,evenmortality(e.g.,DeSalvoetal.,2006;Idler&Benyamini,1997).Assuch,self-ratedhealthisanimportantindicatorofwell-beingthatmayinfluenceindividual’squalityoflife,aswellasmotivationtowardwork,andtherefore,relevantfactortobetakenintoaccountinthecurrentworklife.
Infact,antecedentsofSRHhavebeenwidelyexamined.Forexample,evidenceonthedetrimentaleffectofnegativeaffect,suchasdepres-sivesymptoms,onself-ratedhealthexists(e.g.,Barger,2006;Idler&Benyamini,1997).Inasimilarway,psychosocialwork-relatedfactorssuchassocialsupport(Barger,2006;Idler&Benyamini,1997),aswellasjobvariety,jobcontrol,anddecisionauthority(Laaksonen,Rahkonen,Martikainen,&Lahelma,2006;Niedhammer&Chea,2003;Pikhartetal.,2001)havebeenfoundtobeassociatedwithgoodSRH.Neverthe-less,forexample,anunderstandingtherelationshipbetweenpositiveaffectandSRHisstilldeficient(e.g.,Shirom,Toker,Berliner,Shapira,&Melamed,2008).Moreover,thelongitudinalrelationshipbetweenthejoint-effectofaffectivestatesandSRHstillremainslargelyunknown.Therefore,thisstudyaimstofillinthesegapsintheliterature.
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musculoskeletal pain
Amongworkingpopulation,musculoskeletalpainisacommonhealthproblem,andinfact,musculoskeletaldisordersconstitutethemostfre-quentlyreportedhealthcomplaintinEurope(Hauke,Flintrop,Brun,&Rugulies,2011).Painintheback,shoulder,andneckarefoundtobethemostcommonmusculoskeletalpainsymptomsamongemployees(e.g.,Weevers,vanderBeek,Anema,vanderWal,&vanMechelen,2005),andcauseavastnumberofsicknessabsences(Munce,Stansfeld,Blackmore,&Stewart,2007),andmoredrastically,workdisability(Kamaleri,Natvig,Ihlebaek,&Bruusgaard,2009;Mirandaetal.,2010).Moreover,paininmultiplesiteshasbeenfoundtobeevenmoreharmfulthanpaininasinglesite(e.g.,Haukkaetal.,2013;Øverland,Harvey,Knudsen,Mykletun,&Hotopf,2012),andtherefore,understandingthemechanismscausingmultisitemusculoskeletalpainisessential.
Recently,thestudyonmultisitemusculoskeletalpain(MSP)anditsdeterminantshasgainedmoreattention,andseveralworkcharacteris-ticsandlifestylefactorshavebeenfoundtoberelatedtoMSP(forareviewseeHaukeetal.,2011;Shiri,Karppinen,Leino-Arjas,Solovieva,&Viikari-Juntura,2010).Forexample,lowsocialsupport,highjobdemands,lowjobcontrol,lowdecision-makingauthority,andlowskilldiscretionwererelatedtomusculoskeletaldisordersinameta-analysisincluding54longitudinalstudies(Haukeetal.,2011).Indeed,inseveralexplanatorymodelsofmusculoskeletalpainitisassumedthathighjobdemandsandlowsocialsupportleadtopsychosocialstresswhichinitsturnisrelatedtomusculoskeletaldisorders(e.g.,Bongers,deWinter,Kompier,&Hildebrandt,1993;Haukeetal.,2011;Melin&Lundberg,1997).Someevidenceindicatesthatmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptomsmaydeveloptogether(e.g.,Bair,Robinson,Katon,&Kroenke,2003;Demyttenaereetal.,2007).However,painanddepres-siondonotalwaysco-exist(e.g.,Magni,Moreschi,Rigatti-Luchini,&Merskey,1994),andthus,theymightalsohavedifferentdevelopmentalpathsovertime.Nevertheless,thelongitudinalevidenceisstillscarce,andthus,inthisstudy,thelongitudinalrelationshipbetweenmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptoms,andtherelateddemandsandresources,areexamined.
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1.1.3 Life satisfaction
Lifesatisfactionisdefinedasakeyindicatorofpositivesubjectivewell-being(Erdogan,Bauer,Truxillo,&Mansfield,2012;Pavot&Diener,2008)thatreferstoacognitive,globalevaluationofthequalityofone’slifeasawhole(McDowell,2010;Pavot&Diener,1993).Hence,itas-sessanindividual’sconsciousglobaljudgmentofhis/herlifebyusingtheperson’sowncriteria,thatis,individualsmayevaluateandemphasizethedifferentdomainsoflivedifferentially.Therefore,asacognitivecon-struct,lifesatisfactioncanbediscriminatedfromaffectivecomponentsofwell-being,suchaspleasantaffect.Moreover,affectivereactionsoftenrespondtoimmediatefactorsandthoseofashortduration,whereaslifesatisfactionmayreflectalong-termperspective.(Pavot&Diener,1993.)Nevertheless,bothcognitiveandaffectivecomponentsofwell-beingareneededtocaptureacomprehensivepictureofemployeewell-being.Therefore,besideaffectiveandhealth-relatedindicatorsofemployeewell-being,acognitiveindicatorofsubjectivewell-being(i.e.,lifesatisfaction)wasalsoincludedinthecurrentstudy.
Asacontext-freeindicatorofwell-being,lifesatisfactioncande-velopinanydomainoflife.Apparently,personalitytraits,culture,andlifecircumstancesarerelatedtolifesatisfaction,butalsopsychologicalprocessessuchasgoalsandcopingstrategiesmayinfluencelifesatisfac-tion(Dieneretal.,1999;Steel,Schmidt,&Shultz,2008).Inaddition,severalwork-relatedantecedentsoflifesatisfactionhavebeenidentified(forareview,seeErdoganetal.,2012).Moreover,ithasbeenshownrecentlythatpeoplereportmorelifesatisfactionincountrieswherepositiveemotionsarehighlyvalued(Bastian,Kuppens,DeRoover,&Diener,2014).Inaddition,lifesatisfactionisfoundtoberelatedtoseveralhealthrelatedoutcomes,suchasalowlevelofsleepcomplaints(Brand,Beck,Hatzinger,Harbaugh,Ruch,&Holsboer-Trachsler,2010),andreducedcardiovascularmortality(Chida&Steptoe,2008)whichalsoillustratestheimportanceofexamininglifesatisfactioninworklifecontext.However,suchevidenceismoreorlesslacking,asisalsothecaseforlongitudinalrelationshipsbetweenaffectivestatesandlifesatisfaction,andthus,thisstudyaimstoprovideanswersfortheseshortcomings.Morespecifically,thisstudycontributestocurrentliteraturebyexaminingtherelationshipsbetweendevelopmentalpathsofpositive(i.e.,vigor)andnegative(i.e.,fatigue)affectandlifesatisfactionovertime.
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1.2 theoretical frameworks for explaining employee well-being
Awidevarietyofwork-relatedfactors,psychosocialprocesses,sociocul-turalfactorsaswellasphysiologicalfactorsarefoundtoberelatedtoemployeewell-being.Theimportanceofworkingconditionsonemployeewell-beingisemphasizedintheleadingworkstressmodels,thatis,JobDemands-Control(JDC)model(Karasek,1979),andtheJobDemands-Resources(JD-R)model(Demeroutietal.,2001;Schaufeli&Bakker,2004).Inthisstudy,theJD-Rmodelisusedasthemainconceptualframeworkforexaminingemployeewell-beinganditspredictors.Assuch,theJD-Rmodelisadescriptivemodelthatspecifiestherelation-shipsbetweenworkcharacteristics(i.e.,jobdemandsandjobresources),personalresources,andemployeewell-being.However,itisnotsufficienttoexplaintheunderlyingpsychologicalprocessesbetweentheanteced-entsandwell-beingoutcomes.Thus,additionaltheoreticalframeworksareneeded.(Schaufeli&Taris,2014.)Inparticular,theConservationofResources(COR)theory(Hobfoll,1989,2001),andBroaden-and-Build(BaB)theoryofpositiveemotions(Fredrickson,2001)thathavefrequentlybeenappliedasexplanatorytheoreticalframeworksinthefieldofoccupationalhealthpsychologyoffermoreexactpredictionsforthelinksbetweenresourcesandwell-being.Inthisstudy,alongwiththeJD-Rmodel,CORandBaBtheorieshavealsobeenusedasmaintheoreticalframeworkstoguidetheoreticalreasoninginexplainingtherelationshipbetweenworkcharacteristics,personalresources,andemployeewell-being.Theseframeworksarepresentedinmoredetailinthefollowingsections.
1.2.1 Job demands-Resources model
JobDemands-Resources(JD-R)model(Demeroutietal.,2001)isaconceptualframeworkthathasoftenbeenusedtoinvestigatetheante-cedentsofemployeewell-being,suchasworkengagementandburnout.TheJD-Rmodelcanbecharacterizedasacomprehensivemodelthatsimultaneouslyaimstopredictbothill-healthandmotivationatwork.Rootsofthemodelcanbefoundinthebalancemodelsofjobstress,suchasJDCmodel(Karasek,1979)andEffort-RewardImbalance(ERI)model(Siegrist,1996).
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TheJD-Rmodelproposesthatdiverseworkcharacteristics,suchasjobdemandsandjobresources,haveeitherpositiveornegativeeffectsonwell-being.IntheJD-Rmodel,job demandsaredefinedas“thosephysical,social,ororganizationalaspectsofthejobthatrequiresus-tainedphysicalormentaleffortandarethereforeassociatedwithcertainphysiologicalandpsychologicalcosts”(Demeroutietal.,2001,501).Examplesofjobdemandsarephysicaldemands,timepressure,workoverload,androleconflict.Inthisstudy,physicalandmentaldemandsofthejobwereexamined.Inturn,job resourcesreferto“thosephysi-cal,psychological,social,ororganizationalaspectsofthejobthatmaydoanyofthefollowing:(a)befunctionalinachievingworkgoals;(b)reducejobdemandsandtheassociatedphysiologicalandpsychologicalcosts;(c)stimulatepersonalgrowthanddevelopment”(Demeroutietal.,2001,501).Examplesofjobresourcesareautonomy,socialsupportfromcolleaguesandsupervisor,skillutilization,andparticipatingindecisionmaking.Inthisstudy,supervisoryrelations,interpersonalrelations,andtaskresourceswereexaminedasindicatorsofjobresources.
ThebasicassumptionoftheJD-Rmodelisthattwodistinctpsycho-logicalprocesses−thehealth-impairmentprocessandthemotivationalprocess−aredifferentlyrelatedtowell-being.Firstly,thehealth-impair-ment processassumesthathighjobdemandsandlowjobresourcesleadtoburnout,andconsequentlytoill-health(e.g.,depression,cardiovasculardisease,andpsychosomaticcomplaints).Thus,burnoutactsasamediatorbetweenjobdemandsandill-health.Secondly,themotivational processassumesthatjobresourcesleadtoworkengagement,which,inturn,hasapositiveeffectonorganizationaloutcomes,suchascommitmentandperformance.Inthisprocess,workengagementactsasamediatorbetweenjobresourcesandpositiveorganizationaloutcomes.(e.g.,Bakker&Demerouti,2007;Bakkeretal.,2008.)
AccordingtothelaterformulationsoftheJD-Rmodel,personalresourceshavebeenaddedtothemodel,astheymayhavesimilarmotivationalpotentialtothatofjobresourcesandmaybepositivelyrelatedtoworkengagement,andconsequentlytopositivework-relatedoutcomes(Xanthopoulouetal.,2007).Bydefinition,personalresourcesarepositiveself-evaluationsthatarelinkedtoresiliency,andrefertoanindividual’ssenseofabilitytosuccessfullycontrolandimpactonhis/herenvironment(Hobfoll,Johnson,Ennis,&Jackson,2003).Inthisstudy,
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self-esteem(seeJanssen,Schaufeli,&Houkes,1999;Rosenberg,1965;Rosenberg,Schooler,Schoenbach,&Rosenberg,1995)andoptimism(seeScheier&Carver,1985,1992)havebeeninvestigatedasindicatorsofpersonalresources.
EmpiricalevidencelargelysupportstheassumptionsofthetworelatedprocessessuggestedintheJD-Rmodel(foroverviews,seeBakker&Demerouti,2007;Hakanen&Roodt,2010;Schaufeli&Taris,2014).Mostofthestudiesarebasedonacross-sectionaldesign;however,somelongitudinalevidenceoftheJD-Rmodelexists,aswell.Forexample,a3-yearfollow-upamongFinnishdentists(Hakanen,Schaufeli,&Ahola,2008b)supportedboththehealth-impairmentandthemotivationalprocess.Moreprecisely,jobdemandspredictedburnoutovertime,whichinturnpredictedfuturedepression;andjobresourceswererelatedtofutureworkengagementwhichinturn,predictedorganizationalcom-mitment.Inaddition,a1-yearfollow-upstudyamongDutchmanagersconfirmedbothprocessesproposedbythemodel(Schaufeli,Bakker,&VanRhenen,2009).
TheadvantageoftheJD-Rmodelistheoptiontosimultaneouslyinvestigatebothnegative(i.e.,health-impairment)andpositive(i.e.,motivational)processes.Inaddition,thewidevarietyofjobdemands,resources,andoutcomesincludedinthemodeladdsthemodel’sflex-ibility,thatis,themodeldoesnotrestrictitselftoaspecificjobdemandorjobresource,insteadanydemandandanyresourcemayaffectem-ployeewell-being.Consequently,thisincreasesthemodel’savailabilityandusabilityindiverseworkcontextsandorganizations.(Schaufeli&Taris,2014.)Hence,theJD-Rmodelcanbeappliedinvariousoccupa-tionalfieldsasthemodelconsidersthespecificdemandsandresourcesofeachjob.Indeed,themodelhasbeentestedamongawidevarietyofoccupationsindiversecountries.Forexample,evidenceexistsamongindustrialworkers(e.g.,Bakker,Demerouti,deBoer,&Schaufeli,2003;Schaufeli&Bakker,2004),whitecollarworkers(e.g.,Hakanenetal.,2006,2008a,2008b;Korunka,Kubicek,Schaufeli,&Hoonaaker,2009;Schaufeli&Bakker,2004),bluecollarworkers(e.g.,Hansez&Chmiel,2010;Hu,Schaufeli,&Taris,2011),andevenamongvolunteers(e.g.,Lewig,Xanthopoulou,Bakker,Dollard,&Metzer,2007),andfamily-ownedbusinessworkers(e.g.,Hu&Schaufeli,2011).Theevidenceindicatesthatthemodelcanbereliablyusedindiverseworkenviron-
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ments.However,studieshavemainlybeenconductedamongwhitecollarworkersinsteadofmorephysicallydemandingjobs,suchasfirefighting.Nevertheless,demandsandresourcesandtheirconsequencesalsoneedtobeexaminedinphysicallydemandingjobsinordertoexaminethemodel’susefulnessinsuchacontext.
OnelimitationoftheJD-Rmodelhasbeenitsneglecttoelucidatetherelationshipbetweenjobandpersonalresourcesandhealth-relatedoutcomes.Researchhasemphasizedtheeffectofworkengagementonorganizationalcommitmentandjobperformancealthoughworken-gagementcouldalsoberelatedtohealth-relatedoutcomes.Forexample,organizationaloutcomessuchascustomerloyalty(Salanovaetal.,2005),organizationalcommitment(Hakanenetal.,2008b),innovativeness(Hakanenetal.,2008a),andwork-familyenrichment(Hakanen,Peeters,&Perhoniemi,2011)havebeenexamined.Inotherwords,intheJD-Rmodel,health-relatedindicatorsareconsideredoutcomesofthehealth-impairmentprocessresultingfromhighlevelsofjobdemands,ratherthananoutcomeofthemotivationalprocess.However,someevidenceexistsoftherelationshipbetweenworkengagementandhealthoutcomes(Hakanen&Schaufeli2012,Seppäläetal.,2012).Nevertheless,thelon-gitudinalpathfromjobresourcesviaworkengagementtoworkabilityhasnotpreviouslybeeninvestigated.Moreover,health-relatedindicatorsmayalsobeimportantresourcesthatboostworkengagementandconsequentlyfurtherimproveemployeewell-being.Therefore,thisstudyexaminestheroleofworkabilityinthemotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodel.
1.2.2 Conservation of Resources theory
Hobfoll’s(2001)ConservationofResources(COR)theoryisastressandmotivationaltheorythatconsiderstheacquisitionandaccumulationofresourcesapivotaldrivetoinitiateandmaintainpeople’sbehaviour,andconsequently,enhancewell-being.ThebasictenetofCORtheoryisthatpeoplestrivetoobtain,retain,foster,protect,andbuildresourcesthattheyvalue.Resourcesaredefinedas“thoseentitiesthateitherarecentrallyvaluedintheirownright,oractasmeanstoobtaincentrallyvaluedends”(Hobfoll,2002,p.307).Fourbroadcategoriesofresourcesaredistinguished:objects(e.g.,home,food,tools,andsocioeconomicstatus);conditions(e.g.,jobresources,suchassocialsupportandjob
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control);personalcharacteristics(e.g.,personalresources,suchasskillsandself-efficacy);andenergies(e.g.,time,money,andknowledge).Practically,CORtheoryassumesthatpeoplestrivetomaintainandaccu-mulatediverseresources,andconsequently,theseresourcesmaypreventthemfromhealthproblems.Accordingly,stressislikelytooccurwhenresourcesarethreatenedorlost,orwhenindividualsinvestinresourceswithoutreceivingtheexpectedlevelofbenefits.Inotherwords,againinresourcesresultsinwell-being.(Hobfoll,2002,seealsoSalanova,Schaufeli,Xanthopoulou,&Bakker,2010.)
CORtheoryhastwokeyprincipals.Firstly,peopleneedtoinvesttheirresourcesinordertodealwithstressfulconditionsandavoidnegativeconsequences.Forexample,socialsupportfromcolleaguesasaresourcemaypreventstress,andconsequently,alsopreventnegativehealthout-comes.Therefore,thosewithgreaterresourcesarelessvulnerabletostressthanthosewithfewerresources.Secondly,peoplemustinvestresourcesinordertoprotectagainstfutureresourceloss,andgainnewresources.Accordingly,thosewithgreaterresourcesaremorecapableoffuturere-sourcegain,andthus,constituting“gainspirals”.Consequently,inthelongterm,theaccumulationofresourcesresultsinpositiveoutcomes,suchasbettercoping,adaptation,andwell-being.Onthecontrary,thosewholackresourcesaremorelikelytohavefurtherresourceloss,andconsequently,sufferfromhealthproblems.Thus,CORtheoryproposesthatresourcesandwell-beingaffecteachotherreciprocally(i.e.,gainorlossspirals).(Hobfoll,2002,seealsoSalanovaetal.,2010.)
Recently,CORtheoryhasfrequentlybeenappliedasatheoreticalframeworkinstudiesofemployeewell-being,andempiricalevidencelargelysupportstheassumptionsofthetheory.Forexample,ina3-yearlongitudinalstudyamongFinnishdentists(Hakanenetal.,2008a)positiveandreciprocalcross-laggedassociationswerefoundbetweenjobresourcesandworkengagement(i.e.,indicatorofemployeewell-being),andbetweenworkengagementandpersonalinitiative,whichinturnhadapositiveeffectonwork-unitinnovativenessovertime.Similarly,gainspiralsbetweenpersonalandjobresourcesandwell-beingwerefoundinalongitudinalstudyamongteachers(Salanova,Bakker,&Llorens,2006).Morerecently,furtherempiricalsupportforCORtheorywasfoundinathree-yearlongitudinalstudythatobservedgainspiralsbetweenjobandhomeresourcesandwell-being(Hakanenetal.,2011).
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Tosummarize,CORtheory,alongsidetheJD-Rmodel,assumesthathighlevelsofresourcescanbebeneficialforemployeewell-beinginthelongterm.TheresourcegainofCORtheorycanberelatedtomotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodelasbothemphasizethepositiveeffectofresourcesonwell-being.Similarly,theresourcelossofCORtheoryhassimilaritieswiththehealth-impairmentprocessoftheJD-Rmodelasbothresultinnegativehealthoutcomes.Therefore,inthisstudy,CORtheoryisappliedasatheoreticalframeworktoexaminewhetherjobresourcesandpersonalresources(i.e.,self-esteem)predictworkabilityinthelongterm.
1.2.3 broaden-and-build theory
TheBroaden-and-Build(BaB)theory(Fredrickson,2001)emphasizestheimportanceofpositiveemotionsinthedevelopmentofotherresources,andconsequently,positivehealthoutcomes.Assuch,BaBtheoryprovidesapossibletheoreticalexplanationforthemechanismthatlinkspositiveaffectivestatesandemployeewell-being.AccordingtoBaBtheory,posi-tiveemotionssuchashappiness,joy,andlove,broadenpeople’sthought-actionrepertoires,buildtheirenduringphysical,intellectual,social,andpsychologicalresources,andconsequentlyleadtobetterwell-being.Moreprecisely,thebroaden hypothesisassumesthatpositiveemotionsbroadenpeople’sawarenessandthinkingwhichhelpsthemtodrawonawiderrangeofnewideas.Forexample,joybroadenspeople’sthinkingandactionbyencouragingtheurgetoplayandbecreative.Overtime,thisbroadeningofthoughtsandattentionleadstodiscoveringandbuildingnewpersonalresources(i.e.,build hypothesis)and,consequently,toim-provedwell-being.Ontheotherhand,negativeemotionsnarrowpeople’smomentarythoughtsandactions.Inaddition,positiveemotionsareas-sumedto“correct”or“undo”theaftereffectsofnegativeemotions.Thetheorynotonlyassumesthatpositiveemotionssignalflourishing,butmoreimportantly,thatpositiveemotionsalsoproduceflourishing,eveninthelongterm.Hence,similartoCORtheory,BaBtheoryproposesthatemotionsandwell-beingaffecteachotherreciprocally(i.e.,gainspirals).
AwealthofresearchsupportstheproposalsoftheBaBtheory.Forexample,FredricksonandJoiner(2002)showedthatpositiveaffectandbroad-mindedcopingreciprocallyenhancedoneanother,initiating
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upwardspiralsofenhancedwell-being.Similarly,inanexperimentalstudyamongcollegestudents,higheractivationstateofamusementbroadened the scopeofattentionand though-actionrepertoires(Fredrickson&Branigan,2005),thussupportingtheassumptionsofBaBtheory.Inaddition,empiricalevidenceindicatesthatpositiveemotionsareassociatedwithfewersymptoms,lessillness,lesspainandinjury,andbetterhealth,eveninthelongterm(forreviewssee,Lyubomirsky,King,&Diener,2005;Pressman&Cohen,2005).Forexample,workengagement–asanaffectivewell-beingstate–hadapositiveeffectonlifesatisfactioninaseven-yearfollow-upstudyamongdentists(Hakanenetal.,2006).Similarly,vitality–anotherindicatorofaffectivewell-being–wasfoundtoberelatedtophysicalandpsychologicalhealth(Ryan&Frederick,1997).Takentogether,thesefindings,albeitthusfarmainlybasedoncross-sectionalstudies,suggestthatpositiveaffectivestatesarepositivelyrelatedtoemployeewell-being.Similarly,evidenceexistsonthedetrimentaleffectofnegativeaffectonwell-being(e.g.,Billings,Folkman,Acree,&Moskowitz,2000).Insummary,forthepurposesofthisstudy,BaBoffersaplausibleexplanationinexaminingtherelation-shipbetweenworkengagementandworkabilityaswellastheeffectsofpositiveaffectivestatesonemployeewell-being.
1.2.4 Comparison of the theoretical frameworks
Toconclude,theJD-Rmodelinparticular,CORtheoryandtosomeextentBaBtheoryallemphasizetheimportanceofresourcesinmaintain-ingandincreasingemployeewell-being,andthus,theyareappliedinthepresentstudy.However,somedifferencesintheconceptualizationofresourcesbetweenthemodelsexistandneedtobementioned.FortheJD-Rmodel,resourcesarerelatedtothespecificjobinquestion,whereasCORdefinesresourcesonagenerallevelcoveringresourcesfromobjecttoenergies,andfromconditionstopersonalcharacteristics.Inturn,BaBfocusesonpositiveemotionsasaresource,forthisreasontherefore,theJD-RmodelandCORaremorewidelyapplicable,andhavecon-sequentlybeenusedmoreextensivelyinthisstudyaswell.SimilarlytoCORandBaB,thereisanassumptionofthegainspiralsovertime,thatis,accumulationofresourcesresultsinresourcegainorupwardspiralsinlongterm,andconsequently,betterwell-being.Likewise,JD-Rmodeldiscussesthepositivelinksbetweenjobandpersonalresourcesandem-
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ployeewell-being.Therefore,forthepurposesofthisstudy,whichaimstoexaminethelong-termrelationshipsbetweenjobandpersonalresourcesandemployeewell-being,thesetheoreticalframeworksprovideimportantperspectivesonthesubject.Asstated,avastamountofempiricalevidenceofallthreemodelsexists.However,strictlyspeakingonlylimitedevidenceoflong-termrelationshipsbetweenresourcesandwell-beingexists(seealsoSalanovaetal.,2010),andthus,furtherresearchisneeded.
1.3 study context: Rescue services
Asindicated,theJD-Rmodel(Demeroutietal.,2001)proposesthatjobdemands,andjobandpersonalresourcesarerelatedemployeewell-being.Moreimportantly,thesedemandsandresourcesmaydifferbetweenoccupations,andthus,understandingtheworkcontextisimportantinexaminingemployeewell-being.ThecontextofthisstudyisrescueservicesinFinland,andinparticular,operationalfirefighterswithintherescueservices.Therefore,inordertounderstandtheparticularjobdemands,jobresources,andpersonalresources,andtheirrelationshipstowell-being,itisessentialtohaveanoverviewoftheoperationalfire-fighters’jobandtheirworkenvironment.
InFinland,thereare22rescueserviceregionsthatcarryoutthedutiesofrescueservicesintheirrespectiveregions.MunicipalitiesarejointlyresponsibleforrescueservicesinFinland.Inaddition,theMinistryoftheInteriordirectsandsteersrescueservicesandoverseestheircoverageandquality.Thereareapproximately360full-timefirebrigadeswitharound4,300permanentfull-timeemployeesofwhichapproximately3,500workinoperationalrescuetasksandmedicalfirstaidservices(e.g.,asfirefighters,sub-officers,andfirechiefs).Inaddition,volunteer,insti-tutional,industrial,andmilitaryfirebrigades(i.e.,contractfirebrigades)participateinperformingrescueservicesdutiesbyagreementbetweenthefirebrigadesandtheregionalrescueservices.Overall,inapproximately520firebrigades,thereareabout13,400personsemployedbycontractfirebrigades.(Pelastusopisto,2014.)
Workinrescueservicesincludesdiversetasksandworkenviron-ments.AccordingtotheRescueAct(379/2011),therescuedepartmentsareresponsibleforguidance,education,andprovisionofadviceaimedatpreventingfiresandotheraccidents,preparingforthecombating
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ofaccidentsandtakingappropriateactioninaccidentsanddangeroussituations,andinthelimitingoftheconsequencesofaccidents,andsupervisorydutiesofrescueservices.Inaddition,tasksinclude,forex-ample,warningthepopulationofaccidentsanddangeroussituationsaswellastaskscarriedoutaspartofrescueoperations.In2013,Finnishrescueserviceregionsconductedapproximately105000rescuetasks,comprisingof13500fires,16000otheraccidents(e.g.,trafficaccidents,tasksrelatedtohazardoussubstances),andaround75 500otherrescuetasks(suchastestingsmokealarms,rescuingpeopleandanimals,andfirstresponse).(Pelastusopisto,2014.)
Inaddition,firebrigadesareallowedtocarryouttasksbelongingtoemergencymedicalcareservicesinjoint-operationwiththemunicipalboardofthehospitaldistrict.Emergencymedicalcareservicesinclude,forexample,urgenttreatmentofpatientswhohavesufferedaninjuryorasuddenonsetofanillnessprimarilyoutsideofhealthcaretreatmentfacilities;transportofpatientstothetreatmentunitwiththemostap-propriatemedicalservices;andreferralofpatients,relativesofpatients,andotherindividualsinvolvedinincidentstopsychosocialsupportservices,wherenecessary(HealthCareAct1326/2010).In2013,firebrigadeshadnearly500 000emergencymedicalcaretasks.Atpresent,emergencymedicalcaretasksrepresentthemajorityofalltaskswithintherescueserviceregions.
Diversetasksfromfireandrescueservicestoemergencymedicalcaretaskssethighrequirementsforfirefighters.Indeed,firefightingisaphysically,mentally,andsociallydemandingjob.Smokediving,fireandrescueoperations,workingintheroofs,andcleaninguptheincidentsites(e.g.,infireandroadaccidents)arephysicallymostdemandingtasksoffirefighting(Lusa,Louhevaara,&Kinnunen,1994).Inaddition,goodphysicalhealthisneededinemergencymedicalcaretasks,e.g.,withpatienttransportation.Ontheotherhand,beingconstantlyalert,workinglonghoursinunpredictableworkenvironments,andoccasion-allyseveretimepressureincreasethementalworkloadoffirefighters.Moreover,goodmentalhealthisneededinmanagingademandingjobthatalsoincludesrescuinghumanlives,andevenfacingdeath.(e.g.,Beaton,Murphy,Johnson,Pike,&Corneil,1998;Haslam&Mallon,2003.)Socially,firefightingrequiresgoodcommunicationskills(e.g.,Beaton,Murphy,Pike,&Corneil,1997).Moreprecisely,workrequires
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constantinteractionwithpartners,suchascolleaguesandsupervisors,customers,otherpublicauthorities,andpublicmedia.Inparticular,workingina24-hourshiftincloselyco-ordinatedteamsnecessitatesgoodrelationshipsbetweentheco-workers.Practically,firefighterseat,sleep,andexercisetogether,andoftentheirsocialactivitiestendtooccurinthecompanyofotherfirefighters(Beatonetal.,1997;Mankkinen,2011).Inaddition,indangerousworksituationsfirefightershavetobeabletofullytrusttheirworkmates,andthus,goodsocialrelation-shipsbetweenco-workersareextremelyimportant.Furthermore,goodsupervisoryrelationsareessential,andareinfactfoundtoberelatedtoadecreasedlevelofmentalworkloadamongfirefighters(Lusa,Punakal-lio,Luukkonen,&Louhevaara,2006).Inadditiontorequirementsofgoodsocialrelationshipswithintheworkingcommunity,emotionallyhighlydemandingcustomers,forexampleangry,anxious,orimpatientpatients,ordemandingandthreateningpatientsandtheirrelatives,maybechallengingforfirefighters,andincreasethementalpressureofwork.
Apparently,highjobdemands–physical,mental,andsocial–arepartofthefirefighters’dailyworktasks.However,atthesametime,firefightingmayincludeseveraljobresourcesthathelptoreducejobdemandsandtherelatedphysiologicalandpsychologicalcosts,andstimulatepersonalgrowthanddevelopment(seeDemeroutietal.,2001).Jobresourcesoffirefighters’mayinclude,forexample,goodrelationshipsbetweenco-workers(e.g.,Pillai&Williams,2004),supervisorysupport(e.g.,Mitani,Fujita,Nakata,&Shirakawa,2006),andthefairdistributionofworktasks(e.g.,Lusaetal.,2006).Inaddition,personalresourcesmayactasapositiveresourceforfirefighters.Forinstance,someevidenceexistsofthepositiveeffectofself-esteemonfirefighters’well-beingandjobsatisfaction(Saijo,Ueno,&Hashimoto,2008).
Obviously,physical,mental,andsocialdemandsofthejobmayberelatedtofirefighters’well-being,asalsosuggestedbytheJD-Rmodel.Indeed,previousstudiesindicatethatfirefighterssufferfromseveralhealthproblems,including,forexample,sleepproblems(Haslam&Mallon,2003),hazardousdrinking(Boxer&Wild,1993),muscu-loskeletalproblems(Bos,Mol,Visser,&Frings-Dresen,2004;Sluiter&Frings-Dresen,2007),anddepressivesymptoms(Carey,Al-Zaiti,Dean,Sessanna,&Finnell,2011;Fullertonetal.,2004;Plat,Frings-Dresen,&Sluiter,2012).InFinland,about40%ofthepermanentoperative
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Finnishfirefightersarenotabletoworkuntiltheirnormalretirementage.In2000–2013,musculoskeletaldisorders(44%),cardiovasculardiseases(13%)andmentaldisorders(12%)werethemostcommonreasonsforearlyretirementamongFinnishfirefighters.(Fors,Keva,personalcommunication,2014.)Therefore,inordertomaintainandimprovehealthandwell-beingofFinnishfirefighters,itisessentialtounderstandthelongitudinalrelationshipsbetweenworkcharacteristics,personalresources,lifestyle,andwell-being.
1.4 Aims of the study
Theaimofthisstudywastoextendunderstandingoftherelationshipsbetweenworkcharacteristics(i.e.,jobdemandsandjobresources),per-sonalresources,andlifestyleonemployeewell-beingusingdatafroma13-yearfollow-upperiodonFinnishfirefighters.
Firstly,theaimwastoexaminetheroleofaffective-motivationalstateofworkengagementinrelationtoworkability.Secondly,thisstudyexam-inedtheroleofworkabilityintheJD-Rmodelbothasahealth-relatedresource(i.e.,predictor)thatislikelytoinfluenceworkengagement,andasanoutcomeofthemotivationalprocess.Thirdly,thedevelopmentalpathsinpositive(i.e.,vigor)andnegative(i.e.,fatigue)affectivestatesandtheirrelationshiptowell-beingwereinvestigated,aswellasintra-individualchangetrajectoriesinmultisitemusculoskeletalpainandde-pressivesymptomsandtherelatedantecedents(i.e.,workcharacteristics,personalresources,andlifestyle).Methodologically,thisstudyaimedtoextendthecurrentknowledgebyapplyingaperson-centeredapproach(i.e.,latentclassgrowthmodeling)alongwithavariable-basedapproach(e.g.,multivariateanalysisandstructuralequationmodeling).Hence,severalpredictors,indicatorsofemployeewell-being,andmethodologieshavebeenused.Theresearchquestionsbysub-studieswereasfollows:
1. Doesworkengagementrelatetoworkabilityevenafteradjustingforage,lifestylefactors,andworkcharacteristics?Areage,lifestylefactors,workcharacteristics,andparticularlyworkengagementassociatedwithdifferentdimensionsofworkability?(StudyI)
2. Doesworkengagementmediatetherelationshipbetweenjobre-sourcesandfutureworkability?Doesworkengagementmediate
41
1 introdUction
therelationshipbetweenpersonalresources(i.e.,self-esteem)andfutureworkability?Doesworkengagementmediatetheimpactofworkabilityin1999onworkabilityin2009?(StudyII)Thespecifichypotheseswere:
H1:Jobresourcesin1999willbepositivelyrelatedtowork-abilityin2009throughworkengagementin2009.
H2:Self-esteemin1999willbepositivelyrelatedtoworkabilityin2009throughworkengagementin2009.
H3:Workabilityin1999willbepositivelyrelatedtoworkengagementin2009,whichinitsturnwillbepositivelyrelatedtosubsequentworkabilityin2009.
3. Aretheredifferentdevelopmentalpathsbasedonpositive(vigor)andnegative(fatigue)affect?Dothesedevelopmentalpathschangeorremainstableovertime?Arethesedevelopmentaltrajectoriesdiffer-entlyassociatedwithwell-being(i.e.,workability,self-ratedhealth,andlifesatisfaction)duringthe13-yearfollow-upperiod?(StudyIII)
4. Aretheredifferentdevelopmentalpathsofmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptomsduringthe13-yearfollow-upperiod?Dojobdemands,jobresources,personalresources,andlifestylepredictbelongingtoaparticularpain-depressiondevelopmentalpath?(StudyIV)Thespecifichypotheseswere:
H1a:Aonelargetrajectorywithlowlevelsofbothsymptoms(Low Symptoms)willemerge.
H1b:Asmallertrajectorywithahighlevelofdepressivesymptoms(High Depression)willemerge.
H1c:Asmallertrajectorywithahighlevelofmusculoskeletalpain(High Pain)willemerge.
H1d:Atrajectorygroupwithhighlevelsofbothsymptoms(High Symptoms)willemerge.
H2: Highlevelsofjobdemandsandlowlevelsofjobre-sourcesandoptimismatbaselinepredictbelongingtothetrajectorygroupswithhighlevelsofpainanddepressivesymptoms.
TheresearchframeworkandtherelationshipsbetweenthestudyvariablesarepresentedinFigure1.
42
1 introdUction
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2.1 Participants
ThedataofthisstudyispartofaquestionnairestudyamongFinnishfirefightersconductedbytheFinnishInstituteofOccupationalHealthin1996(T1),1999(T2),and2009(T3).ThestudywasapprovedbytheEthicsCommitteeoftheHUSHospitalDistrict,andwasperformedaccordingtotheHelsinkiDeclaration.Eachsubjectgavewritteninformedconsentbeforeparticipation.ThequestionnairesareavailableinFinnish(Lusa-Moseretal.,1996;Punakallio&Lusa-Moser,1999;Punakallio&Lusa,2011).TheapprovalletterfromtheEthicsCommitteeandtheletterofintenttotheparticipantsareavailablefromtheauthoronrequest.
In1995,astratifiedsamplingofallpermanentFinnishoperativemalefirefighters(n=3512)wasconductedbasedonregistersofthethreetradeunionsofFinnishfirefighters.Thesamplingwasstratifiedaccordingtothenumberoffirefightersintheareaandtheirage.Atbaseline,in1996,aques-tionnairewassentto1,124professionaloperativefirefightersinFinland.Thesampleconsistedofoperatingpersonnelinrescueservices,whichismainlyresponsiblefordailyfirefighting,rescueandmedicalemergencies,andmedicalemergencyserviceoperations.Inthefirstphase,76%(N=849)returnedthequestionnaire.Oftherespondents,14wereexcludedbecauseofchangeofjob,sickleave,ornotbeingprofessionalfirefighter,thusthefinalsamplesizewas835.In1999,afollow-upquestionnairewassentto1,106participantsofthesampleselectedin1996whohadorhadnotresponded.Theresponseratewas72%(N=794),and67wereexcluded,sothefinalsamplewas727.In2009,1,061questionnairesweresenttofirefightersregardlessofpreviousresponsestatus,and68%returnedthequestionnaire(N=721),and270wereexcluded(finalsampleN=451).Figure2illustratestheprocessofdatacollection.
44
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2 metHods
Twoslightlydifferentdatasetshavebeenusedinthefoursub-studies.Dataset 1consistedoffirefighterswhorespondedtothequestionnairesinboth1999(T2)andin2009(T3),andwerestillemployedintheirprofession(n=403).ThisdatasethasbeenusedinStudiesIandII.Dataset 2includedthosefirefighterswhorespondedtothequestionnairesateachmeasurementpoint(T1,T2,andT3),andwerestillemployedintheirprofession(n=360).ThisdatasethasbeenusedinStudiesIIIandIV.AssomeofthestudyvariablesweremeasuredonlyatT2(e.g.,self-esteem),thesetwodatasetswereused.ThecharacteristicsofthesetwodatasetsarepresentedinTable1.
OfDataset1,atotalof148oftherespondentsfrom1999didnotanswerin2009.Thedrop-outswereolder,hadlowereducation,smokedmoreoften,andhadlowerworkabilitythanthosewhorespondedonbothoccasions,indicatingslightlybetterlifestyleandworkabilityamongthesampleofthisstudy.However,whentheagedifferencewastakenintoaccounttherewerenodifferencesbetweenthetwogroups.Moreover,thedrop-outsandtheparticipantsdidnotsignificantlydif-ferinrelationtoself-esteemandjobresources.OfDataset2,atotalof475respondentsfrom1996didnotparticipatein2009.Statisticaltestsrevealedthatthedrop-outsweresignificantlyolder,hadlowereduca-tion,andslightlypoorerwell-beingintermsofworkability,depressivesymptoms,andself-ratedhealth.Inaddition,thedrop-outshadhighermentalworkload,poorerlifestylehabits,andloweroptimismthanthosewhorespondedatallthreetimes.Incontrast,thedrop-outsandthepar-ticipantsdidnotsignificantlydifferinrelationtolifesatisfaction,vigor,fatigue,musculoskeletalpain,physicalworkload,jobresources,andalcoholconsumption.Tosumup,thereweresomedifferencesbetweentheparticipantsandthedrop-outs,howeverthesewereforthemostpartminor.Theattritionanalysesaredescribedindetailintheoriginalarticles.
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2 metHods
Table 1. Descriptive characteristics of the study samples.
Characteristics Dataset 1(Studies I–II)
Dataset 2(Studies III–IV)
Sample size 403 360
Average age at T3 48.5 (range 35–62, SD = 5.4)
48.7 (range 35–62, SD = 5.4)
Basic education
Primary or elementary school education 80.9% (n = 321) 81.0% (n = 288)
Secondary school education 19.1% (n = 76) 19.2% (n = 69)
Vocational education
Firefighter 87.7% (n = 315) 87.5% (n = 281)
Sub-officer 29.4% (n = 105) 30.4% (n = 97)
Fire chief 9.8% (n = 35) 9.4% (n = 30)
Mean work experience, in years 25.3 (SD = 5.8) 25.5 (SD = 5.7)
Shift work 84.3% (n = 337) 84.1% (n = 301)
2.2 measures
2.2.1 employee well-being
Affective well-being
Work engagement(StudiesI–II)wasmeasuredbyusingtheshortversionoftheUtrechtWorkEngagementScale,theUWES-9(Hakanen2002,2009;Schaufeli,Bakker,&Salanova,2006).TheUWES-9isvalidatedandthemostwidelyusedmeasureforworkengagement(Bakkeretal.,2008;Seppäläetal.,2009),consistingofnineitems.Themeasurehasbeentranslatedinto21languagesandusedamongvariousoccupationalgroups.Theinstrumenthasthreesub-scales:vigor(e.g.,“Atmywork,Ifeelburstingwithenergy”),dedication(e.g.,“Myjobinspiresme”),andabsorption(e.g.,“Iamimmersedinmywork”).Eachofthesub-
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2 metHods
dimensionswasassessedusingthreeitems.Theitemswereratedonaseven-pointfrequency-basedscale(0=never,6=daily).Thescalewashighlyreliable(T3Cronbach’sα=0.95;forvigorα=0.89;dedicationα=0.90;absorptionα=0.90).
Vigor(StudyIII),fatigue(StudyIII)anddepressive symptoms(StudyIV)weremeasuredusingtheFinnishversionoftheProfileofMoodStates(POMS)(Hänninen,1989;McNairetal.,1971)including38itemsthatreflectbothpositiveandnegativeaffectivestates.Respondentswereaskedtoindicatehowthespecificitemsdescribetheirstateduringthelastweekratedonafive-pointfrequency-scale(0=not at all,4=very much).Theconstructvalidityofthescaleissatisfactory(Peterson&Seligman,2004).POMShasbeenwidelyusedinempiricalstudies,forexample,insportspsychologyandstudiesoncancerpatients(seeforexampleBeedie,Terry,&Lane,2000;Cella,Tross,Orav,Holland,Silberfarb,&Rafla,1989).POMShasalsobeenusedinsomeorganiza-tionalpsychologysettings(e.g.,Sonnentag&Niessen,2008).The vigor subscaleconsistedofsixitems:active,energetic,cheerful,vigorous,lively,andalert(T1α=0.94,T2α=0.95,T3α=0.94).The fatigue subscaleconsistedofthreeitems:exhausted,fatigued,andweary(T1α=0.82,T2α=0.86,T3α=0.87).Andfinally,the depression subscaleconsistedofsevenitems:miserable,sad,depressed,hopeless,blue,lonely,anddistressed(T1α=0.87,T2α=0.92,T3α=0.89).
Health-related well-being
Work ability(StudiesI–III)wasmeasuredbytheWorkAbilityIndex(WAI)questionnaire(Tuomi,Ilmarinen,Jahkola,Katajarinne,&Tulkki,1998).Theindexconsistsofsevendimensions,namely:(i)thesubjectiveestimationofcurrentworkabilitycomparedwithlifetimebest(0–10points);(ii)subjectiveworkabilityinrelationtojobdemands(2–10points);(iii)thenumberofcurrentdiseasesdiagnosedbyaphysician(1–7points);(iv)thesubjectiveestimationofworkimpairmentduetodiseases(1–6points);(v)sickleaveduringthepastyear(1–5points);(vi)ownprognosisofworkabilitytwoyearsfromnow(1,4or7points);and(vii)psychologicalresources(1–4points).TheWAIindexrangesfrom7to49points,andahigherscoreindicatesbetterworkability.TheWAIisthemostwidelyusedquestionnaireonworkabilityandavalidated
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measureofworkability(vandenBergetal.,2009).Furthermore,satis-factorytest-retestreliabilityoftheindexhasbeenobserved(deZwart,Frings-Dresen,&vanDuivenbooden,2002).
InStudiesIandIII,thetotalindexofWAIwasused.However,duetothelargeamountofmissingdata(n=174–199)inestimatedworkimpairmentduetodiseases(sub-dimension4),thisitemwasexcludedfromalltheanalyses.ThereforetheslightlymodifiedWAIindexhadarangefrom6to43points(α=0.70–0.78,formoredetailseetheoriginalpapers).ThecontinuoussumscoreoftheWAIwasusedinStudiesIandIII.Inaddition,inStudyI,thesub-dimensionsoftheWAI–i.e.,theindividualitems-wereusedasseparatedependentvariables.
InStudyII,workabilitywasmeasuredbyasingle-itemoftheindex,namelythesubjectiveestimationofcurrentworkabilitycomparedwithlifetimebestwithascalefrom0to10:“Assumethatyourworkabilityatitsbesthashadavalueof10.Howmanypointswouldyougiveyourcurrentworkability?(0meansthatcurrentlyyoucannotworkatall)”.Thesingle-itemquestionofworkabilitywasusedbecausethetotalworkabilityindexcannotberegardedasafactorinwhichitssevendimensionswouldloadsimilarlyintoasinglefactor.ThereforetheindexcouldnotbeusedintheSEMmodel.Priorstudieshaveindicatedastrongassociation(r=.87)betweenthetotalWAI-scoreandthesingle-itemindicator(e.g.,Ahlstrom,Grimby-Ekman,Hagberg,&Dellve,2010).Inaddition,boththetotalWAIandthesingle-itemquestionhaveshownsimilarpatternsofassociationswithdiversehealth-relatedoutcomes(e.g.,Ahlstrometal.,2010).Thus,asingle-itemquestionofworkabilityisagoodalternativetothetotalWAI-index,andhasbeenwidelyusedinFinnishworklifeandhealthsurveys(e.g.,Kauppinenetal.,2010).
Self-rated health(StudyIII)wasmeasuredbyasingle-itemquestionbyasking“Howdoyourateyourhealthcomparedwithyouragepeers?”withafive-pointscale(1=muchworse,5=muchbetter).ThereliabilityoftheSRHquestionisfoundtobeasgoodasorevenbetterthanthatofmostofthemorespecificquestionsonhealth(Lundberg&Manderbacka,1996).Moreover,thequestioniscloselyrelatedtoobjectivemeasuresofhealthandevenmortality(Chida&Steptoe,2008).
Multisite musculoskeletal pain(MSP)(StudyIV)wasmeasuredusingsevenitemsadaptedfromavalidatedNordicMusculoskeletalQuestion-naire(Björkstén,Boquist,Talbäck,&Edling,1999;Kuorinkaetal.,
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2 metHods
1987).Painwasmeasuredinneck,shoulders,forearms/hands,hips,knees,andradiating,andlocalpaininlowback.Thequestionwas:“Estimatehowmanydaysaltogetheryouhavehad…(i.e.,neck)painduringpreceding12months?”Allitemswereratedonafive-pointscale(1=never,2=1–7days,3=8-30days,4=over30days,5=daily).Thevariablewascategorizedintotwocategories:‘0=nopain’(painon0–7days),‘1=pain’(painmorethan7days).Finally,allsevendichotomizedvariablesweresummedandthesumscoreofMSPatallsiteswascalcu-lated(0=nopain,7=paininsevensites).
Life satisfaction
Lifesatisfaction(StudyIII)wasasingle-itemquestion“Howsatisfiedareyouatpresentwithyourlife?”.Theitemwasratedwithafive-pointscalefrom1(veryunsatisfied)to5(verysatisfied).Single-itemmeasuresoflifesatisfactionhavepreviouslybeeneffectivelyused(Lucas&Don-nellan,2012,seealsoWanous,Reichers,&Hudy,1997).
2.2.2 Job demands
Jobdemandsweremeasuredwithphysicalandmentalworkload(Stud-iesIandIV).Physical workloadwasmeasuredusingfouritemsadaptedfromViikari-Junturaetal.(1996).Physicalworkloadwascoveredbyquestionsonthefrequencyofworkinginfourdifficultworkpostures:(i)workingonone’sknees,crouched,orcrawling;(ii)posturesinwhichthebackisbent;(iii)posturesinwhichthebackistwisted;and(iv)workingwithahandorhandsaboveneck-shoulderlevel.Allitemswereratedonafour-pointscale(forexample,1=notatall,4=overanhourduringtheshift).(Fordatasets1/2:T1α=0.73/0.73,T2α=0.74/0.72,T3α=0.79/0.78).Mental work load2(e.g.,Tuomi,Toikkanenetal.,1991)consistedofthreeitems:Excessivedemandsofthejob;responsibilityofthejob;andfearoffailureandmistakesatwork.Itemswereratedonafive-pointscale(0=notatall,4=verymuch)(forbothdatasets:T1α=0.77;T2α=0.79,T3α=0.75).
2NB.IntheoriginalpaperoftheStudyI,theterm“jobdemands”hasbeenusedinsteadofmentalworkload.
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2.2.3 Job resources
Threediversejobresourceswereexamined.AccordingtotheJD-Rmodel(Demeroutietal.,2001),eachjobhasitsownjobresourcesthatarerelevantintermsofemployeewell-being.Thus,theappliedjobre-sourceswereselectedaccordingtopriorstudiesthathaveidentifiedtheseresourcestobeimportantforfirefighters:(1)supervisory support(e.g.,Haslam&Mallon,2003;Mitanietal.,2006);(2)supportive interpersonal relations(e.g.,Saijo,Ueno,&Hashimoto,2007);and(3)task resources(e.g.,Lusaetal.,2006).Thethreejobresources–supervisoryrelations,interpersonalrelations,andtaskresources–wereadaptedfromtheOc-cupationalStressQuestionnaire(OSQ)(Elo,Leppänen,Lindström,&Ropponen,1992).TheOSQmeasurestheperceivedworkenvironmentanditseffects.Itiswell-validatedinFinlandandhasbeenusedamongseveraloccupationalgroups(Eloetal.,1992).
Supervisory relations(StudiesI–II,IV)includedfiveitemscoveringsupervisorysupport,supervisorycontrol,andrelationshipsbetweenemployeesandsupervisors(fordatasets1/2:T1α=0.81/0.81,T2α=0.80/0.82,T3α=0.84/0.83).Anexampleitemis“Doyougetsupportandhelpfromyoursupervisorwhenneeded?”Interpersonal relations(StudiesIIandIV)consistedoffouritems:conflictsbetweenemploy-ees,conflictsbetweenyoungerandolderworkers,cooperationinone’swork-unit,andrelationshipsbetweenemployees(forbothdatasets:T1α=0.74;T2α=0.72,T3α=0.77).Anexampleitemis“Whatkindofaretherelationsbetweenco-workersinyourworkplace?”Task resources(StudiesI–II,andIV)includedthreeitems:decision-makingonissuesconcerningone’stasks,opportunitiestouseone’sknowledgeandskillsatwork,andfeedbackonsuccessinworktasks(fordatasets1/2:T1α=0.67/0.67,T2α=0.68/0.67,T3α=0.72/0.72).Anexampleitemis“Canyouuseyourknowledgeandskillsatwork?”Alljobresourceitemswereratedonafive-pointscale(e.g.,1=notatall/practicallynever,5=verymuch).InStudiesIandIIacontinuoussumscoresofthejobresourceswereused,whereasinStudyIV,thesumscoresweredichotomizedattheirmediantocreatehighandlowgroupsofjobresources.
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2.2.4 Personal resources
Self-esteem(StudyII)wasmeasuredbytheRosenbergSelf-EsteemScale(Rosenberg,1965)consistingof10items.Rosenberg’sself-reportscaleisavalid,reliable,andthemostwidelyusedmeasureofself-esteem(Gray-Little,Williams,&Hancock,1997;Marsh,1996).Itincludesbothpositive(e.g.,“Onthewhole,Iamsatisfiedwithmyself ”),andnegative(e.g.,“AttimesIthinkIamnogoodatall”)items.Allitemswereratedonafour-pointscalerangingfrom1=stronglydisagreeto4=stronglyagree(T2α=0.81).
Optimism(StudyIV)wasasingle-itemquestionfromthevalidatedWorkAbilityIndexQuestionnaire(Tuomietal.,1998):“Haveyourecentlyfeltyourselftobefullofhopeforthefuture?”Theoriginalfive-pointscale(0=never,4=often)wascategorizedintolow(<3)andhigh(≥3)levelsofoptimism.
2.2.5 Lifestyle factors
Alcoholconsumption,bodymassindex(BMI),smoking,physicalexer-cise,andsleepproblemswerestudiedasindicativeoflifestyle(StudiesIandIV).Alcohol consumptionwasmeasuredusingasingle-itemquestiononthefrequencyofalcoholconsumptionwithaneight-pointscale(1=never,8=dailyoralmostdaily).InStudyI,acontinuousvariablewasused.InStudyIV,thevariablewascategorizedintolow(<6)andhigh(≥6)alcoholconsumption.BMI(StudyI)wascalculatedbydividingbodyweight(kilograms)bythesquareofbodyheight(metres).Smokinghabitswereelicitedusingadichotomous(yes-no)questiononcurrentsmoking.Physical exercisewasassessedthroughasingle-itemquestiononthefrequencyofleisure-timeexerciseactivity,usingathree-pointscale(1=notatall,2=occasionally,3=frequently).InStudyIV,thevariablewascategorizedintolow(<3)andhigh(3)physicalactivity.Finally,afour-itemscaleofsleep problemswasderivedfromtheBasicNordicSleepQuestionnaire(Partinen&Gislason,1995):Difficultiesinfallingasleepduringthepastthreemonths;sleepingwellduringthepastthreemonths;awakingtooearlyinthemorningandnotbeingabletofallbackasleepduringthepastthreemonths;andextremetirednessduringdaytime.Alltheitemswereratedonafive-pointscale(1=not
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atall,5=daily/almostdaily)exceptsleepingwell,whichwasmeasuredwithathree-pointscale(1=well,3=moderately,5=poorly)(fordatasets1/2:T1α=0.76/0.76,T2α=0.79/0.78,T3α=0.79/0.80).InStudyIV,thesumscorewasdichotomizedusingmediantocreatelow(<8)andhigh(≥8)sleepingproblems.Table2summarizesthevariablesusedinthesub-studies.
Table 2. Variables used in the sub-studies.
Variables Study I Study II Study III Study IV
Affective well-being
Work engagement x x
Vigor x
Fatigue x
Depressive symptoms x
Health-related well-being
Work ability
Work ability index x x
Single-item x
Musculoskeletal pain x
Self-rated health x
Life satisfaction x
Job demands
Physical work load x x
Mental work load x x
Job resources
Supervisory relations x x x
Interpersonal relations x x
Task resources x x x
Personal resources
Self-esteem x
Optimism x
Lifestyle factors
Alcohol consumption x x
BMI x
Smoking x x
Physical exercise x x
Sleeping problems x x
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2.3 statistical Analyses
Multiplestatisticalanalyseswereusedinthisstudy.LinearregressionanalysiswasusedinStudyI,structuralequationmodelinginStudyII,latentclassgrowthmodelinginStudiesIII–IV,mixedlinearmodelsinStudyIII,andmultinomialregressionanalysisinStudyIV.ContinuousvariableswereappliedinStudiesI,II,andIII,whereasduetothestudydesign,categorizedvariableswereappliedinStudyIV.AnalyseswereconductedusingPASWStatistics18forWindows(StudyI),AMOS18.0softwarepackage(StudyII),andSAS(version9.2)software(StudiesIII–IV).
In Study I,exploratoryfactoranalysis(EFA)wasusedtoexaminewhetherthedifferentscalesofjobdemandsandjobresourcescouldbedistinguishedfromeachother.Multicollinearitywaschecked,andfoundnocollinearityproblemsinthedata(seeMyers,1990).Toexaminewhetherlifestyle,jobdemands,jobresources,andworkengagementwererelatedtotheWAIoritssixsub-dimensionsin2009,linearregressionanalysiswasused.ThebaselineWAIandthesub-dimensionsoftheWAItenyearsearlierwerecontrolled.Thus,intotalsevendifferentmodelswereanalysed.
In Study II,structuralequationmodeling(SEM)techniqueswereusedtotesttheroleofworkengagementasamediatorbetweenjobandpersonalresourcesontheonehandandworkabilityontheother.SEMwaschosenduetoseveraladvantages.Firstly,ittakesaconfirmatory(i.e.,hypothesis-testing)ratherthanexploratoryapproachtothedataanalysis.Secondly,SEMprovidesexplicitestimatesoferrorvarianceparameters,thatis,byusinglatentvariablesitispossibletoassessandcorrectmeasurementerrors,whichallowsmorereliabletestsofthestudymodels.Thirdly,bothunobserved(i.e.,latent)andobservedvariablescanbeincorporatedinSEMprocedure.Fourthly,SEMallowsforthepossibilityoftestingmodelsagainsteachother.Finally,SEMallowsreliablemethodstotestindirecteffects.(Formoredetails,seeByrne,2010.)Inthefirstphase,themeasurementmodel(confirmatoryfactoranalyses,CFA)thatdefinesrelationsbetweentheobservedandunob-servedvariableswastested(seeMulaik&James,1995).Aftertestingthemeasurementmodel,structuralequationmodelsweretested.Modelfitwasevaluatedusinggoodness-of-fitindices(i.e.,Chi-squareχ2test,theRootMeanSquareErrorofApproximation,theComparativeFit
54
2 metHods
Index,andtheTucker-LewisIndex),andconventionalrulesofthumbfortheircut-offs(seeBrowne&Cudeck,1993;Byrne,2010).Inaddi-tion,tocomparethedifferentmodels,Akeike’sInformationCriterion(AIC)wasused.Finally,abootstrappingon2,000subsamplesfromtheoriginaldatausingtheMLestimatorwithbias-corrected95%confidenceintervalsforeachoftheparameterbootstrapestimateswasconductedinordertoexaminewhetherjobresources,self-esteem,andworkabilityatT1yieldedanindirecteffectviaworkengagementonworkabilityatT2(seee.g.,Hayes,2009).
In Study III,alatentclassgrowthmodeling(LCGM)(Jones&Nagin,2007;Nagin,1999)toidentifylatentmood(i.e.,vigorandfatigue)trajectorieswasused.LCGMisasemi-parametricstatisticaltechniqueusedtoidentifydistinctsubgroupsofindividualsfollowingasimilarpatternofchangeovertimeinavariableofinterest(Andruff,Carraro,Thompson,Gaudreau,&Louvet,2009).Theparametersofthemultitrajectorymodelswereestimatedbymaximumlikelihoodestimation,andthecensorednormalmodeldistributionwasused.Todecideontheadequatenumberoflatentclasses,differentcriteriawereused:(i)TheBayesianInformationCriterion(BIC)statistics;(ii)TheAICstatistics;(iii)theposteriorprobabilities;and(iv)theusefulnessandclarityofthelatentclassesinpractice.Inordertoinvestigatetherelationshipbetweenthelatentmoodclassesandemployeewell-being,themixedlinearmodelswereused.Moreover,thet-testswithBonferronicorrectionwerecarriedouttoinvestigatewhetherdifferencesexistedonthelevelsofworkability,self-ratedhealth,andlifesatisfactionbetweenthedifferentlatentclasses.Agewasadjustedineachmodel.
In Study IV,theeffectsofjobdemands,jobresources,personalresources,andlifestyleonpain-depressiontrajectorieswereanalysedusingtheLCGMinasimilarwaytoStudyIII.Inordertoinvestigatetherelationshipbetweenthelatentclassesandantecedentsin1996,multinomiallogisticregressionanalyseswereconducted.Theassociationswerepresentedasoddratios(OR)andtheir95%confidenceintervals(95%CI).Allmodelswereadjustedwithage,andfinally,allsignificantpredictorswereputintothesamemodelinordertoexaminetheirin-dependenteffects.Inthefinalmodel,variablesthatwerenotsignificantatthecriticallevel0.05inrelationtoeitheroftheexaminedtrajectorieswereeliminated.
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Amoredetaileddescriptionofthestatisticalanalysesisprovidedintheoriginalarticles.Table3summarizesthestudytype,sample,mainvariables,anddataanalysesofeachsub-study.
Table 3. Study type, sample, main variables, and statistical analysis of the Studies I–IV.
Study Study type Sample Main variables Data analysis
Study IThe relationship between work engagement and work ability
Cross-sectional
n=403 Job demands; job resources; lifestyle factors; work engagement; work ability
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA); linear regression analysis
Study IIThe mediating role of work engagement; the role of work ability in the motivational process of the JD-R model
Longitudinal sample with two waves
n=403 Job resources; personal resources (self-esteem); work engagement; work ability
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA); structural equation modeling (SEM); boostrapping using the MLE
Study IIIThe co-development of vigor and fatigue, and their relationship with well-being
Longitudinal sample with three waves
n=360 Vigor; fatigue; life satisfaction; self-rated health; work ability
Latent class growth modeling (LCGM); mixed linear models
Study IVThe co-development of musculoskeletal pain and depressive symptoms, and their antecedents
Longitudinal sample with three waves
n=360 Job demands; job resources; personal resources (optimism), lifestyle factors; depressive symptoms; multisite musculoskeletal pain
Latent class growth modeling (LCGM); multinominal logistic regression
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3 ResuLts
Theresultsarepresentedbysub-studies.Firstly,therelationshipbetweenworkengagementandworkabilityisinvestigated(StudyI).Secondly,theroleofworkabilityinthemotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodelisexamined(StudyII).Thirdly,theco-developmentofvigorandfatigueandtheirrelationshiptoemployeewell-beingwillbepresented(StudyIII).Fourthlyandfinally,theresultsofthedevelopmentalpathsofmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptoms,andtheante-cedentsrelatedtoparticulartrajectorygroupswillbepresented(StudyIV).Detailedanalysesofsub-studiesarepresentedintheoriginalpapers.
3.1 Relationship between work engagement and work ability (study i)
StudyIinvestigatedwhetherworkengagementisrelatedtoworkabilityaftercontrollingforage,lifestyle,workcharacteristics,andworkabilitytenyearsearlier.Bothworkabilityindex(WAI)anditssub-dimensionswereexamined.Table4showstheresultsofthestepwiseregressionanaly-sesrelatedtototalWAI.AgewasnegativelyrelatedtoWAI.Thelifestylefactorsincludedinstep2significantlyimprovedtheregressionmodel.Morespecifically,sleepproblemswerenegativelyandphysicalexercisepositivelyrelatedtoworkability.Incontrast,alcoholconsumption,BMIandsmokingwerenotrelatedtothetotalWAIscore.Addingworkchar-acteristics(step3)tothemodelfurthersignificantlyimprovedtheregres-sionmodel.However,onlyphysicalworkloadwassignificantlyrelatedtotheWAI.Finally,workengagementwasaddedtothemodel(step4).Theresultsshowedapositiverelationshipbetweenworkengagementandworkability.Thefinalmodelexplained53%ofthevarianceoftheWAI.
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Table 4. Associations of age, lifestyle factors, work characteristics, and work engagement with work ability index (WAI) in 2009 (n = 403).
Explanatory variables Work ability index
b 95% CI ∆R2 R2
Step 1 .39*** .39
WAI 1999 .53 [.36, .70]
Age -.14 [-.26, -.03]
Step 2: Lifestyle factors .09*** .48
Alcohol consumption -.01 [-.38, .35]
BMI -.16 [-.38, .06]
Smoking -1.38 [-2.79, .04]
Physical exercise 1.74 [.43, 3.04]
Sleep problems -.28 [-.46, -.10]
Step 3: Work characteristics .04** .52
Mental workload -.73 [-1.51, .06]
Physical workload -1.32 [-2.40, -.23]
Supervisory relations -.01 [-.80, .78]
Task resources .32 [-.81, 1.44]
Step 4: Work engagement .01* .53
Work engagement .61 [.09, 1.13]
Note. b = unstandardized beta-coefficient from the final step; CI = confidence interval; ∆R2 = change in explanation rate; R2 = explanation rate.* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
ThesecondaimoftheStudyIwastoexaminewhetherage,lifestyle,jobdemandsandresources,andworkengagementwereassociatedwiththesub-dimensionsoftheWAI.Resultsindicatedthatallindependentvariables,exceptBMIandalcoholconsumption,wereassociatedwithatleastonesub-dimensionoftheWAIaftercontrollingthebaselineWAI.AgewasnegativelycorrelatedtothetwoWAIsub-dimensions,namelycurrentworkabilityandownprognosisofworkability.Oflife-stylefactors,frequentsleepproblemswerenegativelyrelatedtocurrentworkability,workabilityinrelationstojobdemands,andpsychologicalresources.Inturn,frequentphysicalexercisewaspositivelyassociated
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3 resULts
withcurrentworkabilityandworkabilityinrelationtojobdemands,andnegativelywithsickleave.Smokingwasnegativelyrelatedtoworkabilityinrelationtojobdemands.Workcharacteristicswereassociatedwithfivesub-dimensionsoftheWAI.Morespecifically,highmentalworkloadwasnegativelyrelatedtoworkabilityinrelationtojobde-mandsandpsychologicalresources.Highphysicalworkloadinturnwaspositivelyassociatedwithahigherfrequencyofdiseasesandsickleave.Inaddition,taskresourceswerepositivelyrelatedtoownprognosisofworkability,whereassupervisoryrelationswerenotrelatedtoanyofthesub-dimensionsoftheWAI.Workengagementwaspositivelyrelatedtothreesub-dimensionsofWAI:goodcurrentworkability,goodworkabilityinrelationtojobdemands,andahigherlevelofpsychologicalresources.Ofthedifferentsub-dimensions,thehighestexplainedvariancesofthestudymodelsconcernedworkabilityinrelationtojobdemands(48%)andpsychologicalresources(45%).Incontrast,thelowestexplainedvariancesconcernedsickleave(20%)andnumberofdiseases(24%).MoredetailedresultsarepresentedintheoriginalpaperoftheStudyI.
3.2 Work engagement as a mediator between job resources, personal resources, and work ability (study ii)
StudyIIexaminedthemediatingroleofworkengagementbetweenjobresourcesandpersonalresourcesandworkability,andtheroleofworkabilityinthemotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodel.Themeasure-mentmodelproducedanacceptablefittothedata.Ofthestructuralequationmodels,thehypothesizedmediationmodelfittedwelltothedataandsignificantlybetterthananyoftheotherfourtestedmodels(forfitindicesandchi-squaredifferencetestsofthefivetestedmodels,pleaseseetheoriginalpublicationoftheStudyII).Inthebest-fittingmodel,displayedinFigure3,bothjobresourcesatT13(β=.19,p<.01)andself-esteematT1(β=.19,p<.01)werepositivelyrelatedtoworkengagementatT2.Furthermore,workengagementatT2waspositively
3NB.HereT1refersto1999andT2to2009inasimilarwayasintheoriginalpaperoftheStudyII.
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3 resULts
relatedtoworkabilityatT2(β=.29,p<.001).WorkabilityatT1alsopredictedworkabilityatT210yearslater(β=.30,p<.001),aswellasworkengagementatT2(β=.12,p<.05).Thehypothesizedmodelexplained12%ofthevarianceinworkengagementatT2and21%ofthevarianceinworkabilityatT2.Finally,bootstrappingwasusedtotestwhetherjobresources,self-esteem,andworkabilityatT1yieldedanindirecteffectviaworkengagementonworkabilityatT2.Allindirecteffectswereconfirmed(pleaseseetheoriginalpublicationofStudyIIfordetailedbootstrappinganalyses),thussupportingthemediatingroleofworkengagementbetweenjobresourcesandworkability(Hypothesis1),andbetweenself-esteemandworkability(Hypothesis2),respectively.Inaddition,workabilityatT1hadanindirecteffectonworkabilityatT2,viaworkengagement,andthus,supportingHypothesis3.
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3 resULts
Figu
re 3
. Fin
al m
odel
of
the
med
iatin
g ro
le o
f w
ork
enga
gem
ent
betw
een
job
reso
urce
s, s
elf-
este
em, a
nd w
ork
abili
ty
(n =
403
).
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***p
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01; *
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.01;
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< .0
5.
(Airi
la, H
akan
en, S
chau
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unak
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usa,
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urce
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ork
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ty
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ed
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ility
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atio
ns
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reso
urce
s
Neg
ativ
e it
ems
Pos
itive
ite
ms
.91
.52
.53
!.87
.59
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.98
Sel
f-rat
ed
wor
k ab
ility
Vig
our
Abs
orpt
ion
Ded
icat
ion
.94
.96
.84
.17
61
3 resULts
3.3 mood trajectories and their relationship to work ability, self-rated health, and life satisfaction (study iii)
StudyIIIinvestigatedthelatentmoodtrajectories(i.e.,vigorandfatigue)andtheirrelationshipstoemployeewell-being(i.e.,workability,self-ratedhealth,andlifesatisfaction)duringa13-yearfollow-upperiod.Altogether,trajectorymodelswith1–5trajectoriesweretested.TheBICstatisticsrevealedthatafour-trajectorymodelwasthebestfittingmodelwithac-ceptableposteriorprobabilitiesforallfourgroupsrangingfrom.78to.88(fordetailinformationaboutthefitcriteriaofthetestedtrajectories,pleaseseetheoriginalpublicationofStudyIII).Thus,fourdistincttra-jectoriesthatdifferedfromeachotherintheirmeanlevelsandchangeswereidentified:(a)highpositive(n=149,41%),(b)highpositivebutdecreasing(n=106,29%),(c)moderatelypositive(n=79,22%),and(d)highnegative(n=26,7%).Thehigh positivetrajectoryconsistedofthoseparticipantswhohadahighlevelofvigorandlowleveloffatigueacrosstime.Inthisgroup,thelevelofvigorremainedstablethroughoutthe13-yearfollow-up,whereasthefeelingsoffatigueslightlyincreasedbetweenT1andT2,andremainedstablethereafter.Thehigh positive but decreasingtrajectoryconsistedofparticipantswhohadahighbutdecreas-inglevelofvigorandhighleveloffatigue.Atbaseline,thelevelsofvigorandfatiguedifferedfromeachothersubstantially.However,thesetwoaffectivestateswereclosertoeachotherbyT2andremainedratherstablethereafter.Thelatentgrouplabelledmoderately positivewascharacterizedbyamoderateandstablelevelofvigorandamoderateleveloffatigue,whichslightlyincreasedbetweenT2andT3.Inthisgroup,feelingsofvigorwereatahigherlevelthanthefeelingsoffatiguethroughoutthestudyperiod.Thetrajectorylabelledhigh negativewascharacterizedbyahighleveloffatigueandlowlevelofvigor,andbothfeelingsremainedstableovertime.ThetrajectoriesarepresentedinFigure4.
Intermsofwell-being,membersofthehigh positivetrajectoryhadbetterwell-beingthanthemembersofotherlatentmoodtrajectories.Incontrast,membersofthehigh negativegrouphadconsiderablylowerworkability,SRHandlifesatisfactionthanthemembersoftheotherlatentgroups.Inallwell-beingoutcomes,thedifferencesbetweenhigh positive but decreasingandmoderately positivelatentgroupswerenon-significant.ThedetailedanalysesarepresentedintheoriginalpublicationoftheStudyIII.
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3 resULts
1,5 2
2,5 3
3,5 4
T1 (1
996)
T2
(199
9)
T3 (2
009)
Vigo
r Fa
tigue
1,5 2
2,5 3
3,5 4
T1 (1
996)
T2
(199
9)
T3 (2
009)
Vigo
r Fa
tigue
1,5 2
2,5 3
3,5 4
T1 (1
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T2
(199
9)
T3 (2
009)
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r Fa
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1,5 2
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T2
(199
9)
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009)
Vigo
r Fa
tigue
a) H
igh
posi
tive
traje
ctor
y (n
=149
) c)
Mod
erat
ely
posi
tive
traje
ctor
y (n
=79)
b) H
igh
posi
tive
but d
ecre
asin
g tra
ject
ory
(n=1
06)
d) H
igh
nega
tive
traje
ctor
y (n
=26)
Figu
re 4
. Est
imat
ed d
evel
opm
enta
l tra
ject
orie
s fo
r vi
gor
and
fatig
ue (n
= 3
60).
(Airi
la, H
akan
en, L
uukk
onen
, Lu
sa, &
Pun
akal
lio, 2
013)
.
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3 resULts
3.4 Pain-depression trajectories, work characteristics, and individual factors (study iv)
StudyIVinvestigatedthedevelopmentofmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptomsduringa13-yearfollow-upperiod;andwhetherthebelongingtoaparticulartrajectorygroupwouldbeassociatedwithbaselineworkcharacteristics,personalresources,andlifestyle.Threedistincttrajectoriesthatdifferedfromeachotherintheirmeanlevelsandchangesinmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptomswereidentified:(a)LowSymptoms(n=179,49%),(b)HighPain(n=115,32%),and(c)HighDepression(n=66,19%).ThefitcriteriaofthetrajectorieswiththedifferentnumberoflatentclassesaredisplayedintheoriginalpublicationoftheStudyIV.
TheLow Symptomstrajectoryconsistedofthoseparticipantswhohadlowlevelsofbothsymptoms.Inthisgroup,thefeelingsofdepressionremainedstablethroughoutthe13-yearfollow-upperiod,whereasthelevelofmusculoskeletalpainslightlyincreasedbetweenT2andT3.TheHigh Paintrajectoryconsistedofparticipantswhohadahighandincreas-inglevelofmusculoskeletalpainandlowlevelofdepressivesymptoms.ThelatentgrouplabelledHigh Depressionwascharacterizedbyahighlevelofdepressivesymptomsandamoderatelevelofmusculoskeletalpain.Inthisgroup,thelevelofdepressivesymptomsincreaseddrasticallybetweenT1andT2,anddecreasedthereafter,howeverstillremainingatahighlevel.(SeeFigures5and6.)Takentogether,hypotheses1a–1cweresupported,asbothtrajectorygroupswithlowsymptoms(H1a),highpain(H1b),andhighdepressivesymptoms(H1c)werefound.Instead,notrajectorywithhighlevelsofbothsymptomsemerged,andthusHypothesis1dwasnotsupported.
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Figure 5. Mean profiles for musculoskeletal pain (n = 360). (Airila, Hakanen, Luukkonen, Punakallio, Lusa, & Leino-Arjas, 2014).
Figure 6. Mean profiles for depressive symptoms (n = 360). (Airila et al., 2014).
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65
3 resULts
Thisstudyexaminedalsotheeffectsofjobdemandsandresources,lifestyle,andoptimismonthepain-depressiontrajectories.Firstly,theindependenteffectofeachpredictoronthepain-depressiontrajectorieswasexamined.WhentheHighDepressionwascontrastedwiththeLowSymptomstrajectory,highmentalworkloadpredictedbelongingtotheformergroup(OR4.48,CI:2.45–8.18)whenagewasincludedinthemodel.ThefindingwassimilarwhencontrastingHighPainandLowSymptoms,however,theassociationwasminor(OR1.80,CI:1.09–2.94)comparedtothatofHighDepression.Physicalworkloadwasnotasignificantpredictorinbothcontrasts.Again,withtheLowSymptomstrajectoryasreference,poorinterpersonalrelationspredictedbelongingtoHighPain(OR1.72,CI:1.06–2.79)andHighDepression(OR3.61,CI:1.99–6.57).Similarly,poorsupervisoryrelations(OR2.76,CI:1.52–5.01)andlowtaskresources(OR2.56,CI:1.42–4.61)predictedbelongingtotheHighDepression.However,theywerenotsignificantwhenHighPainwascontrastedwithLowSymptoms.Oflifestylefactors,alcoholconsumptionpredictedbelongingtoHighPain(OR2.40,CI:1.45–4.00),whereassmokingandphysicalexercisewerenon-significantpredictorsinbothcontrasts.SleepingproblemspredictedbelongingbothtoHighPain(OR2.41,CI:1.47–3.95)andHighDepression(OR3.76,CI:2.07–6.81)whencontrastedwithLowSymptoms.Similarly,lowlevelsofoptimismpredictedgroupmembershipinHighDepression(OR2.68,CI:1.49–4.83)butnotinHighPain.
Table5showstheage-adjustedresultsofthefinalmodelinwhichallantecedentsofpain-depressiontrajectorieswereanalysedatthesametime.WiththeLowSymptomsasreference,highmentalworkloadandsleepingproblems,poorinterpersonalrelations,andlowlevelofoptimismpredictedbelongingtoHighDepression.ContrastingHighPainwithLowSymptoms,alcoholconsumptionandsleepingproblemsweresignificantpredictors.Thus,Hypothesis2waspartlysupported:highlevelsofjobdemandsandlowlevelsofjobresourcesandpersonalresourcesatbaselinepredictedbelongingtothetrajectorygroupsofHighPainandHighDepression.However,afterincludingallthesignificantpredictorvariablesinthesamemodel,HighPaintrajectorywasnotanymorepredictedbyanyoftheJDsorJRs.
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Table 5. Predicting of membership in pain-depression trajectories; final multivariable model. Multinominal regression analysis; odds ratios (OR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI), (n = 360).
High Pain vsLow Symptoms
High Depression vs Low Symptoms
OR 95% CI OR 95% CI
Age 1.02 [.98, 1.07] 1.02 [.96, 1.08]
Mental work load
Low 1.00 1.00
High 1.39 [.81, 2.38] 2.87 [1.51, 5.45]
Interpersonal relations
Good 1.00 1.00
Poor 1.40 [.83, 2.34] 2.63 [1.39, 4.97]
Alcohol consumption
Low 1.00 1.00
High 2.42 [1.43, 4.11] 1.42 [.75, 2.70]
Sleeping problems
Low 1.00 1.00
High 2.13 [1.27, 3.59] 2.72 [1.44, 5.15]
Optimism
High 1.00 1.00
Low 1.23 [.73, 2.06] 1.97 [1.04, 3.72]
67
4 disCussion
Theaimofthisstudywastoexaminetheeffectsofworkcharacteristics,personalresources,andlifestyleonemployeewell-being,aswellasde-velopmentalpathsofaffectivestates,andmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptomsamongFinnishfirefightersusingalongitudinaldata.Thestudyaimedtoprovideacomprehensiveviewofemployeewell-beingbyexaminingaffective,health-related,andcognitiveaspectsofemployeewell-beingapplyingthreecomplementarytheoreticalframeworks–JD-Rmodel,CORtheory,andBaBtheory.Theoretically,thisstudyextendedpreviousknowledgebybringingnewinputbothtoworkengagement,aswellastoworkabilityliterature.Firstly,thisstudyprovidedevidenceforthemotivationalpotentialofworkengagementinexplainingworkability.Secondly,thisstudyfoundsupportforthehealth-relatedpropertiesofthemotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodel,andparticularly,theroleofworkabilityinit.Moreover,applyingaperson-centeredapproachinexaminingemployeewell-beingovera13-yearfollow-upperiod,thisstudyprovidednewinformationonindividualdevelopmentalpathsinpositiveandnegativeaffectivestatesaswellasinmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptoms.Toconclude,longitudinallinkagesbetweenworkcharacteristics,personalresources,lifestyle,andemployeewell-beingwerefound.Next,themainfindingsofthestudyarediscussedinmoredetail.
4.1 motivational state of work engagement associated with work ability
Avastnumberofstudiesexistontheassociationsbetweenindividuallifestyle,workcharacteristics,andworkability(vandenBergetal.,2009).
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However,thusfartheroleofmotivationalaspects–hereworkengage-ment–hasbeenneglectedinexplainingworkability,despitethefactthatmotivationalfactorsareconsideredessentialfactorsrelatedtoworkability(e.g.,Ilmarinen,2009).Moreover,thecontributionofworkengagementforhealthandworkabilitybeyondlifestyleandworkcharacteristicshasrarelybeenexamined(forexception,seeRongen,Robroek,Schaufeli,&Burdorf,2014).Theresultsofthisstudyindicatedthatthepositivestateofworkengagementconsistingofvigour,dedication,andabsorptionwassignificantlyassociatedwithworkability.Infact,workengagementwasrelatedbothtothetotalscoreoftheWAIandtoitsthreesub-dimensionsevenafteradjustingforvariousindividualandworkcharacteristics.Morespecifically,thisstudyshowedthatamotivatedandenergeticworker,whostronglyidentifieswithhis/herwork,ismorelikelytohavebetterworkabilitythanhis/herlessengagedco-worker.ThisfindingisinlinewithastudyofFinnishteachers(Hakanenetal.,2006)inwhichworkengagementwaspositivelycorrelatedwithself-ratedworkabilitymeas-uredwithaone-itemindicator.Inadditiontoworkengagement,otherkeyfactorspromotingworkabilityamongfirefightersweregoodsleep,frequentexercise,nottoohighphysicalworkloadormentalworkload,andgoodtaskresources.Similarfindingsexistontheeffectsofworkcharacteristics(e.g.,Fischeretal.,2006;Pohjonen,2001;Tuomietal.,1991)andlifestyle(e.g.,Kaleta,Makowiec-Dabrowska,&Jegier,2006;Lusa,Häkkänen,Luukkonen,&Viikari-Juntura,2002;Rongenetal.,2014)onworkability.
Lifestylemayberelatedtoemployeewell-beingthroughseveralpsy-chologicalpathways.Forexample,evidenceindicatesthatexercisemayincreaseself-esteem,positiveaffect,andself-efficacy(Biddle&Mutrie,2008;Elavskyetal.,2005),whichconsequentlymayincreasehealthandwell-being.Similarly,ahealthylifestylehasbeenrelatedtolowerlevelsoffatigue,tension,depression,andanxiety(Biddle&Mutrie,2008),andconsequently,betterhealth.
Thisstudyaddednewknowledgealsobyexaminingtheantecedentsofdifferentsub-dimensionsoftheWAIseparately,insteadofatotalindex.Infact,knowledgeontherelationshipsbetweenthesub-dimensionsoftheWAIandindividualandworkcharacteristicsareessentialinordertoimproveworkabilityandapplyproperlyfocusedinterventionsinworkplaces.Indeed,thedifferentsub-dimensionsoftheWAIhadpartlydifferentantecedents.Furthermore,lifestyle,workcharacteristics,and
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workengagementweremorestronglyrelatedtothesubjectiveWAIdimensions(i.e.,currentworkability,workabilityinrelationtojobdemands,ownprognosisofworkability,andpsychologicalresources)thantothetwomoreobjective(i.e.,numberofdiseasesandsickleave)WAIsub-dimensions.Generally,moderateassociationbetweenworkengagementandphysiologicalhealthindicatorshavebeenfound(e.g.,Bakker&Leiter,2010;Langelaan,Bakker,Schaufeli,VanRhenen,&VanDoornen,2006).Intheirstudyonconstructionworkers,Alavinia,deBoer,vanDuivenbooden,Frings-Dresen,andBurdorf(2009)foundthatwork-relatedriskfactorsweremorestronglyassociatedwiththesubjectiveworkabilitysub-dimensionsthanwiththehealth-relatedsub-dimensions.Asregardssickleave,onestudyfoundthatamongDutchmanagers,workengagementpredictedabsencefrequencybutnotabsenceduration(Schaufelietal.,2009).TheWAIinstrumentdoesnotdifferentiatebetweenfrequencyanddurationofsickleave,butsimplymeasuresthenumberofabsencedays.Thismayexplainwhyinthisstudyanassociationbetweenworkengagementandsickleavewasnotfound.Conceptually,ithasrecentlybeensuggestedthattheone-factormodelofworkabilityshouldbedismissed(Martus,Jakob,Rose,Seibt,&Freude,2010),andreplacedwithatwo-dimensionalinstrumentcoveringsubjectivelyestimatedworkabilityandobjectivehealthstatus.Thisstudyfurthergavesupportforsuchadistinction.Therefore,futurestudiesshouldfurtherinvestigatethedimensionalityoftheWAIandtheimportanceofthedifferentsub-dimensionswithinthetotalscore.
Toconclude,thesefindingscontributetothepreviousresearchonworkabilitybyaddingamotivational,work-relatedwell-beingconstructofworkengagementasapotentiallyimportantantecedentofworkabilityanditssub-dimensions.Theoretically,thesefindingssupportthebasicideaoftheJD-Rmodelofthedetrimentaleffectofjobdemands,andhealth-enhancingeffectsofjobresources.Practically,theseresultssuggestthatbyimprovinglifestyle,work-relatedfactors,andworken-gagement,itmaybepossibletoimproveworkability,andespeciallyitssubjectivedimensions,i.e.,self-ratedcurrentworkability,workabilityinrelationtojobdemands,andpsychologicalresources.Thus,notonlypromotinglifestyleorworkingconditions,butalsofosteringapositiveandmotivationalstateofworkengagementislikelytobevaluableinmaintainingworkability.
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4.2 motivational process and its health-related properties
4.2.1 Longitudinal evidence of the importance of job and personal resources
Supportingallstudyhypothesis,sub-studyIIshowedthatjobresourceshadmotivationalpotentialastheywererelatedtofutureworkengage-ment,andconsequentlytoworkabilityovera10-yearstudyperiod.Thus,thebeneficialroleofjobresourcesandpersonalresourcesinthemotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodelgainedfurthersupportfromthislongitudinalstudy.Asindicatedbythisstudy,jobscharacterizedbysupportiveconditionssuchasautonomoustasks,positiveinteractionsbetweenco-workers,andsupportandpositivefeedbackfromone’ssuper-visor,mayeveninthelong-termfosterflourishingandengagedemployeeswhoenjoygoodworkability.Thelong-termimpactsofjobandpersonalresourcesonwell-beingsupporttheassumptionofCORtheoryofslowpositiveaccumulationprocessesresultinginlongtermresourcegains.Inaddition,theseresultssupportself-determinationtheory(SDT;Deci&Ryan,2000),whichemphasizestheimportanceofsocial-contextualconditionsthateitherenhanceorhindermotivationatwork.Empiri-cally,theresultsofthisstudyarelinewithpreviousstudiesthatsuggestpositiveassociationsbetweenjobresourcesand/orworkengagementandhealth-relatedoutcomes(e.g.,Hakanen&Schaufeli,2012;Langelaanetal.,2006;Parzefall&Hakanen,2010;Seppäläetal.,2012).
Inaddition,thepresentstudyrevealedthatself-esteemasapersonalresourceplaysasignificantroleinshapingworkengagementandalsoworkabilityinthelong-termviaengagement,evenwhentheimpactsofbaselineworkabilityandjobresourceswerecontrolled.Inotherwords,thewayinwhichpeopleevaluatethemselvesislikelytoinfluencehowengagedtheyareandhowtheyassesstheirworkability.Thisresultisinlinewithpreviousstudiesonthepositiverelationshipbetweenself-esteemandwell-being(forareview,seeBaumeister,Campbell,Krueger,&Vohs,2003,seealsoDeNeve&Cooper,1998;Mäkikangas,Kinnunen,&Feldt,2004;Schimmack&Diener,2003).Moreover,thisfindingiscon-sistentwiththebasicassumptionoftheJD-Rmodelthathighlightstherelationshipsbetweenpersonalresources,workengagement,andpositive
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outcomes.Inasimilarvein,theresultsupportsbothself-enhancementtheory(Jones,1973)andBaBtheory(Fredrickson,2001)thathighlighttheimportanceofpersonalresources(e.g.,self-esteem)inmaintainingandenhancingwell-being.Tentatively,theresultsofthepresentstudyalsolendsupporttotheCORtheory’sassumptionofresourcescaravans(Hobfoll,1989,2001),thatis,increasingresources(i.e.,jobresourcesandself-esteem)tendtogeneratenewresources(i.e.,workengagementandworkability),andthusformresourcecaravans.
Severalmechanismsmaypossiblylinkpersonalityfactors(e.g.,self-esteem)andemployeewell-being.Forexample,individualswithahighlevelofself-esteemmaybemorelikelytouseproactivecopingstrategiestohandlestressfulsituations(e.g.,Antonovsky,1987;Hobfoll,1989).Assuch,positivepersonalityfactorsactasbuffersthatprotectwell-beingagainstvariousstressors(e.g.,Kivimäkietal.,2005;Mäkikangas&Kin-nunen,2003).Personalityandwell-beingmayalsobelinkedthroughhealthbehaviororphysiologicalmechanism(Antonovsky,1987;Williams,Smith,&Cribbet,2008).Evidenceindicates,forexample,thatoptimismisrelatedtoahealthylifestyle(e.g.,Giltay,Geleijnse,Zitman,Buijsse,&Kromhout,2007)andtophysicalsymptoms(Scheier&Carver,1985).Geneticindividualdifferencesmayactasathirdvariableintherelation-shipbetweenpersonalityandhealth(e.g.,Friedman&Booth-Kewley,2003;Williamsetal.,2008),aswell.Asthefocusofthisstudywasonthesocialpsychologicaldeterminantsofemployeewell-being,itdidnotexaminephysiological,genetic,andenvironmentalfactors.
4.2.2 Health resources as drivers and outcomes of the motivational process in the Jd-R model
ThebasicassumptionoftheJD-Rmodel(Demeroutietal.,2001)isthatthemotivationalprocessinitiatedbyjobandpersonalresourcesthroughworkengagementmayhaveseveralpositiveorganizationaloutcomes,suchasorganizationalcommitment,jobperformance,andproactivebehaviour(e.g.,Hakanen&Roodt,2010).However,thislongitudinalstudyshowedthatthemotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodelmayalsohavehealth-relatedproperties.Moreprecisely,thisstudyshowedthatworkengagementfullymediatedtherelationshipbetweenjobresourcesandpersonalresources(i.e.,self-esteem)onworkability10yearslater,thus
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expandingthepotentialoutcomesofthemotivationalprocessincludedintheJD-Rmodel.Moreover,thesefindingscontributetotheworkabilityliterature,whichhasmostlyneglectedmotivationalaspects.Inotherwords,workengagement,supportedbyresourcefuljobandhighself-esteem,playsanimportantroleinmaintainingandpromotingworkability.Hence,apositiveaffectivework-relatedstateofmind–i.e.,workengagement–canbebeneficialintermsofhealth,notonlyintermsofmotivationalbenefits.
Inadditiontotheroleofworkabilityasahealth-relatedoutcomeofthemotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodel,thisstudyshowedthatworkabilitymaybeanimportanthealth-relatedresourceitselfthatboostsworkengagementandconsequentlypredictsnotonlydirectlybutalsoindirectlyfutureworkability.Thus,thedualroleofworkabilitywasobserved:bothasapredictor(i.e.,health-relatedresource)andasahealth-relatedoutcomeofthemotivationalprocess.Assuch,thisstudyisoneofthefirstonworkabilitythatfocusesnotonlyontheantecedentsofworkabilitybutalsoonthepositiveconsequencesitmayhave(seealsoFeldt,Hyvönen,Mäkikangas,Kinnunen,&Kokko,2009).Hence,workabilitycanbeconsideredahealth-relatedresourcethatmayhavebeneficialeffectsonemployeewell-beingalsointhelongterm,thussupportingthebuildhypothesisofFredrickson’s(2001)BaBtheory.Inotherwords,workabilityseemsto,viaworkengagement,buildwell-being,i.e.,workability,overtime.
Theroleofworkabilityasahealth-relatedresourcethathasben-eficialeffectsonemployeewell-beingalsointhelongtermhasbeenacknowledgedinsomepreviousstudiesaswell.Forexample,Seitsamoetal.(2011)showedthatworkabilitywasastrongpredictoroflater-lifehealthina28-yearlongitudinalstudyamongFinnishmunicipalwork-ers.Similarly,Ahlstrometal.(2010)foundthatworkabilitypredictedfuturehealthamongwomenworkinginhumanserviceorganizations,withfollow-upsat6and12months.Inturn,intheir10-yearfollow-upstudy,Feldtetal.(2009)showedthatworkabilityofFinnishmanagerswasrelatedtojobinvolvementandorganizationalcommitment–bothconstructsthatarecloselyrelatedtoworkengagement.
However,itshouldbenotedthatinthisstudyitwasnotpossibletodirectlytestthepositivegaincyclehypothesisbetweenworkengagementandworkabilityassuggestedbybothBaBtheoryandCORtheorybe-
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causeworkengagementcouldnotbemeasuredatbothtimepoints(seealsoSalanovaetal.,2010).However,theseresultssuggestthepossibilityofsuchpositivereciprocalrelationshipsevolvingovertime.
4.3 mood trajectories were differentially related to well-being
Thisstudyappliedaperson-centeredapproachtoexaminethelong-termchangesinpositiveandnegativeaffectivestates.Bydoingthis,itwaspossibletoidentifyindividualdevelopmentalpathsandtheirimportanceforemployeewell-being.Theseindividualdevelopmentaltrajectoriesdonotbecomevisiblewhenusingvariable-basedapproaches,andtherefore,theperson-centeredapproachwaschosen.Moreover,thisstudyexam-inedthejoint-effectsofaffectivestates(i.e.,vigorandfatigue),andthus,addednewknowledge.
Theresultsindicatedthatdifferentdevelopmentalpathsinvigorandfatiguearepossible.Morespecifically,fourdistinctsubgroupsofindividualsthatdifferedfromeachotherintheirlevelsofpositiveandnegativemoodwerefound.Typically,firefightershadaratherhighlevelofvigorandlowleveloffatigue.Assuch,theseresultsindicatethathav-ingapositiveaffectivestateismorecommonthanexperiencingnegativefeelings(seealsoDiener&Diener,1996).However,othercombinationsofpositiveandnegativeaffectivestatesalsoexisted.Thesefindingsgivepartialsupporttoboththeindependenceandbipolarhypothesesofaffect.Ontheonehand,vigorandfatigueseemtodevelopintandem(Caccioppo&Berntson,1994).Moreprecisely,theco-occurrenceofvigorandfatiguewasparticularlyapparentamongthemembersofthehighpositivebutdecreasingtrajectoryinwhichvigorandfatiguewerealmostatthesamelevelbetweenT2andT3.Thisisinlinewiththeindependencehypothesis,whicharguesthatanincreaseinoneaffectdoesnotnecessitateadecreaseintheother(Cropanzanoetal.,2003;Mäkikangas,Feldt,Kinnunen,&Tolvanen,2012).Ontheotherhand,thebipolarviewofaffectasoppositeendsofthesamecontinuum(e.g.,Russell&Carroll,1999)alsofoundsomesupport.Inparticular,inthemosttypicaltrajectory,i.e.,thehighpositive,vigorandfatigueapparentlyrepresentedoppositetrends;thatis,membersofthislatentgrouphad
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thehighestlevelofvigorandthelowestleveloffatigueofalltrajectories,thereforesuggestingbipolarityofpositiveandnegativeaffectivestates.Theseresultssuggestthatpositiveandnegativeaffectivestatesmaynotalwaysbedirectoppositesorindependenteither.Infact,presentknowl-edgesuggeststhatbothapproaches–independenceandbipolar–maybevalidasbothofthemfoundsomeempiricalsupport,andthustheremaybenoneedtomakean“either-or”conclusionbetweenthem(Reich,Zautra,&Davis,2003).
Accordingtotheresultsofthisstudy,affectivestatesweremoderatelystableovertime;however,somechangeswereidentified.Inthehighpositivebutdecreasingtrajectoryinparticular,moodschangedsignifi-cantlybetweenthetwofirstmeasurementpoints.Infact,inallmoodtrajectories,changes–mostlynegative–weremoreobviousbetween1996and1999.Moreprecisely,adeclineinpositivemoodandanin-creaseinnegativemoodwereapparentduringthisthree-yearperiod.Incontrast,changesbetween1999and2009wereratherminimal,asalltrajectoriesfollowedarelativelystablelineduringthisten-yearperiod.Speculatively,onereasonfortheincreaseinnegativemoodduringthefirstthreeyearsandthepersistentpatternthereaftermightbefoundintheFinnishfireandrescueservices’situationatthattime,namelythestrikesinthespringof1995andwinterof1997–1998.Thesestrikeshadaconsiderableandlong-reachingeffectonfiredepartments’workcommunities(seeMankkinen,2011),andconsequently,presumablyalsoonemployees’affectivestates.Nevertheless,theoverallchangesinmoodtrajectoriesduringthe13-yearfollow-upperiodwereratherminimal.Atleastpartly,thestabilityofmoodstatesovertimecanbeexplainedbythetrait-natureofmoods.Asatrait,moodisregardedasastableaffectthatdoesnotchangeovertime.Therefore,thesefindingssupporttheideaofmoodsasratherlastingandenduringaffectivestates(Brief&Weiss,2002;Cropanzanoetal.,2003).Theratherhighstabilityofmoodstatesmayalsobeexplainedbypersonalityfactors.Forexample,temperamenttraits(i.e.,relativelystableaspectsofpersonality,e.g.,Thompson,Winer,&Goodvin,2011)havefoundtoberelatedtoaffectivestates,suchasmoodsandemotions(Bates,Goodnight,&Fite,2008;Goldsmith,1993).Therefore,changesinmoodsmaybeexpectedtobeminimalovertime.Moreover,asemotionalregulationincreaseswithage(e.g.,Grossetal.,1997),thiscouldalsoexplaintheincreasedstabilityofmoodstates
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amongfirefighters.Moreover,theresultofrelativelylittlechangesinvigorandfatigueovera13-yearfollow-upperiodisinlinewithpreviousstudiesthathaveshownratherhighstabilityinaffectivestatesovertime(e.g.,Hakanenetal.,2008b;Seppäläetal.,2009).
Byexaminingtherelationshipsbetweenmoodtrajectoriesandwell-being,thisstudyshowedthatthosewithahighlevelofpositivemood(i.e.,vigor)andlowlevelofnegativemood(i.e.,fatigue)hadbetterwell-beingthanthosewithahighlevelofnegativeaffectivity.Theoretically,thisresultisinlinewithFredrickson’s(2001)BaBtheory,whichsuggeststhatpositiveemotionsarerelatedtoincreasedwell-being,evenovertime.Overall,theseresultshighlighttheimportanceofaffectsinpredictingworkability,lifesatisfaction,andself-ratedhealth.Empirically,thesefindingsareinlinewithpreviousstudiesthathaveshownthepositiverelationshipbetweenvigorandhealth-relatedoutcomes(e.g.,Shirometal.,2008),andthedetrimentaleffectofnegativeaffectivestatesonhealth(e.g.,Salovey,Rothman,Detweiler,&Stewart,2000).
Takentogether,itseemsthatdifferentdevelopmentalpathsandchangesinpositiveandnegativemoodstatesarepossibleovertime.Therefore,theresultssuggestboththepossibilityandneedtofosterpositivedevelopmentalpathsinaffectivestates,i.e.,toincreasevigorandpreventfatigueatwork,inordertomaintainandimproveemployeewell-being.
4.4 developmental paths in musculoskeletal pain and depressive symptoms, and health-enhancing effects of job resources and individual factors
Althoughtheantecedentsofmusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymp-tomsarelargelyknown,theknowledgeregardingthedevelopmentalpathsofMSPandDPSoverlongtermislimited,aswellastheeffectsofjob-relateddemandsandresources,personalresources,andlifestyleontheco-developmentofthesesymptoms.Thisstudyrevealedthatdifferentdevelopmentalpathsinmultisitemusculoskeletalpainandde-pressivesymptomsarepossible.Threedistinctpain-depressivesymptomtrajectorieswereidentified,i.e.,LowSymptoms,HighPain,andHigh
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Depression,thussupportingthehypotheses.However,thehypothesisconcerningatrajectorywithhighlevelsofbothsymptomswasnotsup-ported.ItislikelythatfirefighterswithhighlevelsofMSPandDPSdroppedoutfromworkandthustheavailabledata.
BothsignsofstabilityandchangeinMSPandDPSwereobserved.Thedifferentdevelopmentalpathsinmusculoskeletalpainanddepres-sivesymptomsweremostevidentinHighDepression.Inthistrajectory,changesinDPSwereevident,whereasthelevelofMSPremainedratherstablethroughoutthefollow-up,suggestingseparatedevelopmentsofthesesymptoms.Assuch,theseresultsareinlinewithpriorassumptionsofdistinctdevelopmentofmusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymp-toms(e.g.,Magnietal.,1994).Incontrast,intheHighPaintrajectory,increasesinbothMSPandDPSwereobviousthroughoutthestudyperiod,indicatingaparalleldevelopmentofthesesymptoms.Overall,insteadofchangesinDPSintheHighDepressiongroup,ratherhighstabilityinmusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptomswereobserved.
Theresultsindicatedthatjobdemands,jobandpersonalresources,andlifestylewerepartlydifferentlyrelatedtopain-depressiontrajecto-ries.Bothjobdemands(i.e.,mentalworkload)andallinvestigatedjobresources(i.e.,supervisoryrelations,interpersonalrelations,andtaskresources)aswellaspersonalresources(i.e.,optimism),andlifestyle(i.e.,sleepingproblems)wererelatedtoHighDepression,whereasonlysomeofthesefactorspredictedbelongingtotheHighPaintrajectory.However,solelyHighPainwaspredictedbyalcoholconsumption.Thesefindingsargueapartlydifferentmechanismintheetiologyofmusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptoms.Consistentwiththesefindings,somepreviousfindingsindicatethatpainanddepressionhaveatleastpartlydifferentriskfactors(e.g.,Linton&Bergbom,2011;Miller&Cano,2009).TheresultsalsoshowedthattheantecedentsweremorestronglyrelatedtoHighDepressionthanHighPainastheriskestimateswerenotablyhigherforHighDepression.Thisindicatesthatimprovingjobresourcesandindividualfactorsmaybemorelikelytohaveaneffectondecreasingdepressivesymptomsratherthanonmusculoskeletalpain.
ThefindingsofthisstudyareinlinewiththeJD-Rmodel(Demeroutietal.,2001)thatemphasizesthedetrimentaleffectofjobdemandsonemployeewell-being.Obviously,highjobdemands,suchasaheavymentalworkload,mayactaspsychosocialstressorsatworkthatcause
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psychosocialstressreactions,andconsequently,anincreaseindepressivesymptoms.Similarly,ahighmentalworkloadmayleadtoconstantoverloadandeventually increasemusculoskeletalpain.However,contrarytohypothesisandpriorfindings(e.g.,Christensen&Knardahl,2010;Haukka,Ojajärvi,Takala,Viikari-Juntura,&Leino-Arjas,2012;Neupane,Miranda,Virtanen,Siukola,&Nygård,2013)ahighphysicalworkloadwasnotsignificantlyrelatedtopain-depressiontrajectoriesinthissample.Thiscouldatleastbeexplainedinpartbytherathersimilarworktasksoftheparticipants:difficultworkpostureswerepartofthejobforallfirefighters.Alsohealth-basedselectionfromemployment,andhencefromthedata,mayhaveweakenedtheassociations,therebyleadingtotheunderestimationoftheactualeffects.
Similarly,thislongitudinalstudygivesmoresupporttotheassump-tionsoftheJD-Rmodel(Demeroutietal.,2001)oftheenhancingeffectsofjobresourcesandpersonalresourcesonemployeewell-being.Indeed,supportinghypothesis,jobresourcesweresignificantpredic-torsofpain-depressiontrajectoriesandthiswasparticularlyapparentinrelationtoHighDepression.Moreprecisely,ininvestigatingthepredic-torsseparately,alackofallexaminedjobresourceswasrelatedtoHighDepression,whereasonlypoorinterpersonalrelationswererelatedtoHighPain.Inthefinalmodel,however,interpersonalrelationswastheonlysignificantpredictoramongjobresources,andfurthermore,solelyinrelationtoHighDepression.Indeed,convincinghealth-promotingeffectsofsocialrelationshipsandsocialsupporthavepreviouslybeenshowninsocialpsychologicalstudiesonhealthandwell-being(forreviews,see,Cohen,1988;Uchino,2004).Similarly,severallongitu-dinalstudiessuggestthatlowsocialsupportfromco-workersmaybeanimportantantecedentofdepression(e.g.,Paterniti,Niedhammer,Lang,&Consoli,2002;Stoetzeretal.,2009,seealsoHakanenetal.,2008b;Haukkaetal.,2011).Alongwiththeseresults,thefindingsofthecurrentstudysuggestthatgoodrelationshipsbetweenco-workerscanpositivelyinfluenceemployeewell-being,eveninthelongterm.Goodinterpersonalrelationsarehighlyvaluedinfirefighting,inwhichemployeesworklonghourstogetherincloselycoordinatedteams(seealsoPillai&Williams,2004).Ontheotherhand,theimportanceofsupervisoryrelationsmayremainlessinfluentialbecauseofthehighlyvaluedgoodrelationsbetweenco-workers.
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Accordingtothisstudy,personalresourcesarealsoimportantinex-plainingemployeewell-being,asalackofoptimismpredictedbelongingtotheHighDepressiontrajectory.Similarfindingsareshowninpreviousstudies,however,oftenwithashortertimelag,ontheimportanceofpersonalfactorsinexplainingwell-being(e.g.,Cannella,Lobel,Glass,Lokshina,&Graham,2007;Scheier&Carver,1992;Xanthopoulouetal.,2007).Optimismmayenhanceemployeewell-beingviaseveralpathways.First,aperson’sviewoftheworld–here,optimistic–mayberelatedtothelikelihoodofexperiencingcertainphysiologicalresponseswhenconfrontedbyenvironmentalchallenges,andthusbedirectlyre-latedtohealth(Friedman&Booth-Kewley,2003);inthiscase,tolowlevelsofdepressivesymptoms.Second,optimismmayactasabuffer.Moreprecisely,optimistsarelikelytoexperiencepositivefeelings,andwhenconfrontedbystressfulevents,arelikelybeconfidentandpersistent,whichisprotectiveofhealth.Incontrast,pessimistsaremorelikelytobedoubtfulandhesitant,whichmayleadtohealthrisks,andconsequentlytoill-health.(Carver&Scheier,2009.)
Inadditiontotheimportanceofworkcharacteristicsandpersonalresources,theresultsofthisstudysuggestthatalsogoodsleepisessentialforemployeewell-beingintermsofpositivedevelopmentinMSPandDPS.Similarly,inpreviousstudiestheimportanceofgoodsleepinpre-ventingpain(Kamaleri,Natvig,Ihlebaek,Benth,&Bruusgaard,2008)anddepression(Baglionietal.,2011)havebeenfound.Inparticular,amongfirefighterswhoworklonghours,adequatesleepisessentialformaintaininggoodphysicalandmentalhealth.Oftheotherlifestylefactors,onlyhighalcoholconsumptionwasasignificantpredictorofahighlevelofmultisitemusculoskeletalpain.Incontrast,noneoftheexaminedlifestylefactors,exceptsleepproblems,predictedbelongingtothetrajectorywithahighlevelofdepressivesymptoms.Nevertheless,similarfindingsofnoeffectsoflifestyleonpainanddepressionhavebeenfoundpreviously(e.g.,Haukkaetal.,2012;Hölzel,Härter,Reese,&Kriston,2011;Lebouef-Yde,1999).
Toconclude,inthepresentstudy,job-relateddemandsandresourceswerefoundtobemoreimportantthanlifestyleforemployeewell-being.Thus,decreasingdemandsandincreasingresourcesisworthwhileinpreventingthedevelopmentofmultisitemusculoskeletalpainandde-pressivesymptoms.
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4.5 methodological considerations
Thisstudyhasbothstrengthsandlimitationsthatneedtobeconsidered.Themainstrengthsofthestudylieinthelongitudinaldesignandtheuseofvarioussophisticatedstatisticalanalyses.Thelongitudinaldatasetwiththreewavesanda13-yeartimelagwasused.Thelongitudinalda-tasetenabled,forexample,studyingthedevelopmentalpathsovertime,andclaimingforcausality(StudiesIII–IV).Inaddition,applyingawidevarietyofstatisticalmethods(i.e.,linearregressionanalysis,structuralequationmodeling,latentclassgrowthmodeling,mixedlinearmodels,andmultinomialregressionanalysis)canbeseenasanotherstrength.Inparticular,theuseofafairlynewmethodtostudyintra-individualchangesinemployeewell-being(i.e.,latentclassgrowthmodeling)overtimecanbeconsideredasvaluable.Byapplyingtheperson-centeredap-proach,theheterogeneityinpositiveandnegativeaffectivestates,aswellasinmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptoms,couldbeidentified,andthuscapturethedevelopmentofintra-individualtrajec-toriesoverthe13-yearfollow-upperiod.Finally,thisstudyfocusedonseveralimportantworkcharacteristicsandindividualfactorsandtheirrelationshiptodiversewell-beingoutcomeswithvalidatedmeasures.
Nevertheless,thisstudyhassomelimitationsthatshouldbenoted.Firstofall,thestudywasbasedonself-reportmeasures,whichmaycausesystematicmeasurementerrors(commonmethodsvariance).However,thelongitudinaldesignusedinthecurrentstudymaydiminishtheriskforcommonmethodbias(Doty&Glick,1998).AlsoinStudyI,whichwascross-sectional,itwaspossibletocontrolforbaselineworkability,andthus,diminishtheriskofcommonmethodbias.Nevertheless,fu-tureresearchwouldbenefitfromapplyingmoreobjectiveindicatorsofworkcharacteristics,individualfactors,aswellaswell-beingoutcomes.
Secondly,thestudydesignregardingpsychosocialfactorsinthequestion-nairehadsomelimitations.Forexample,self-esteemandworkengagementweremeasuredonlyonce.Thus,nocausalrelationshipbetweenvariablescouldbedetermined.Obviously,inthecaseofworkengagement,meas-uringitearlierwasnotpossibleasthemeasurewasdevelopedonlyafterthetwofirstmeasurementpoints(Schaufeli&Bakker,2003;Schaufelietal.,2002).Nevertheless,futureresearchshouldapplyafullpaneldesignincludingalljobandpersonalresourcesmeasuredlongitudinally.
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Thirdly,theconceptualizationofsomeofthemeasuresmaybecon-sideredashortcoming.Forexample,optimismandlifesatisfactionwerebothmeasuredwithasingle-itemindicatorwhichmaydiminishtheirreliabilityandvalidity.Inpreviousstudies,however,single-itemindicatorsofbothoptimismandlifesatisfactionhavebeenusedandfoundnearlyasgoodasindicatorswithseveralitems(e.g.,Carveretal.,1994;Lucas&Donnellan,2012).Inaddition,themeasureofdepressivesymptoms(i.e.,POMSdepressionsubscale)capturedsolelytheemotionalsymp-toms,notcognitiveorphysicalsymptomsofdepression.Moreover,onlydepressivesymptoms,notdepressionassuch,wereassessed.However,depressivesymptomsmeasuredbyPOMSarestronglycorrelatedwiththewell-establishedBeckDepressionInventory(Griffithetal.,2005),andtherefore,aplausiblemeasuretouse.Inaddition,itwouldbedifficulttomeasuretrajectoriesofobjectivelymeasureddepression.
Fourthly,the3and10-yeartimelagsusedinthisstudymaynotbeoptimalforinvestigatingtherelationshipsbetweenworkcharacteristics,personalresources,lifestyle,andwell-being,asotherprocessessuchasorganizationalchangesmayhaveinfluencedtheeffectofindependentvariablesontheoutcomes.Ingeneral,suchlongtimelagsmayleadtoanunderestimationofthetruecausalrelationshipbetweenstudyvariables(Zapf,Dormann,&Frese,1996).However,despitethechangesintheorganizationalstructureinFinnishfiredepartments,theworkenviron-mentsandcolleaguesforthemostpartremainedthesame.Moreover,organizationsareinfactinseveralwaystryingtopursuethestabilityagainstthechangeswithintheorganization(Leana&Barry,2000).Inrelationtothefourthlimitation,theeffectsizeswererelativelysmall.Forexample,inStudyII,theexplainedvarianceinworkengagementwas12%andinworkability21%,respectively.Nevertheless,theseeffectsareinlinewithpriorstudies(e.g.,Mauno,Kinnunen,&Ruokolainen,2007;Xanthopoulou,Bakker,Demerouti,&Schaufeli,2009).Inaddi-tion,evenrelativelysmalleffectsizesmaybesalientinpredictinghealthandwell-beingofemployees(Ford,Woolridge,Vipanchi,Kakar,&Strahan,2014).Furthermore,workcharacteristics,personalresourcesandlifestyleareonlyoneofthemanyvariablesaccountingforemployeewell-being.Physiological,genetic,andenvironmentalfactorsarealsorelatedtohealthandwell-being.Moreover,non-workcharacteristicssuchasfamily,closecommunity,andsocietyareassumedtoberelated
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toworkability(Ilmarinen,2006).However,becauseoftherelativelyhomogenousgroupoffirefighters,forexample,socio-economicandculturalfactorswerenotexamined.Nevertheless,inordertoincreasetheexplainedvariance,morefactorsshouldbeincludedintheresearchmodels.Forexample,examiningthework-familyinteractionorhomeresourcesamongfirefighterscouldbeexamined.Ontheotherhand,thesignificantrelationshipsbetweenthestudyvariablesevenovertheratherlongfollow-upperiodare,infact,indicativeoftherobustnessofthefindings.Nevertheless,infuturestudies,ashortertimelagandafullpaneldesignshouldbeused.
Fifthly,theratherhighnumberofdrop-outsmaybeconsideredalimitation.However,thedifferencesbetweentheparticipantsandthedrop-outswereeithernon-significantorratherminimalineverysub-study.Forthemostpart,thedrop-outwasprobablyduetoretirementasaresultofthelowretirementage(55years)amongFinnishfirefightersduringthestudyperiodandearlyretirementschemesandpersonalearlyretirementarrangements(under55yearsofage)whicharestillpossibleroutesforretirement.Anincrementalincreaseinactualretirementagehasonlyrecentlyoccurred.Therefore,thedrop-outfromthesamplecanberegardedasnormalandnotcausinganyparticularbiastotheresults.
Sixth,thehealthyworkereffect(e.g.,Li&Sung,1999)mayhavebiasedtheresults,especially,asgoodmentalandphysicalhealthisre-quiredoffirefighters.Therefore,thenullassociationfoundinthisstudybetweenalcoholconsumptionandworkability,forexample,maybeatleastpartlyexplainedbythehealthyworkereffect;thatis,heavydrinkerswithlowworkabilitymayhavedroppedoutofthesample.However,theparticipantsofthepresentstudydidinfacthavelowerworkabilitythanFinnishmaleemployeesingeneral(Airila,Hakanen,Punakallio,Lusa,&Luukkonen,2012),andthusitcanbeassumedthatnoconsiderablehealthyworkereffectexisted.
Finally,thisstudyfocusedononeprofessiononly–firefighters–albeitarepresentativesampleatbaseline,whichmaypotentiallythreatenthegeneralizabilityofthefindingstootheroccupationalgroups.Moreover,alltheparticipatingfirefightersweremen,andthismaypossiblyhaveaffectedthefindings.Obviously,genderaffects,forexample,personal-itycharacteristics(e.g.,Costa,Terracciano,&McCrae,2001;Feingold,1994;Mäkikangas&Kinnunen,2003)andwell-being(e.g.,Fujita,
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Diener,&Sandvik,1991;Hakanen,2009).However,theaimofthepresentstudywastotesttheoreticalmodelsandexaminetherelation-shipsbetweendemands,resources,lifestyle,andwell-being,andinthiscase,thereisnoreasontoassumethatthemodelswouldworkdifferentlyaccordingtogender.Althoughsomecautionisneeded,Ibelievethattheresultscanalsobeextendedtootheroccupationalsectors.Infact,similarevidenceoftherelationshipsbetweenworkcharacteristics,individualfactors,andwell-beingexistsinvariousoccupationsectorsandcountries(e.g.,Hakanenetal.,2006;Salanova&Schaufeli,2008).Moreover,asjobandpersonalresourcesweresignificantlyrelatedtoemployeewell-beingeveninahighlyphysicallydemandingjob,i.e.,firefighting,itisplausiblethatthesameeffectsarealsolikelytobefoundinotheroc-cupationalsectors.Ofcourse,thisremainstobetested.
4.6 implications for future research
Theoretically,thecurrentstudylargelysupportedtheassumptionsoftheJD-Rmodel,CORtheory,andBaBtheory.Atthesametime,however,thisstudyextendedcurrentknowledgebyincludingthehealth-relatedoutcome−i.e.,workability−tothemotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodel,aswellasfoundsupportforthelinkbetweenworkengagementandworkability.Infuturestudies,however,otherhealth-relatedvariables,inparticularphysiologicalhealth,shouldbeexaminedasendpointsofthemotivationalprocessusingalongitudinaldata(seealsoBakker&Leiter,2010).Inaddition,objectivemeasuresofemployeewell-being,suchassicknessabsence,andhealth-relatedregisters(e.g.,NationalHospitalDischargeRegister,NationalPrescriptionRegister),couldbeusedinstead,oralongside,self-reportsofwell-being.
Furthermore,ratherthanfocusingonlyontheindividuallevel,employeewell-beingshouldbeexaminedatteamlevel,too.Indeed,teamworkhasacrucialroleinemployeehealthandwell-being(e.g.,Wilson,DeJoy,Vandenberg,Richardson,&McGrath,2004),whichalsobecameapparentinthisstudywhichfoundsupervisoryrelationsandinterpersonalrelationstoberelatedtowell-beingoffirefighters.Thereisalreadysomeevidence,althoughmostlycross-sectional,thatworkengagementactsasacollectivepsychosocialconstructthatemergesfromtheinteractionandsharedexperiencesofthemembersofawork
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team(Salanova,Llorens,Cifre,Martínez,&Schaufeli,2003),andwhichmayhavepositiveorganizationalconsequences,suchasincreasedtaskperformance(Salanovaetal.,2005),collectivepositiveaffectivestate,andcollectiveefficacybeliefs(Salanova,Llorens,&Schaufeli,2011).Byexaminingemployeewell-beingasateam-levelprocess,itispossibletoidentifyteam-basedresourcesthatareessentialintermsofhealthandwell-being.Forexample,infirefighting,whichrequiresgoodteamworkandsupportiveinterpersonalrelations,identifyingteam-levelresourcesthatmaypromotewell-beingwouldbevaluable.Therefore,theroleoftheteaminemployeewell-beingshouldbeinvestigatedfurther,particularlyusinglongitudinaldatathatallowsthepossibilitytoclaimforcausality.
Asdescribedearlier,theJD-Rmodelcanbeconsideredaflexiblemod-elthatincludesawidevarietyofjobdemands,resourcesandoutcomes,andthus,issuitableandusableindiverseworkcontexts.Nevertheless,fromamethodologicalpointofview,changesinworklifeintermsof,forexample,networking,flexibility,internationalization,andmobility,setnewrequirementsforthedefinitionsofdemandsandresources.Forexample,inastudyamongvolunteerfirefighters,camaraderie–i.e.,feelingsofbelonging,asenseofsharedidentity,reciprocaltrust,andpositivebondsthatexistwithincohesiveworkgroups–hasbeenfoundtobearesourcethatmayenhancetheirhealthandwell-being(Tuckey&Hayward,2011).Hence,inordertocapturethefeaturesofaparticularworkenvironmentintheconstantlychangingandfragmentedworldofwork,theconceptualizationsofdemandsandresourcesusedinparticularoccupationalsectorsshouldbeconsideredfurther.
Moreover,theroleofthepersonalresourcesintheJD-Rmodelneedstobestudiedfurther.Inadditiontotheroleofpersonalresourcesasdirectlyimpactingwell-being,personalresourceshavebeenintegratedintotheJD-Rmodelasmediators,moderators,“thirdvariables”,andantecedentsofjobdemandsandresources,oranothercombinationofthese(formoredetails,seeSchaufeli&Taris,2014).Inthepresentstudyonlythedirectlinksbetweenpersonalresourcesandwell-beingwereexamined(i.e.,fromself-esteemtoworkabilityviaworkengage-mentandfromoptimismtopain-depressiontrajectories).Theresultsrevealedthatthestrengthoftheassociationbetweenpersonalresources(i.e.,self-esteem)andwell-being(i.e.,workability)wasofasimilarsizetothatofjobresources,whereastheeffectofoptimismonwell-being(i.e.,
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pain-depressiontrajectories)wassomewhatweakercomparedtothatofjobresources.Generally,previousstudieshavefoundmoresupportfortheimportanceofjobresourcesinexplainingemployeewell-being(e.g.,Rodríguez-Sánchez,Hakanen,Perhoniemi,&Salanova,2013;Schaufeli&Janczur,1994),however,insomecircumstancespersonalresourcesmayplayamoresignificantrole.Forexample,HakanenandLindbohm(2008)foundthatoptimismasapersonalresourcewasmoreimportantforcancersurvivors’well-beingthanthatofjobresources,whereasfortheirreferentstheeffectofjobresourceswasmorecrucial.Obviously,theimportanceofpersonalresourcesinexplainingemployeewell-being,andonthewhole,theroleofpersonalresourcesintheJD-Rmodel,needstobeexaminedmoresystematicallyusinglongitudinaldata.Moreover,itisnoteworthythatofthewidevarietyofpersonalitytraits(e.g.,DeNeve&Cooper,1998),onlytwopersonalresources–self-esteemandoptimism–wereexaminedinthisstudy.Therefore,theimportanceofotherpersonalresources,suchasself-efficacy,onwell-beingamongfirefightersshouldbeexamined.Somepreviousfindingsindicatethathighself-efficacyisaprotectivefactorofstressanddepressivesymptomsamongfirefighters(Regehretal.,2003),however,therelationshipbetweenself-efficacyandworkabilityremainsunknown.
Inaddition,theroleofjobdemandsintheJD-Rmodelremainssomewhatunclear.Recentresearchhasdiscussedtheredefinitionofjobdemandsanddistinguishingbetweenchallengedemands(e.g.,workload,timeurgency,mentaldemands,andresponsibility)andhindrancedemands(e.g.,roleambiguity,jobinsecurity,andconstraints)(Crawfordetal.,2010;vandenBroek,DeCuyper,DeWitte,&Vansteenkiste,2010;Webster,Beehr,&Christiansen,2010).Itissuggestedthatchal-lengedemandshaveamotivationalpotentialandareactuallypromotingwell-beingratherthandiminishingit.Contrastingly,hindrancedemandsaremorelikelytothwartpersonalgrowth,learningandgoal-attainment,andthus,benegativelyrelatedtoemployeewell-being.(Lepine,LePine,&Jackson,2004;Podsakoff,LePine,&LePine,2007.)Basedonthisdistinction,theindicatorsofjobdemands(i.e.,mentalandphysicalworkload)ofthepresentstudycouldbedeterminedaschallengedemandsthatwouldbelikelytoincreaseworkengagementbutalsostressandothernegativeindicatorsofwell-being.Thus,inthefuture,thedistinc-tionbetweenchallengeandhindrancedemandsofthefirefighterscould
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beexaminedinordertofindoutwhethercertaindemandscouldhavemotivationalfunctions.Nevertheless,definingdemandsashindrancesandchallengesisnotsimpleasindividualsmayevaluatedemandsdiffer-ently:forsomephysicalormentalworkloadmaybeachallengewhereasforothersarealhindrance.Moreover,hindrancesandchallengesmayhaveadifferentmeaningindiverseworkcontexts.Nevertheless,thisremainstobestudied.
Thecurrentstudyhasviewedemployeewell-beingasamultidimen-sionalconstructcoveringaffective,health-related,andcognitive(i.e.,lifesatisfaction)aspects.Assuch,bothpositiveandnegativesidesaswellasjob-relatedandcontext-freeaspectsofwell-beingwereabletocapture,andthus,followingtheprevioustheoreticalconceptualizationsofemployeewell-being(e.g.,Dieneretal.,1999;Schaufelietal.,2002;Schaufeli&Bakker,2004;vanHornetal.,2004).However,futurestudiesshouldfurtherdeveloptheconstructofemployeewell-beingthatcomprehensivelycapturesphysical,mental,andsocialaspectsofemployeehealthandwell-being.
4.7 Practical implications
Theresultsofthisstudyindicatethatjobdemands,jobandpersonalresources,andlifestylearerelatedtoemployeewell-beingevenoverthelongterm.Therefore,workplaceinterventionsaimingatimprovingwork-ingconditions,interpersonalrelations,aswellasinterventionstargetedonindividualscouldbebeneficialinordertomaintainandimproveemployeewell-being.
Attheworkplacelevel,interventionsaimedatimprovingboththephysicalandpsychosocialworkenvironmentcouldbeapplied.Thereissomepriorevidenceindicatingtheeffectivenessofworkplaceinterven-tionsonemployeehealthandwell-being.Forexample,interventionstargetingpsychosocialworkcharacteristicsarefoundtobeeffectiveinpreventingemployeehealthproblems(e.g.,Bourbonnais,Brisson,Vinet,Vézina,Abdous,&Gaudet,2006),increasingjobsatisfactionandde-creasingabsenteeism(Parks&Steelman,2008),aswellasincreasingautonomy,strengtheningsocialties,andreducinginterpersonalconflict(McLeroy,Gottlieb,&Heaney,2002).Someevidenceoneffectivework-
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placeinterventionsinfiredepartmentsalsoexists.Forexample,team-basedinterventionsandmotivationalinterviewinghadpositiveeffectsonfirefighters’nutritionbehavior,BMI,andphysicalactivityoneyearafterinterventionsamongfirefightersintheUnitedStates(MacKinnonetal.,2010).Similarly,previousworksitehealthpromotioninterventionsamongthesamestudypopulationincreasedco-workercohesion,exercisehabits,andhealthbehaviorsamongfirefighters,andreducedtheirfeel-ingsofdepression(Elliotetal.,2004).AlsointheUnitedStates,actionresearchhasshowntobeapotentialmechanismforreducingburnoutamongfirefighters(Halbesleben,Osburn,&Mumford,2006).How-ever,arecentreviewofthehealtheffectsofwellnessprogramsatpoliceandfirefighterworkplacesindicatedmixedresultsregardinghealthandwell-beingoutcomes(Rachele,Heesch,&Washington,2014).Thus,theresearchersconcludedthatempiricalevidenceforeffectivehealthinterventionsamongfirefightersremainscarce,andtherefore,furtherresearchisneeded.
Forexample,interventionstargetinginterpersonalrelationsbyim-provingcommunicationskills,trainingsessionsonteamworkandteamsupport,increasingcommunicationbetweenemployees,orincreasingemployees’participationinthedecisionmakingprocesscouldbeim-plemented.Similarly,interventionstodecreasejobdemands,improvesupervisory/followerrelationshipsandincreasetask-relatedresourcescouldbeperformed.Obviously,activeinvolvementofbothemployeesandmanagersneedstobeensured(Nielsen&Abildgaard,2013).Inaddition,employeesmayalsothemselvesredesignandcustomizetheirworkingconditions,thatistosay,“craft”theirjobs,tobetterfittheirmo-tives,strengths,andpassions.Assuch,jobcraftingreferstoself-initiatedchangesthatemployeesmakeintheirownjobdemandsandresourcesinordertoattainand/oroptimizetheirpersonalgoals.Byjobcrafting,itbecomespossibletoseekresourcesandchallengesandreducedemands.(Tims,Bakker,&Derks,2012.)Craftingone’sjobmayincludechang-ingtask,relational,orcognitiveboundariesofthework(Wrzesniewski&Dutton,2001).Therefore,firefighterscouldaccordingtotheirownneeds,forexampletosomeextent,expandordiminishthescopeoftheirtasks,changethesocialrelationshipsatwork,alterthewaytoperceivetheirtasks,orchangehowtoperformtheirtasksincaseswhichallowsvariation.However,notnecessarilyinrescueandfiresituationswhich
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arehighlyinstructedandcontrolled.Empiricalevidenceshowsthatjobcraftingbothatindividualandteamlevelshasapositiveimpactonemployeewell-beingandperformance(Bakker,Tims,&Derks,2012;Tims,Bakker,Derks,&VanRhenen,2013),andtherefore,moreeffortonlaunchingbottom-upworkplaceinterventionsisessential.
Asfindingsfromthisstudyindicate,personalresourcesandindi-viduallifestylearealsorelatedtoemployeewell-being.Thus,promotingself-esteem,self-knowledge,optimism,andahealthylifestyleamongfirefightersarealsoimportantandpossibletargetsforinterventions.Moreover,asthisstudyidentifiedseveralindividualdevelopmentalpathsbothintermsofaffectivestatesandinmusculoskeletalpainanddepres-sivesymptoms,inordertoincreaseefficiencyininterventions,itcouldbebeneficialtoidentifygroupsofpeoplethathavesimilarsituationinquestionandtargetinterventionstothem.
Tosumup,inworkplaceinterventions,bothhealth-impairmentandmotivationalprocessesoftheJD-Rmodelshouldbeinfluenced,thatis,decreasingill-healthandincreasingwell-beingbyapplyingtoolsforbothtodecreasedemandsandincreaseresources.However,featuresofthejobneedtobeconsidered,inthiscasethecharacteristicsofrescueservices.Indeed,enhancingemployeewell-beinginrescueserviceswithmultiple(i.e.,physical,mentalandsocial)demandsandspecialfeaturesoforganizationalcultureandstructure(i.e.,workingina24-hourshiftsinahighlyhierarchicalorganization),andtheunpredictablenatureofwork,mayberatherchallenging.
4.8 Conclusions
Thepurposeofthisstudywastoexaminetheeffectsofworkcharac-teristics,personalresources,andlifestyleonemployeewell-beingusinglongitudinaldata.Thebeneficialroleofjobresourcesandpersonalre-sourcesinexplainingemployeewell-beinggainedfurthersupportfromthislongitudinalstudy,andthus,supportedtheassumptionsoftheJD-Rmodel,CORtheory,andBaBtheory.Addinganewcontribution,thisstudyexaminedtherelationshipbetweenworkengagementandworkability,andfoundthatworkengagement–asapositivework-relatedaffectivestate–isassociatedwithworkability.Moreover,workability
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hadadualroleinthemotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodel:first,asahealth-relatedoutcome,andsecondly,asahealth-relatedresourcethatmayboostworkengagementandconsequentlypredictnotonlydirectlybutalsoindirectlyfutureworkability.Hence,thepresentstudyfoundlong-termevidenceforthehealth-relatedpropertiesofthemotivationalprocessoftheJD-Rmodel.
Furthermore,usingtheperson-centeredapproachinexaminingem-ployeewell-beingovera13-yearfollow-upperiod,thisstudyprovidednewinformationonindividualdevelopmentalpathsinpositiveandnegativeaffectivestatesaswellasinmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptoms.Firstly,differentdevelopmentalpathsinvigorandfatiguewerefound,andconsequently,thosewithahighpositiveaffectivestatehadbetterwell-beingintermsofworkability,self-ratedhealth,andlifesatisfactionthanthosewithalowerlevelofpositiveaffectivestate.Secondly,differentdevelopmentalpathsinmultisitemusculoskeletalpainanddepressivesymptomswereobserved,andasassumed,highjobdemands,lowjobandpersonalresourcesandpoorlifestylehabitswererelatedtothehighlevelsofthesesymptoms.
Finally,thisstudyaimedtoofferabalancedviewofemployeewell-being,examiningitfromseveralperspectives.Obviously,notonlypre-ventingill-health(e.g.,musculoskeletalpain,depressivesymptoms)issuf-ficient,butalsoenhancingpositivewell-being(e.g.,workengagement,lifesatisfaction)isneeded:botharedimensionsofemployeewell-beingandthusessentialwhenexaminingtheantecedentsofwell-being.Similarly,severalworkcharacteristicsandindividualfactorsneedtobeconsideredinimprovingemployeewell-being.Evidently,thefindingsofthepresentstudysuggestthatamotivatedandenergeticworker,whohasresourcefuljobandlowmentalandphysicaldemands,hasbetterwell-beingthanaco-workerwhoislessengagedandhasmoreunfavourablesituationintermsofdemandsandresources.Moreover,agoodlevelofself-esteem,anoptimisticviewofthefuture,andhealthylifestylehabitsmayincreasethelikelihoodofbeinghealthyandhappier.Hence,byfocusingon,butofcoursenotonlylimitedto,improvingworkcharacteristics,personalresources,andlifestyle,employeewell-beingmaybepromoted.Assuch,workorganizationshavegoodopportunitiestoreinforceandmaintainthehealthandwell-beingoftheiremployeesandconsequentlypreventill-healthandpromotelongworkcareers.
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Work characteristics, personal resources, and employee well-being: A longitudinal study among Finnish firefighters
People and WorkResearch Reports 109
Auli Airila
Work characteristics, personal resources, and em
ployee well-being: A
longitudinal study among Finnish firefighters
Airila A
uli
In today’s dynamic work life, employees are expected not only to be healthy and able to work efficiently, but also to be highly engaged and motivated. However, at the same time, the prevalence of mental health disorders and diseases of the musculoskeletal systems is also high. Therefore, understanding and enhancing employee well-being as a whole is essential. The present study examined the longitudinal effects of work characteristics (i.e., job demands and resources), personal resources and lifestyle on employee well-being, using data on Finnish firefighters.
This study showed that job demands, job resources, personal resources, and lifestyle all affect employee well-being over time. It offers new information for researchers, policy-makers, HRM at workplaces, and occupational health services about possibilities to enhance employee well-being, particularly work engagement, and consequently prevent ill-health and promote long working careers.
109
ISBN 978-952-261-525-1
Orders:Finnish Institute of Occupational HealthArinatie 3FI-00370 HelsinkiFinland
E-mail [email protected]
ISBN 978-952-261-525-1 (paperback)ISBN 978-952-261-526-8 (PDF)
ISSN-L 1237-6183ISSN 1237-6183
Cover picture: Saimi Airila