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KS3 and KS4 Terminology for English Language and Literature

Word Classes Definition Example How to use in a sentence?

Noun Naming words of people, places, objects, theories

and feelings.

James, cat, London, ruler

Including abstract nouns in the article, like ‘death,’ ‘pain’ and ‘risk’, ensures that a sense of fear is maintained.

Proper Noun Beginning with a capital: Names of places/people.

Alex, James, Canterbury

Concrete Noun Referring to things that

exist physically.

computer, hand, house,

plant

Abstract Noun Nouns that we can’t touch

physically. love, peace, friendship

Collective Noun Referring to groups of

people/animals/objects. team, class, family, flock

Pronoun

Words that take the place of nouns.

she, it, him. By repeatedly using the pronoun ‘he’, it creates a sense of inferiority and insignificance.

Personal Pronoun

Replacing singular objects/subjects.

I, me, he, she, you, it, him,

her.

Possessive Pronoun Pronouns relating to

possession.

mine, ours, yours, his, hers,

its.

Collective Pronoun

Replacing plural objects/subjects.

they, we, us, them

Demonstrative Pronoun Pronouns that have a sense

of ‘pointing’. that, this, these

Interrogative Pronoun A question word.

what, if, shall, where, who,

why

Verb A describing word or

being word (an action). think, decided, eating, watch

Yet Dickens’ use of the verb ‘shrouded’ ensures that his character appears unusually macabre and eerie.

Modal Auxiliary Verb A specific type of verb determining certainty,

ability or obligation.

could, would, should, shall, wish, might,

may

Dynamic Verb These usually describe actions we can take, or

things that happen.

play, melt, hit, write, read

Stative Verb These usually refer to a

state which is not changing or likely to change.

hate, love, own, believe, think

Progressive Form

A verb that indicates that something is happening or was happening or will be

happening.

going, watching, thinking

Adverb A word that describes a verb or action – often a

word ending in ‘ly’.

quickly, firstly, momentarily, nevertheless

The rather violent adverb ‘sharply’

(used to desbribe the telephone

ringing) could foreshadow the

Birlings’ imminent defeat.


Adjective A describing word used

to label a noun.

wretched, calm, beautiful,

hungry

By brutally using the adjective ‘wretched’ to illustrate the tragic event proves Mr Birling to be…

Comparative An ‘er’ word used for

comparison.

more, taller, greater,

naughtier

Superlative An ‘est’ word used to

indicate highest degree.

most, tallest, greatest, calmest

Preposition A word describing a

location. in, under, at, on, next to

When ‘Give’s’ speaker uses the preposition ‘under’, it creates a sense of hierarchy… as if Armitage is trying to suggest…

Determiner Words that precede

nouns, referring to them a, his, that, etc.

The use of the demonstrative determiner in ‘that girl’ may imply that Mr Birling is repulsed by Eva, declaring her to be troublesome.

Definite Article

Specific term that precedes a noun.

the The definite article ‘the’ could signify the character’s importance: like they are the one and only.

Indefinite Article

Unspecific term that precedes a noun.

a, an Nevertheless, the indefinite article ‘a’ could create a sense of ambiguity and insignificance.

Possessive Determiner

Determiners relating to possession.

my, his, her, your, our, their

The repetition of the possessive determiner ‘my’ reveals that the Duke is incredibly controlling.

Demonstrative Determiners

‘Pointing’ determiners that precede nouns.

this cat, that horse, these

men

The use of the demonstrative determiner in ‘that girl’ may imply that Mr Birling is repulsed by Eva, declaring her to be troublesome.

Quantifiers Determiners that refer to

quantity. ne, two, three,

some, many

The writer’s inclusion of quantifiers allows the reader to envisage just how excessive the clutter and filth was.

Direct Address

Directly addressing another person/people.

You

By directly addressing God, it gives the impression that the writer is

gaining strength while losing faith, following his father’s death.

Address Term How you address

somebody.

Dear, Mr, Sir, Mrs, Madam,

Bae

Perhaps Armitage uses the usually nurturing address term ‘dear’ to bridge a gap between the speaker and audience… to…

Conjunction A connective. and, but, so,

for, nor, because

Opening with the connective ‘and’

implies that Fred is unfinished: desperate to have every point of his argument heard.

Compound Two words combined to

make one meaning.

bodyguard, chill-pill,

proofread

The use of compound creates the image of…

Synonym A word meaning the

same as another word.

beautiful, pretty and stunning

The array of synonyms included (i.e. ‘red’, ‘rouged’ and even ‘rose’) continue to paint Curley’s wife to be dangerous.


Antonym A word meaning the

opposite to another word. strong, weak

By juxtaposing antonyms ‘small’ and ‘huge’, Steinbeck immediately detaches Lennie from George…

Language Terms Definition Example How to use in a sentence?

Lexis Another term for choice of vocabulary.

The use of military lexis implicitly echoes Scannell’s wartime experiences.

Semantic Field Multiple terms relating to a specific subject.

goalie, post, ball, referee, whistle

Perhaps Hardy includes a semantic field of nature to explore how love can be beautiful one minute, yet gone the next.

Rhetorical Question A question that requires no answer.

Why did I open my big mouth?

Medusa’s rhetorical question highlights her bitterness and sadness at being betrayed.

Irony Using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous effect.

Saying ‘oh brilliant’ when something bad happens.

It is ironic that (in Disney’s ‘Finding Nemo’) Nemo’ father, Malin, is a clownfish with a rubbish sense of humour.

Allusion A reference to a person, place, event, or another text.

He was a Good Samaritan today.

Steinbeck’s ‘brush’ location could be seen as a biblical allusion to the Garden of Eden, used to signify safety and tranquillity.

Elevated Vocabulary Vocabulary that is deliberately impressive.

macabre, deciduous

The writer’s inclusion of elevated vocabulary hints that his article’s aimed at a particular audience.

Emotive Language Language used to evoke emotion i.e. pity/sympathy.

An innocent dog had been cruelly starved.

The emotive language helps aid the playwright’s intentions, by arousing sympathy for Blanche.

Register The degree of formality employed in a text.

The informal register in which the text is written suggests that the recipient is a friend of the sender.

Formal When a text has a sophisticated tone/style.

May I suggest we commence.

The formal manner of speech adopted by Mr Birling highlights his arrogant desire to be of a higher class.

Informal When a text adopts a more casual approach.

Let’s get started.

The informal language imparts a sense of realism on the reader, reminding them that…

Overt Prestige A status/tone of speech that is seen as ‘better’.

Mrs Birling continues to use overt prestige in an attempt to separate herself from the Inspector.

Covert Prestige A status/tone of speech that is seen as ‘lesser’.

Megan’s use of covert prestige could be perceived as a deliberate attempt to intimidate Chloe.

Colloquial Language Including colloquial language ensures that Armitage writes with an informal, friendly and conversational tone in order to...


Taboo Language Language that could be frowned upon/offensive.

bugger, crap, pain in the butt

The frequent use of taboo language certainly shocks the readers: highlighting the brutality and prejudice of 1930s America.

Slang Casual, ‘lazy’ and informal language.

peak, bare, peng

In ‘Education for Leisure’, Duffy embeds slang (i.e. ‘bog’) to perhaps reinforce the fact that the speaker is uneducated.

Abbreviation Words that have been shortened.

fam, bro, jel Helen’s use of the abbreviation ‘jel’ could suggest that she’s trying to cling on to her youth.

Elision The omission of syllables; the merging of words.

wanna, I’m, let’s, coulda

Cooper Clarke’s repeated use of elision with ‘wanna’ creates a less rehearsed but more heartfelt and genuine ambience.

Jargon Language associated with a specific profession.

suspect, ABH, alpha, handling

The writer uses jargon to intrigue and involve the readers, to make them feel part of this ‘secret’ society.

Neology Neologism

The use of new words/expressions. A new word/expression.

selfie, meme, photobomb

By Sarah using the neologism ‘photobomb’, she highlights her desperation to be accepted and respected by her younger audience.

Inkhorn Term

Borrowed terms from other languages.

rouged, fatigue

The inkhorn term ‘rouged’ could suggest that Curley’s wife is too glamorous for the ranch.

Portmanteau Merging of two words to form new meaning.

brunch, glamping, Labradoodle

Perhaps Mr Murdstone’s portmanteau name depicts him as both violent and cold-hearted.

Amelioration (n) Ameliorate (v)

A positive change in the meaning of a word. To positively change a word.

wicked, sick, Duffy almost ameliorates the taboo term ‘bastard’ by preceding it with ‘beloved sweetheart’ – potentially to show that Havisham still has a degree of passion towards her ex-lover.

Pejoration (n) Pejorate (v)

A negative change in the meaning of a word. To positively change a word.

peak, gay

In ‘The Ruined Maid’, Hardy uses the word ‘ruined’ by pejoration, to highlight how Melia is now better off: free, proud and positive.

Convergence (n) Converge (v)

The act of attempting to match one’s speech. To match one’s speech.

[student to teacher]

‘Oh good afternoon Mr Harvey.’

In ‘Singh Song’, the speaker appears to converge his language, perhaps in an attempt to challenge stereotypes about his heritage.

Divergence (n) Diverge (v)

The act of attempting to distance one’s language. To distance one’s speech.

[student to teacher] ‘That’s peak.’

In ‘Checking out me History’, the speaker repeatedly diverges his language, with the repeated use of ‘dem’ (instead of ‘them’) to stand up for his culture.


Fillers Sounds/expressions used to ‘fill’ hesitations.

err, um, like Perhaps Caliban’s use of fillers (‘oh’) expose his vulnerable side, as if he’s struck with fear at the thought of being harmed again.

False Starts Incorrect/self-corrected sentence starters.

B…but I was just talking to Sir.

Mr Birling’s false start could highlight the fact that he’s been taken aback and dumbstruck.

Generic Terms Definition Example How to use in a sentence?

Characterisation The way a writer paints a picture of a character.

‘She had full rouged lips, and wide spaced eyes’

Shakespeare’s characterisation

of Othello reveals to the audience both his heroic and vulnerable qualities.

Setting The time, place and surroundings described.

‘Alleys and archways, like so many cesspools … the smell, and dirt, and life, upon the straggling streets.’

Dickens relies on his setting of a cold, frosty London to convey truths about Scrooge.

Suspense A feeling/state of nervousness

caused by wanting to know what happens next.

Like when the Jaws theme music plays and you’re awaiting the shark…

Bronte maintains suspense in her novel ‘Jane Eyre’ by showing mysterious happenings at Edward Rochester's home.

Tension Excitement, stress or anticipation regarding an outcome.

‘No exit. I tear back to the main corridor. A door. Could this be it?’

The writer builds tension by using consecutive short sentences to build pace and keep the readers on edge – ready for a dramatic event.

Flashback A scene that interrupts the present to provide information about the past.

‘…In West Philadelphia born and raised. On the playground is where I spent most of my days.’

Rowling uses another flashback device, when Harry views the memory of Snape, in order for him to understand a vital part of his own history.

Protagonist The primary character who features in a text.

Harry Potter Katniss Everdeen

Collins continually portrays her protagonist as somebody who’s heroic and yet humble.

Antagonist

A character who actively opposes the protagonist.

Voldemort President Snow

Othello’s antagonist Iago allows his jealousy and envy to cause him to destroy the lives of others.

Foil A character who directly opposes another.

Mufasa vs. Scar

Iago vs. Cassio

Rosaline appears as an obvious foil for Juliet, so Romeo's relationship to Juliet can be contrasted with his puppy love for Rosaline.

Theme A main idea or central message in a text.

love, conflict, jealousy?

Compare and contrast how writers present the theme of broken love in Nettles and one other poem of your choice.

Imagery Definition Example How to use in a sentence?

Simile When something is compared using like or as

She ran as quickly as a cheetah; she

The writer’s use of the simile here is effective because it


smiled like a baby with a lollipop.

conjures up a powerful image for us.

Metaphor When something is described directly as something else.

‘It is a moon wrapped in brown paper.’

Duffy’s choice of metaphor allows us to clearly understand her view, challenging the sensual side of love.

Idiom

An expression that doesn’t take meaning from each individual word, but has a separate meaning of its own.

It was raining cats and dogs.

The idiom creates a sense of humour in the piece, as well as strengthening the visual image for the reader.

Pun Word play that suggests two or more meanings.

I was struggling to figure out how lightning worked; then it struck me.

The pun creates a subtle humour in the piece, possibly detracting from the seriousness of the situation.

Alliteration 2+ sounds repeated, close to one another.

He didn’t want to be seen as coarse and common.

When Dickens uses the alliterative phrase “…” it serves to emphasise the aggressive and harsh sounds, highlighting Pip’s dislike of being seen this way.

Pathetic Fallacy Weather imagery used to reflect events/moods.

‘It was wretched weather; stormy and wet.’

Dickens utilises pathetic fallacy here to allow the reader to feel what Pip is feeling and also to foreshadow the dark events to come.

Personification When an inanimate object is given the abilities of a human.

‘The instrument had lost its tongue.’

When Armitage personifies the instrument, is allows us to relate more to the object and understand the shocking moment.

Triplet/Rule of three A list of three ideas. In she stalked: angry, wild and unafraid.

The triplet here is effective because it adds a certain rhythm to the point, without losing the attention of the reader.

Sensory Imagery Any imagery relating to the five senses.

He listened for the sounds of the bombs; the smell of the gas filled the air so that he could hardly breathe.

The use of sensory imagery here really draws the reader in; we picture the scene as if we were there, feeling the same emotions as the character

Colour Imagery Colour connotations. ‘Jealousy is the green eyed monster; it doth mock the meat it feeds on.’

When Shakespeare uses such vivid colour imagery-“green-eyed monster”-we think about the connotations of the colour: jealousy, illness and envy.

Light Imagery Imagery relating to light. ‘The sun threw a bright dust-laden bar through one of the windows, and

Steinbeck’s powerful use of light imagery here shows us that the characters are dangerous; when flies move


in and out of the beam flies shot like rushing stars.’

into the beautiful sun beams we can see that all is not as it should be, things are not perfect here.

Animalistic Imagery Anything relating to animals.

‘He was flopping like a fish on a line.’

The use of animalistic imagery serves to emphasise his character; by presenting him as a fish we can see that he is weak, perhaps a slippery character.

Foreshadowing A hint for the future. ‘Day after day, a vast heavy veil had been driving over London from the East.’

By opening with such a miserable scene, Dickens foreshadows that the events to come will be worrying, dismal and problematic for the characters.

Hyperbole Exaggeration. ‘For coppers I can dance or sing/ For silver-swallow swords, eat fire’

Here the speaker’s sheer desperation is emphasised, through Armitage’s use of hyperbole when he offers to ‘eat fire’.

Juxtaposition Two opposites. ‘It is a moon, wrapped in brown paper’

Duffy is showing us the contrasting sides of love through her use of juxtaposition; it can be both beautiful and mundane.

Oxymoron Two opposite words directly next to each other: discreetly loud.

The Titanic, that magnificent beast of a boat…

The writer’s use of oxymoron indicates mixed feelings; it shows the conflict between the grandeur and the danger of the boat itself.

Onomatopoeia A word that replicates a sound: bang

The firework whizzed through the air, crashing, popping and fizzing.

Mimicking the sound effect of the fireworks, the onomatopoeia makes the description much more expressive and realistic to the audience.

Zoomorphism When a person is given animalistic traits.

‘A couple of customers began to knock together, like scared pigs in a pen.’

By using zoomorphism, Updike is encouraging us to make the link between the customers and pigs, showing us the similarities in their characteristics and how they really behave: scared and uncontrollable.

Anthropomorphism When an animal is given human traits.

‘Then old Mrs Rabbit took a basket and her umbrella to go through the woods.’

The use of anthropomorphism makes the scene more visually appealing and creates a deeper sense of humour, especially for the younger audience.

Characternym Reflecting a character’s personality through their name.

Mr McChokumchild

Dickens’ use of the characternym Mr McChokumchild makes it clear


just what a violent and scary character he is…

Objective Correlative Using weather, time and objects to reflect character.

‘We went into the house-the great front entrance had two chains across it outside-and the first thing I noticed was, that the passages were all dark, and that she had left a candle burning there.’

Dickens cleverly uses the objective correlative in this scene to represent Miss Havisham’s mood and character; we can predict that she is going to be withered and sombre, much like her physical surroundings.

Litotes Underplaying a big deal: often signalled by just or a little.

‘He just scared her.’

George’s use of litotes-“he just scared her”-serves to underplay the terrifying situation and shows the reader that it wasn’t taken very seriously.

Aptonym A name that represents an occupation: Eva Smith

Eva Smith, Helen Painter, Robert Coffin, William Wordsworth

Priestly uses the aptonym to further characterise Eva Smith, making it clear that her job is deeply ingrained with her personality and how others see her.

Phonology Definition Example How to use in a sentence?

Plosive A stop consonant where the airflow is blocked.

P, B, D, T, C, K The writer’s use of plosive sounds could potentially signal the character’s passion and aggression…

Fricative Consonants that force air through a narrow channel.

F, Ph, V, S, Z Agard’s continued use of voiceless fricatives at the start of the first two stanzas: 'flag', 'fluttering' 'unfurled' create a free, flowing and airy effect of freedom.

Sibilant A type of fricative that causes a hissing sound.

S, Z Through the use of the repeated sibilant ‘s’ sound, Duffy portrays Medusa to be venomous and serpent-like.

Affricate A ‘semi-plosive’ that ends as a fricative.

Ch, Tch, J, G Sassoon’s continued use of affricates may well mimic the sound of the trenches he describes (the mud and water).

Liquid

Soft consonant sounds. L, R Byron’s repetition of liquid sounds creates a harmonious, lyrical feel, perhaps reflecting the female character’s innocence and fragility.

Nasal

Consonants that allow air to escape through nose.

M, N, Ng In ‘the smile on your mouth was the deadest thing’, Hardy’s repeated use of nasal


sounds almost create a sense of melancholy building.

Alliteration The repetition of a phoneme at the beginning of closely connected words.

Carefully, the cat cleaned its paws.

The alliteration could perhaps signify the character’s continuous misery and disappointment in the poem.

Sibilance The repetition of sibilant sounds.

sizzling sausages The sibilance in the text creates a sense of mystery…

Assonance The rhyming of vowel sounds.

hat, wrap, flack Smith’s assonance creates a voice that seems gentle, despite whispering out his murderous confession.

Consonance The reoccurrence of similar sounding consonants.

pitter patter The writer includes consonance (with ‘m’) to almost imitate the sound of the hummingbirds.

Dissonance A harsh, conflicting collection of sounds.

tumbling clatter of pots and pans

Perhaps the writer employs dissonance to reflect the speaker’s anger and confusion.

Euphony A mix of ‘softer’ sounds for calm, harmonious effects.

There stood the moon.

The euphony in Keats’ poem reflects the simple beauty of the season he describes.

Cacophony A chaos of ‘unpleasant’ sounds: often plosives.

Beware the Jabberwock!

The continuous cacophony in ‘Jabberwocky’ create a degree of ambiguity for the readers, allowing suspense to build.

Structure Definition Example How to use in a sentence?

General Structure Terms:

Plot The order of events in which make up a story.

Rapunzel locked in tower > Prince rescues > battle with witch > live happily ever after.

The writer ensures his plot is full of unexpected turns to ensure that the reader can form

an attachment with the text.

Pacing How fast or slow a story unfolds.

Look at: -Long sentences? -Slow build? -Action packed?

Browning manipulates the pacing of ‘My Last Duchess’ by using long sentences, to ensure he shocks the reader when the Duchess’ death is suddenly revealed.

Repetition The duplication of the same words/phrases.

I am so very very bored right now.

Dickens uses the repetition of ‘bah humbug’ to highlight Scrooge’s refusal to change, besides his ever-growing lunacy.

Anaphora The deliberate repetition of the first part of a sentence.

‘It was the best of times, it was the worst of times...’

The writer uses anaphora to appeal to the emotions of the audience, in order to persuade them to donate to the cause.

Epiphora The opposite: the deliberate repetition of the end part of a sentence, to draw attention to an idea.

‘Cause if you liked it, then you should have put a ring on it. If you liked it, then you should have put a ring on it’

The politician deliberately includes the epiphora of ‘a war’ to create a sense of fear in his audience, subsequently forcing them to trust him.


Framing When a text ends with the repetition of the same wording/idea/ situation it began with.

‘Of Mice and Men’ begins and ends in the bush setting.

Steinbeck frames his novella in a way in which it both begins and ends back in the bush: perhaps to highlight the failure of Lennie and George’s American Dream.

Isocolon A succession of words, phrases, clauses or sentences, all roughly equal in length.

Veni, Vidi, Vici The writer uses isocolon in his speech to give power to his words: making them more memorable, therefore fulfilling his purpose of persuasion.

Bicolon Two of the above. The sea looked and fled, the tree waved in fear…

Tricolon Three of the above. I came, I saw, I conquered.

Tetracolon Four of the above. He and we were a party of men walking together, seeing, hearing, feeling, understanding the same world

Syndetic Listing When elements in a sentence are listed using conjunctions.

She hoped for love, wealth and happiness.

The writer forms a syndetic list and places emphasis on the abstract noun ‘happiness’ to show that ultimately….

Asyndetic Listing When elements in a sentence are listed without conjunctions.

She hoped for love, wealth, happiness.

By listing the nouns asyndetically, the writer shows that these are of equal worth to the speaker.

Polysyndeton Use of several conjunctions in close succession.

‘Little tumuli of oyster shells in the oyster season, and of lobster shells in the lobster season, and of broken crockery’

Dickens’ use of polysyndeton acts as a device in which to bring rhythm to the text, emphasising every minor element of detail in order to reflect how…

End-stopped line A punctuated line to signal

an end, allowing for a pause.

It was finished. Perhaps the end-stopped line here also mirrors the end of their love and relationship.

Isolated line A line (or sometimes word) that sits alone.

Panic.

By including the isolated line ‘panic’, the writer informs the reader that in that moment, no solutions were visible, and therefore the amount of suspense is heightened.

Ellipsis A series of dots that usually signal missing words.

If only she had… oh, it doesn’t matter now.

The use of ellipsis could possibly reflect Lennie’s fear and hesitancy to be truthful.

Parentheses Brackets or dashes used to add an afterthought or some extra information.

Miss Gorman (a stationery lover) spent a zillion in Paperchase.

The excessive use of parentheses in ‘The Laboratory’ could reflect the speaker’s constant influx of afterthoughts: some certain;


Miss Linden – cat obsessed – even purchased a feline shaped stapler.

some doubtful – nonetheless portraying her mental instability.

Graphology How the text is presented. fonts, images etc. The writer manipulates the readers with the text’s graphology; by including the oversized image of the ruins, he continues to pull on the readers’ heartstrings.

Syllable A single unit of sound – like a beat.

Coo-pers (2) A-na-ly-sis (4)

In Armitage’s ‘Homecoming’, the irregularity of the stanza, with lines ranging from 9-13 syllables could reflect the idea in the poem that relationships can be awkward and unpredictable.

Monosyllabic Words with one syllable. cat, dog, miss, the Equally, the monosyllabic sentences could portray Lennie’s simplicity and his childlike persona.

Polysyllabic Words with 2+ syllables. lazy, structure, tidy Perhaps the writer uses a polysyllabic sentence to potentially mirror the multiple complications of the journey.

Internal Rhyme Rhyme that occurs within a single line/verse.

silly billy, cat in the hat

Shakespeare’s inclusion of internal rhyme with ‘double’, ‘bubble’ and ‘trouble’ intensifies the sense of mysticism and magic, making the audience fear the witches’ potential.

Syntax The order that words are places within a sentence.

I ate an apple: (subject, verb, object)

Browning’s convoluted syntax makes the Duke appear uneasy and irate: like he could lose it imminently.

Inversion (also known as anastrophe) Normal order is reversed deliberately for effect.

‘the soldier strong’ ‘worlds between’

Shelly uses inversion to in fact highlight the negative qualities of Milton when he says: ‘blind, old, and lonely, when his country’s pride…’

Subject The subject (the doer) of a sentence.

I was scared. Jon ate a pizza.

By placing Edna (the parlour maid) first, as the subject of the sentence, it exposes how crucial she actually is… to…

Object The object (the victim) of a sentence.

Neil ate a packet of Wotsits.

By objectifying the ‘stars’ in comparison to the subject ‘I’, it could imply that Give’s homeless speaker believes he is actually worth more.

Tense Expresses time reference: past; present; future.

He was > He is > He will.

The politician’s use of future tense makes his speech all the more unreliable, as it creates a sense of uncertainty.


Past Participle The form of a past tense verb that ends in -ed.

shopped, played, watched, skipped

The past particle present in ‘hoped’ could expose the fact that the character’s dreams were short-lived.

Progressive Tense The form of a present tense verb that ends in -ing.

shopping, playing, watching, skipping

Through use of the progressive tense, the writer is able to maintain the readers’ attention – like the journey is happening right now and no one knows the outcome…

Subordinate Clause A clause (often adding extra material) that is dependent on the main clause of a sentence.

‘Running through the tall grass, Bingo thought of Rex.’

It is the character’s running which is foregrounded, as the subordinate clause instantly creates a sense of panic.

Sentence Types

Complex Sentence A main clause (often a simple sentence) and a subordinate clause.

‘Running through the tall grass, Bingo thought of Rex.’

It is the character’s running which is foregrounded, as the subordinate clause instantly creates a sense of panic.

Compound Sentence 2+ FULL sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction. I was hungry and I was thirsty.

Eden was trying to be helpful so he sat on the pile of exercise books.

Baillie includes a lengthy compound sentence with multiple conjunctions to highlight the sequence of never-ending memories the boy has for his grandfather.

Simple Sentence A short sentence: The car flipped.

She ended it. Nevertheless, the final line of the poem being a simple sentence could reflect the sudden end of his beloved grandfather’s life.

Fragment/Minor Sentence

An incomplete sentence: Never again.

What a shame. Not only does Tennyson’s succession of fragments replicate the sound of the march, but equally, these ‘unfinished’ sentences may replicate the soldiers’ lives cut short.

Sentence Functions

Declarative Sentence Gives you information. (Most sentences are declarative.)

The wind whistled. The writer’s string of declarative sentences is effective in making the article appear ‘factual’, and as a result filling the readers with trust…. making them…

Imperative Sentence Commands you to do something.

Stop talking. The imperative sentence paints the protagonist to be somebody who’s dominant and unafraid.

Interrogative Sentence Asks a question. What if? Nevertheless, the use of interrogatives also highlights her to be insecure… full of self-doubt.

Exclamative Sentence Has an exclamation mark. Yay! The exclamative sentence allows the readers to feel this sense of heightened anger/frustration.

Poetic Structure

Stanza A group of lines to form a poetic paragraph.

I love to write Day and night What would I do

Whilst the first, second and third stanzas are equal in length, the forth is


But cry and be blue If I could not write

significantly shorter, perhaps signifying that…

Couplet A stanza of 2 lines.

Tercet A stanza of 3 lines.

Quatrain A stanza of 4 lines.

Quintain A stanza of 5 lines.

Sestet A stanza of 6 lines.

Septet A stanza of 7 lines.

Octave A stanza of 8 lines.

Refrain When a phrase/line is repeated continually throughout a text.

‘Is it too late to say sorry now?’

Fenton’s refrain of ‘I’m in Paris with you’ could reflects the speaker's insistent concentration on the present.

End-stopped When the line ends in punctuation.

‘and feel the hurt of his grazed heart.’

The end-stopped line ‘of his grazed heart’ explores the almost final and everlasting effect war has had on him.

Enjambment A run-on line that doesn’t end in punctuation; the sentence continues.

‘She sleeps up in the attic there/ Alone, poor maid.’

Perhaps Dew’s use of enjambment with ‘Alone’ imitates the separation in their relationship: his ongoing loneliness also.

Caesura A pause mid-line, often signalled by a full stop, colon etc.

‘It was no place for rest. With sobs and tears.’

Scannell’s use of caesura here may highlight the father’s brief pause in his ongoing battle to protect his child.

Volta In a sonnet, a volta is a sudden change: the turn of thought or argument.

Barrett Browning defines her love in the present until the volta where she finally explores her love through references to the past and, the future.

Rhyme The correspondence of sound between words or the endings of words.

cat + hat

The mixture of full and half-rhyme in the poem suggests that the partnership is not total or complete.

Full-rhyme The stressed vowel sound in both words must be identical, as well as any subsequent sounds.

cat + hat far + bar

The full-rhyme of ‘breath’ with ‘death’ in ‘Sonnet 43’ perhaps suggests love’s ability to overcome death.

Half-rhyme Lazy rhyme: words that almost rhyme – perhaps with same vowels or same consonants.

rumble + jungle death + faith

Equally, the final line with its half rhyme (‘faith’) perhaps suggests that this is how death can finally be defeated.

Stress The emphasis that falls on certain syllables and not others.

‘Incy wincy spider’ The stress on ‘dead weight’ brings the coffin image strongly into focus.

Foot A foot is a combination of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry.


Iamb A foot with two syllables: one not stressed; one that is, in that order.

Trochee A foot with two syllables: one that is stressed and one that is not.

Spondee A foot with two syllables: both of which are stressed.

Anapest A foot with three syllables: two stressed; then one unstressed.

Dactyl A foot with three syllables: one stressed; then two unstressed.

Metre The number of feet that is in a line of poetry.

The ace of the metre reflects content of the argument i.e. in the polysyllabic ‘vegetable’ causes the line to stutter, suggesting the slowness of his love’s growth.

Monometer A line with 1 foot.

Dimeter A line with 2 feet.

Trimeter A line with 3 feet.

Tetrameter A line with 4 feet.

Pentameter A line with 5 feet.

Hexameter A line with 6 feet.

Heptameter A line with 7 feet.

Octameter A line with 8 feet.

Play Terminology

Meta A direct address to the audience: Remember this:…

Dramatic Irony When the audience’s knowledge’s surpasses that of the characters.

Deus ex Machina An unlikely event that saves the day.

Poetic Form

Dramatic monologue A poem spoken through one person’s assumed voice

My Last Duchess, Havisham, The Laboratory

Duffy’s use of the dramatic monologue form allows the reader to develop a stronger bond with the character; we feel for her as we see things from her point of view.

Ballad A plot driven song, that tends to tell the reader what is happening.

La Belle Dame Sans Merci, The Highwayman

Keats-much like his romantic contemporaries-uses the ballad form, adding to the lyrical element and making the content seem much more mystical.

Elegy A poem of mourning for a person or event.

O Captain! My Captain!

Whitman chose to write an elegy about the death of the president, emphasising his grief and sorrow.


Free Verse A poem that doesn’t follow consistent rhyme or meter.

Fog, Washed Away, Samson Agonistes

Milton writes in free verse, possibly highlighting the lack of boundaries and restrictions that he felt-or even the chaos he was trying to portray.

Sonnet A 14 line poem, written in iambic pentameter. They tend to express extreme emotions such as love.

Sonnet 43, Sonnet 18, Ozymandius

Browning uses the traditional sonnet form-in 14 lines- to express her extreme love and adoration for her husband.

Narrative A poem that tells a story. The Raven, Rime of the Ancient Mariner

Poe begins his narrative poem with pathetic fallacy, allowing us to predict that this won’t end happily.

Interior Monologue A poem that expresses the thoughts and feelings within a character’s mind

1st Date He 1st Date She

Lots of the humour within this poem is derived from Cope’s use of interior monologue; the audience and privy to each character’s innermost thoughts but the characters remain unaware of what is going on.

Romanticism Poems about love and nature, that focus on a personal experience

La Belle Dame Sans Merci, She Walks in Beauty, Neutral Tones

Hardy-heavily influenced by the Romanticism movement-uses the decay of nature to mirror the decay of his relationship.

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