work and nonwork experiences of employees on fixed and rotating shifts: an empirical assessment
TRANSCRIPT
Journal of Vocational Behavior 20, 282-293 (1982)
Work and Nonwork Experiences of Employees on Fixed and Rotating Shifts: An Empirical Assessment
MUHAMMADJAMAL AND SALEHA M. JAMAL
Concordia University
The present study investigated the relationship between shift time and use of leisure time, nonwork satisfaction, and mental and physical health among rank- and-file workers (N = 383) in a manufacturing organization and between shift time and use of leisure time, mental and physical health, and three dimensions of work performance (job performance, job motivation, and patients’ care) among nurses (IV = 440) in two hospitals. Results are generally supportive of the hypothesis that employees on fixed shift time (high routine oriented) are better off than employees on rotating shift time (low routine oriented) in terms of criterion variables of the present study. Six demographic and background vari- ables-age, marital status, place of socialization (rural vs urban), seniority, cul- tural background (French vs English speaking), and respondent’s sex-are mea- sured and their association with the above relationships analyzed. Results are discussed in light of the previous empirical evidence on shit work.
Approximately one-fourth of the labor force in North America is in- volved in some sort of shift work (Tasto & Colligan, 1977). Despite the prevalence of shift work practices in North America, relatively little is known about the effect of shift time on workers’ on-the-job and off-the- job behavior. In a recent, comprehensive review of shift-work research, Dunham (1977) argued that the majority of shift-worker problems re- ported in the literature may be due to the fact that such workers find themselves out of phase with the established physiological or social cyclical rhythms. In favor of his argument, he contends that “most communities are oriented to some degree to a day work schedule and thus have business, recreational, social and other facilities available at the time most in demand by this timetable.” Thus, from his perspective, communities with shift work as the dominant mode of work pattern would probably be viewed less negatively from the point of view of shift workers than communities with day work as the dominant mode of work pattern. Most metropolitan areas in North America would probably fall in the latter category of work pattern. Therefore, if one accepts Dunham’s
An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Academy of Management Meetings, San Diego, 1981.
282
OOOl-8791/82/030282-12802.0010 Copyright 0 1982 by Academic Press, Inc. AlI rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
WORK AND NONWORK EXPERIENCES OF SHIFT WORKERS 283
(1977) formulation, it is expected that alternating shift workers in met- ropolitan areas will tend to exhibit more problems than day shift workers.
The present study suggests that another way to study the relationship between work schedule and worker reactions is to examine the degree to which work hours lead to the establishment of a daily routine for the individual. Work hours which lead to a routine formation in life provide individuals with relatively fixed hours for work and nonwork activities every day. Individuals on such work schedules can plan to fulfill family responsibilities, take part in regularly scheduled off-job activities, and cope with physical and mental fatigue better than individuals who work on variable work hours which have lower potential for routine formation. Variable work hours, such as rotating shifts force an individual to move from one work schedule to another work schedule of fixed intervals, at stated intervals such as every 10 working days. Individuals on rotating work hours thus experience a low degree of routine in everyday life and remain in a constant changing and adapting mode. By the time they have adapted to one work schedule, they are expected to move to the next one. Kleitman’s (1963) research has suggested that 4 days to 2 weeks are required for adjustment of bodily functions to a new work routine.
It has been suggested that individuals would view routine-oriented shift time more favorably and that would be reflected in their responses on the criterion variables of the present study. Criterion variables were broadly classified into two groups: work and nonwork experiences. Work experiences comprised individuals’ job performance, job motivation, and patients’ care skill. Nonwork experiences included nonwork satisfaction, physical and emotional health, and the use of leisure time. It was pre- dicted that individuals working on fixed work shifts would show higher job performance, motivation, and patients’ care skill and would exhibit better physical and emotional health than individuals working on rotating shifts. With regard to the use of leisure time, it was predicted that individuals on fixed work shift would spend more leisure time with their families and friends than individuals working on rotating shifts. It was also predicted that individuals on rotating shifts would spend more time alone in solitary activities than individuals working on fixed work shifts. Last, it was predicted that nonwork satisfaction of individuals working on fixed work shifts would be higher than the nonwork satisfaction of individuals working on rotating shifts.
METHOD
Research Setting
The present study was conducted in two different work settings: hos- pitals and a manufacturing organization. Two large hospitals serving the English population of the city of Montreal, Quebec, were included in the study (henceforth called “hospital sample”). The hospitals were
284 JAMAL AND JAMAL
similar in size. Since both operate under the direct administration of the Province of Quebec, they have similar administrative practices. The manufacturing organization (henceforth called “manufacturing sample”) was a medium-size organization employing 600 rank-and-file production employees. The organization was involved in producing small consumer products. Because of the mass production technology, the nature of jobs of production employees were quite similar.
Subjects
Hospital sample. All nurses in both hospitals were included in the study. Attitudinal data were collected through a self-administered, struc- tured questionnaire. Approximately 580 nurses in both hospitals were given questionnaires, and 440 usable questionnaires were returned. Fifty- three percent of the respondents were single, 3% were married, and 8% were widowed, divorced, or separated. The average age was 31 years; average monthly income, $1065; and average length of service, 6 years. The majority of nurses were female (97%), were raised in large cities (770/o), and had English as a mother tongue (57%). All nurses in both hospitals belonged to the same union. Response rates of subjects working various shifts was proportionate to the actual distribution of nurses on those shifts.
Manufacturing sample. All rank-and-file production employees were included in the study and were given copies of the structured question- naire. With one followup, 383 usable questionnaires were returned. The average age of the respondent was 35 years, and the average monthly income was $1124. The majority of the respondents were married (60%), were male (70%), belonged to a union (68%), and were raised in large cities (76%). Forty-four percent of the respondents had a Grade 9 or less education, 22% had Grades lo-13 education, and only 36% had some college education. The response rate of employees working on rotating shifts was slightly lower (6%) than the actual proportion in the company.
Measures
Hours of work. The high routine-oriented shift time was operation- alized in terms of the fixed working hours at any of the work shifts (day, evening, night) during the 24 hours. Employees working on fixed day, afternoon, and night shifts were thus combined to form a single category called fixed work shift. In both samples, the number of people working on fixed evening (Hospital, N = 31; Manufacturing, N = 5) and fixed night shifts (Hospital, N = 14; Manufacturing, N = 17) was too small to be treated in separate categories. One-way analysis of variance in- volving comparison of day, evening, and night shift effects on each of the several criterion variables (physical and emotional health, use of leisure time, job perfomance, job motivation, patients’ care skill, and
WORK AND NONWORK EXPERIENCES OF SHIFT WORKERS 285
nonwork satisfaction) in both samples revealed no statistically significant differences among these three shifts. In addition, distribution of the respondents on demographic and background variables such as age, sex, marital status, place of socialization, cultural background, and seniority was examined according to the type of shift they worked. No statistically significant differences were found among employees working on fixed day, evening, and night shifts in both samples. Since the data revealed similarities among employees on three fixed shifts, it was considered reasonable to combine them into one category. However, it must be cautioned that the similarities among fixed-shift employees may be a function of the small sample size in these shifts in the present study.
Use of leisure time. Use of leisure time was assessed by asking re- spondents to indicate the number of hours they spend during an average work week with their family, with friends, and alone (Baba, Note 1). No response categories were provided and respondents were free to report the actual number of hours they spent in each sphere.
Physical health. Physical health was assessed by means of a four-item scale developed by Patchen (1970). A physical health score was derived by combining four items measuring the frequency of headaches, upset stomach, gas or bloated feeling, and trouble getting to sleep as experi- enced by these individuals. The scale had l-5 response categories. A higher score on this scale indicates poor physical health.
Reliabilities of all measures with multiple items were calculated in the present study and are presented in Table 1, along with intercorrelation among dependent variables.
Psychological depression. Psychological depression was measured by a three-item scale developed by Patchen (1970). A psychological depres- sion score was obtained by adding three items measuring the frequency of depression, tension, and fatigue experienced by individuals during the work day. The scale used l-5 response categories. A higher score on the scale indicates a high degree of psychological depression.
Nonwork satisfaction. Nonwork satisfaction data were available only for the manufacturing sample. Nonwork satisfaction was assessed by using the modified version of the short form of the Job Diagnostic Survey (Hackman & Oldham, 1975; Rousseau, 1978). Developnent of the scale and the reliability information are reported elsewhere (Rousseau, 1978). The scale consisted of seven Likert-type items, with 1-5 scale points. A higher score on the scale indicates a high degree of nonwork satisfaction.
Work pe$ormance. Work performance data were available only for the hospital sample. Work performance was operationalized in terms of individuals’ job performance, job motivation, and patients’ care skill. A rating from an immediate supervisor was obtained for each individual on the above three dimensions. Each work performance dimension was assessed with three items, with l-5 scale points in each item. Although
286 JAMAL AND JAMAL
TABLE 1 Intercorrelations Among Dependent Variables
Variable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
(1) Time spent - with family C-1
(2) Time spent .03 a - with friends (- .07)b (-)
(3) Time spent - .08 .27 - alone (-.w (52) (- )
(4) Physical .Ol .14 .21 .92 ’ health ( 44) (-.ll) (-.OS) ( 90)
(5) Psychological .Ol .OS .12 .43 .87 depression ( .17) (-.lS) (-.13) ( .67) ( .81)
(6) Nonwork ( .16) ( .08) ( .17) ( .Ol) ( .03) (88) satisfaction
(7) Job .13 -.05 -.Ol -.22 -.26 - .83 performance
(8) Job .08 -.02 -.05 -.ll -.23 - .58 .89 motivation
(9) Patients’ .03 - .Ol .03 -.09 -.18 - .71 ho .91 care
’ Correlations of the hospital sample: N = 431; r = .08, p < .05, r = .lO, p < .Ol. b Correlations of the manufacturing sample: N = 383; r = ,085, p < .05, y = .105,
p < .Ol. c Values on the diagonals are Cronbach’s alpha.
the global measures of performance evaluation used in the present study are frequently reported in the management literature, they may not be completely problem free (Bernardin & Walter, 1977; Burnaska & Hall- man, 1974). In Table 2, sample items from each of the three work per- formance dimensions used in the study are presented.
Demographic and background variables. Several demographic and background variables including respondents’ age, sex, marital status, length of service, place of socialization (rural vs urban), and cultural background (French vs English) were assessed. Each one of the above
TABLE 2 Sample Items from Work Performance Scale
Very little Great
(1) Quality of performance (job performance)
(2) Level of motivation at this time (job motivation)
(3) Overall interest in patients (patients’ care)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
WORK AND NONWORK EXPERIENCES OF SHIFT WORKERS 287
variables was measured with one self-reported question, with appropriate response categories in each question.
RESULTS
The association between shift time and criterion variables was analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), appropriate for unequal cell frequencies. Results are reported in Table 3 (F values were estimates, given unequal cell sizes). Significant differences in the predicted direction existed between fixed-shift and rotating-shift employees on seven of the eight criterion variables for the hospital sample. On the average, nurses on fixed shifts spent more leisure time with their family and less leisure time alone, and experienced fewer physical health and psychological depression problems than nurses on rotating shifts. They were rated
TABLE 3 Mean and Standard Deviation Scores on Leisure Time Spent with Family, Friends,
Alone, Physical and Emotional Health, Nonwork Satisfaction, Job Performance, Job Motivation, and Patients’ Care for Employees on Fixed and Rotating
Shifts
Shift schedule”
Criterion variables
Fixed Rotating N = 245’ N = 180 (N = 279) (N = 104)
Mean SD Mean SD F value p
(1) Time spent with 17.89 9.35 12.81 7.05 7.45 .Ol family’ (20.64) (12.30) (18.02) (11.53) ( 1.41) (ns)
(2) Time spent with 9.80 10.65 7.39 0.67 friends’ ( 9.62) ( i::, (12.46) ( 8.69) ( 5.92) (.:,
(3) Time spent alone’ 11.23 6.77 13.72 8.91 4.91 .05 ( 6.37) ( 4.23) ( 8.73) ( 6.17) ( 5.51) (.Ol)
(4) Physical healthd 6.94 3.05 8.41 3.70 19.46 .Ol ( 8.17) ( 3.85) ( 8.W ( 4.15) ( 2.18) (ns)
(5) Psychological 5.72 2.45 6.38 2.61 6.75 .Ol depressiond ( 7.62) ( 3.33) ( 8.69) ( 3.91) ( 5.03) (.Ol)
(6) Nonwork satisfaction (22.71) (11.81) (23.29) (12.03) ( 0.87) (ns)
(7) Job performance 12.22 5.39 11.04 4.55 42.24 .Ol (8) Job motivation 12.23 6.11 11.02 5.47 52.57 .Ol (9) Patients’ care 12.28 4.49 10.84 4.25 57.64 .Ol
a Total number of cases on tixed and rotating shifts are smaller than the original samples because of missing data on shift time question.
b Numbers without parenthesis are from the hospital sample and numbers in parenthesis are from the manufacturing sample.
’ Time spent in hours with family members, friends, and alone in an average work week. d A lower score on these scales indicates better physical health and less psychological
depression.
288 JAMAL AND JAMAL
higher by their supervisors on job performance, job motivation, and patients’ care than nurses working on rotating shifts. No significant dif- ference was found between fixed-shift and rotating-shift nurses with re- gard to the leisure time spent with friends.
In the manufacturing sample, significant differences existed between fixed-shift and rotating-shift employees on three of the six criterion vari- ables. Contrary to our prediction, rank-and-file workers on rotating shifts spent more leisure time with friends than did fixed-shift workers. As predicted, workers on fixed shifts spent less leisure time alone and in- dicated less psychological depression than workers on rotating shifts. No significant differences were found between fixed-shift and rotating- shift workers in terms of time spent with family, physical health prob- lems, and nonwork satisfaction. However, for the variables of time spent with family and physical health problems, the direction of relationship was in the predicted direction.
Previous empirical research in the area of shift time has indicated the importance of several demographic and background variables (Frost & Jamal, 1979; Malaviya & Ganesh, 1976; Nicholson, Jackson, & Howes, 1978) in understanding shift workers’ attitudes and behavior. From the previous research, six such variables were selected and were assessed in the present study. These variables were age, sex, marital status, length of service, place of socialization (rural vs urban), and cultural background (French vs English). Two-way analyses of variance (appropriate for un- equal cell frequencies) were performed to test interactive effects of shift time and six demographic and background variables on various criterion variables. A summary of the results are presented in Table 4. In the hospital sample, out of a possible 48 interaction effects, only 11 were significant beyond .05 level. Older nurses on rotating shifts spent more leisure time alone than did younger nurses on rotating or fixed shifts. Nurses from a rural background working on fixed shifts spent more leisure time with their families than did nurses from an urban background working on fixed or rotating shifts. Nurses from an urban background working on rotating shifts experienced more physical health and psy- chological depression problems than did nurses from a rural background working on rotating or fixed shifts. Nurses from both rural and urban backgrounds on fixed shifts had identical job performance, but among nurses working on rotating shifts those from rural backgrounds were rated higher on job performance than those from urban backgrounds. English-speaking nurses on fixed shifts were rated higher on the patient care dimension of work performance and experienced fewer physical health problems than French-speaking nurses on fixed or rotating shifts. Nurses with more seniority working on fixed shifts spent more leisure time with their families and were higher on all three dimensions of work
TABL
E 4
A Su
mm
ary
of F
Val
ues
Res
ultin
g fro
m T
wo-
Way
AN
OVA
s
Crit
erio
n va
riabl
es
3 S
hift
sche
dule
Ti
me
with
Ti
me
with
Ti
me
spen
t Ph
ysic
al
Psyc
holo
gica
l N
onw
ork
Job
Job
Patie
nts’
R
X
Mod
erat
or
fam
ily
frien
ds
alon
e he
alth
he
alth
sa
tisfa
ctio
n pe
rform
ance
m
otiv
atio
n ca
re
fii
Shi
ft X
age
0.79
" 2.
34
9.64
**
0.78
0.
08
0.06
0.
35
1.10
(o
.oy
(1.7
2)
(0.0
1)
(5.8
6)**
(2
.77)
(0
.83)
C
-J
(-4
G-1
g
Shi
ft x
mar
ital
0.07
1.
03
1.13
0.
06
0.19
-
0.08
0.
01
0.03
s
stat
us
(0.4
3)
ii (4
.03)
**
(4.1
0)**
(0
.48)
(0
.95)
(2
.55)
(-
4 (4
(4
Shi
ft x
plac
e of
7.
77**
0.
25
1.59
4.
13**
8.
36**
-
5.91
**
0.97
2.
51
E so
cial
izat
ion
8 (2
.47)
(0
.01)
(0
.58)
(1
.32)
(2
.93)
(0
.26)
(-
4 (4
C
-4
E
sm
x cu
ltura
l 0.
35
3.33
1.
98
8.30
**
2.44
0.
98
B -
0.28
3.
89*
back
grou
nd
F2
(3.0
2)
(12.
72)*
* (7
.66)
**
(0.3
6)
(2.9
0)
(0.8
1)
(-4
C-1
t-1
%
sh
ift
x 4.
64’
0.25
0.
95
0.40
1.
31
- 5.
89**
5.
75**
5.
81**
%
se
nior
ity’
1 S
hift
X se
xd
(0.6
7)
(0.8
5)
(0.8
0)
(1.7
9)
(4.9
8)*
(2.2
9)
(-4
C-1
c-
1 d
a F
valu
es w
ithou
t pa
rent
hese
s ar
e fo
r th
e ho
spita
l sa
mpl
e.
b F
valu
es i
n pa
rent
hese
s ar
e fo
r th
e m
anuf
actu
ring
sam
ple.
R
’ Se
nior
ity
data
wer
e av
aila
ble
for
the
hosp
ital
sam
ple
only
. ii!
d
Onl
y 3%
of
the
nurs
es in
the
hos
pita
l sa
mpl
e w
ere
mal
e; t
here
fore
no
mod
erat
or
anal
ysis
was
per
form
ed.
* Si
gnilic
ant
at .
05.
**
Sign
ifica
nt a
t .O
l. E \o
290 JAMAL AND JAMAL
performance than nurses with less seniority working on fixed or rotating shifts.
In the manufacturing sample, 6 of the possible 36 interactive effects were significant beyond .05 level. Older workers on rotating shifts ex- perienced more physical health problems than did younger workers on rotating or fixed shifts. Single workers on rotating shifts spent more leisure time with their friends and alone than did married workers on fixed or rotating shifts. Married workers on rotating shifts spent the least amount of their leisure time with friends or alone. French-speaking work- ers on rotating shifts spent more leisure time both with friends and alone than did English-speaking workers on rotating or fixed shifts. Both male and female workers on fixed shifts experienced the same level of psy- chological depression, but females on rotating shifts (N = 8) experienced significantly fewer psychological problems than males.
Since two of the six background and demographic variables were con- tinuous (i.e., age and seniority), multiple regression analysis was also performed involving shift time, age, seniority, and various criterion vari- ables. Results obtained through multiple regression were identical to those obtained through two-way ANOVA, with one exception. In the hospital sample, seniority did not add significant variance to the variance already explained by shift time for the variable time spent with family.
DISCUSSION
The findings that workers on rotating shifts experienced more physical health and psychological depression problems than workers on fixed shifts are consistent with previous findings. For example, Taylor (1967) concluded that workers on fixed (night) shifts suffered fewer illnesses than those on rotating shifts. A recent study by Colligan, Frockt, and Tasto (1979) demonstrated that “relative to nurses on permanent shifts, rotating shift nurses exhibited a significantly higher rate of clinic visits and took more sick days for serious illness.” Several other researchers noted the negative effects of rotating shifts on workers’ physical health and psychological depression (Bast, 1960; Duesberg & Weiss, 1939; Mann & Hoffman, 1960; Pierach, 1955; Takasi, 1972; Thiis-Evensen, 1958; Wyatt & Marriott, 1953). Similarly, the results of this study on shift schedule and the use of leisure time appear to be in agreement with previous studies (Bast, 1960; Blakelock, 1960; Mann & Hoffman, 1960; Mott, Mann, McLaughlin, & Warwick, 1965).
The findings of this study on shift schedule and work performance seem to be different from those of the few (Dunham, 1977) available empirical studies in the area. Almost all previous studies were conducted among industrial workers and showed that productivity was higher among day-shift workers than among night-shift workers. However, in the pres- ent study, no differences in work performance were observed between
WORK AND NONWORK EXPERIENCES OF SHIFI- WORKERS 291
fixed-day-shift and fixed-night-shift workers. Our findings of differences in work performance among fixed-shift and rotating-shift employees are in line with the argument of Kleitman (1963), who suggested that when work is performed “out of rhythm,” it tends to become substandard in terms of efficiency and productivity. In our hospital sample, nurses on rotating shifts were required to move from one shift to another shift after 10 working days, which probably disturbed their circadian body tem- perature rhythm, resulting in substandard work performance (Colquhoun, Blake, & Edwards, 1968a, 1%8b, 1969).
The results from the moderator analysis indicate that none of the nine criterion variables had the same interaction effects in both samples. This might be a function of the different natures of our two samples. However, within each sample, some moderators tend to be more crucial than others. In the hospital sample, place of socialization appeared to be one of the important moderators significantly affecting the time spent with family, physical and emotional health, and job performance of the respondents. This indicates that the childhood socialization experiences are, to some degree, carried on in adult life. Rural background has traditionally been valued for its intense family ties and relatively good health and strong work ethic (Hulin & Blood, 1968). Our findings tend to support that explanation. Seniority appears to be another important moderator in the hospital sample, significantly affecting time spent with family and the three dimensions of work performance. This indicates that as seniority increases, the relationships between work schedule and the time spent with family and work performance tend to change. More seniority in a work environment where shift work is a dominant pattern of work sug- gests the adaptability of individuals to shift work. Cultural background was another moderator in the hospital sample which moderated the re- lationship between work schedule and physical health problems and pa- tients’ care. French-speaking nurses on fixed shifts experienced more physical health problems and were rated lower on patients’ care than English-speaking nurses. This might be because of the differences in value systems of the two cultural groups. It has been noted that French- speaking people tend to score slightly lower on work-oriented intrinsic values than English-speaking people (Kanungo, Gom, & Dauderis, 1976). Their work orientation might explain differences in physical health prob- lems and patients’ care.
In the manufacturing sample, marital status and cultural background appeared to be relevant, moderating the relationships between shift time and leisure time spent with friends and alone. Married workers on rotating shifts spent the least leisure time with friends or alone in solitary activ- ities, which indicates that they either spent their leisure in meeting family obligations, in recuperating from the effect of work rotations, or in both. French-speaking workers on rotating shifts spent more leisure time with
292 JAMAL AND JAMAL
their friends than English-speaking workers. This indicates the gregarious nature of the French culture which puts high importance on relationships among people.
In summary, data presented in this paper from two occupational groups indicated that the shift time employees worked was related to their work and nonwork experiences. Employees working on fixed shift had higher job performance, motivation, and patients’ care skill, and probably en- joyed better physical and emotional health than employees on rotating shift. Employees on fixed shifts spent more leisure time with their families and friends and spent less time alone than employees on rotating shifts. Fixed- and rotating-shift employees experienced the same degree of non- work satisfaction.
REFERENCES Bast, G. H. Plocgenarbeid in de industry. Arnhem: Contractgroepvoering productiviteit
Van Loghum Slaterus, 1960. Bernardin, J. J., & Walter, C. S. The effects of rater training and diary keeping on
psychometric error in ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1977, 61, 64-69. Blakelock, E. A new look at the new leisure. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1960, 4,
446-467. Browne, R. C. The day and night performance of teleprinter switchboard operators. Oc-
cupational Psychology, 1949, 23, 121-126. Bumaska, R. G., & Hallman, T. D. Am empirical comparison of the relative effects of
rater response bias on three rating scale formats. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1974, 59, 307-312.
Colquhoun, W., Blake, M. J., & Edwards, R. S. Experimental studies of shift work: I. A comparison of rotating and stabilized 4-hour shift systems. Ergonomics, 1968, 11, 437-453. (a)
Colquhoun, W., Blake, M. J., & Edwards, R. S. Experimental studies of shift work: II. Stabilized I-hour shift systems. Ergonomics, 1968, 11, 527-546. (b)
Colquhoun, W., Blake, M. J., & Edwards, R. S. Experimental studies of shift work: III. Stabilized 12-hour shift systems. Ergonomics, 1%9, 12, 865-882.
Colligan, M. J., Frockt, I. J., & Tasto, D. L. Frequency of sickness absence and worksite clinic visits among nurses as a function of shift. Applied Ergonomics, 1979, 10(2), 79-85.
Duesberg, R., & Weiss, W. Reichsgesundheitsblatt, Arbeitsschutz, 3.8, 1939. Dunham, R. B. Shift work: A review and theoretical analysis. Academy of Management
Review, 1977, 2, 626-634. Frost, P. J., & Jamal, M. Shift work, attitudes and reported behaviour: Some associations
between individual characteristics and hours of work and leisure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1979, 64, 77-81.
Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. Development of the job diagnostic survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1975, 60, 159-170.
Hulin, C. L., & Blood, M. R. Job enlargement, individual differences, worker responses. Psychological Bulletin, 1968, 69, 41-55.
Kanungo, R. N., Gom, G. J., L Dauderis, H. J. Motivational orientation of Canadian anglophone and francophone managers. Conadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 1976, 8, 107-121.
Kleitman, N. Sleep and wakefulness. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1%3.
WORK AND NONWORK EXPERIENCES OF SHIFT WORKERS 293
Malaviya, P., & Ganesh, K. Shift workers and individual differences in the productivity of weavers in an Indian textile mill. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1976,61,774-776.
Mann, F. C., & Hoffman, L. R. Automation and the worker. New York: Holt, 1960. Mott, P. E., Mann, F. C., McLaughlin, Q., & Warwick, D. P. Shifr work: The social,
psychological and physical consequences. Ann Arbor, Mich.: The Univ. of Michigan Press, 1%5.
Nicholson, N., Jackson, P., & Howes, G. Shift work and absence: An analysis of temporal trends. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 1978, 51, 127-137.
Patchen, M. Participation, achievement and tnvolvement on the job. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970.
Pierach, A. Nachtarbeit und Schichtwechsel beim gesunden und Kranken menschen. Actu Medica Sconidinavica, 1955, 307, 159-166.
Rousseau, D. M. Relationship of work to nonwork. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1978, 63, 513-517.
Takasi, K. Intluence of shift work on time and frequency of meal taking. Journal of Human Ergology, 1972, 1, 195-205.
Tasto, D. L., & Colligan, M. J. Shift work practices in the United States: DHEW pub- lication No (NIOSH), 77-148. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Oftice, 1977.
Taylor, P. J. Shift and day work: A comparison of sickness, absence, illness, lateness and other absence behaviour at an oil refinery from 1%2 to 1%5. British Journal of Industrial Medicine, 1%7, 24, 93-102.
Thiis-Evensen, E. Shift work and health. Industrial Medicine, 1958, 27, 493-497. Walker, J. Frequent alternation of shifts on continuous work. Occupational Psychology,
1966, 40, 215-225. Vernon, H. M. The Health and eficiency of munition workers. London: Oxford Univ.
Press, 1940. Wyatt, S., & Marriott, R. Night work and shift changes. British Journal of Industrial
Medicine, 1953, 10, 164-172.
REFERENCE NOTE 1. Baba, V. V. Work and Leisure Questionnaire. Faculty of Commerce and Administration,
Concordia University, Montreal, Canada, 1979.
Received: March 6, 1981