WOODCRAFT

WOODCRAFT

AGuidetoCampingandSurvival

byE.H.KREPS

Copyright©2013bySkyhorsePublishing,Inc.

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CONTENTS

PREFACEBUILDINGTHEHOMECAMPFURNISHINGTHEHOMECAMPOUTDOORFOODSFIRESFORVARIOUSUSESFIREBLANKETSTHEWOODSMAN'SAXANDITSUSESNOWSHOES-HOWTOMAKETHEMSNOWSHOES-HOWTOUSETHEMWINTERTRAVELINTHEWOODSTRAVELINGINTHEPATHLESSWOODS,PARTITRAVELINGINTHEPATHLESSWOODS,PARTIIPACKING

PREFACE

ElmerH.KrepswasborninUnioncounty,Pa., in1880.At that timelargeand small game of the various species common to Central Pennsylvania wasplentiful in the neighborhood of his home. From his early boyhood he took agreatinterestinhuntingandtrapping.Ashegrewolderhevisitedvariouspartsof theUnitedStates andCanada, andbeing a keenobserver, pickedup a vastamountofinformationaboutlifeinthewoodsandfields.

Mr. Kreps has written many articles on various subjects connected withhuntingandtrappingandthislittlebookletisacollectionofWoodcraftarticlesfrom his pen. Mr. Kreps is an accomplished artist as well as writer, and theillustrationsinWoodcraftarereproducedfromhissketches.

Wefeelsurethatthiscollectionofarticleswillproveofvaluetomanymenand boys who are interested in living in the woods and no one will bemorehappythanMr.Krepsifhisworkhelpsbrightenthelifeoftrappersandhunters,inwhomheisalwaysinterested.

EDITORFURNEWS

BUILDINGTHEHOMECAMP

ThefirstcampIremembermaking,orremodeling,wasanoldlumbercamp,onesideofwhichIpartitionedoffandfloored.Itwascleanandneatappearing,beingmade of boards, andwas pleasant in warmweather, but it was cold inwinter, so I put up an extra insidewall which I coveredwith building paper.ThenI learnedthevalueofadoublewall,withanairspacebetween,asortofneutral ground where the warmth from the inside could meet the cold fromwithout,andthetwofightouttheirdifferences.InthiscampIhadabrickstovewithasheetirontop,anditworkedlikeacharm.

Butthatwasnotreallyawildernesscamp,andwhileIrealizethatinmanyofthetrappingdistrictswhereitisnecessarytocamp,thereareoftenthesedesertedbuildingstobefound,thosewhotraporhuntinsuchplacesarenottheoneswhomust solve the real problems of camp building. It is something altogetherdifferentwhenwegetfarintothedeep,silentforest,wherethesoundoftheaxehasneveryetbeenheard,andsawedlumberisasforeignasalinennapkininatrappersshack.Butthetimberisthere,andthetrapperhasanaxandtheskillandstrengthtouseit,sonothingmoreisreallyneeded.Letussupposewearegoingtobuilda logcabinforawinter's trappingcampaign.Whileanaxeis theonlytoolnecessary,whentwopersonsworktogether,anarrowcrosscutsawisagreatlabor-saver,andifitcanbetakenconvenientlythetrappersorcampbuilderswillfind that itwillmore thanpay for the trouble.Other thingsveryuseful in thisworkareahammer,anauger,apocketmeasuring tape,anda fewnails, large,mediumandsmallsizes.Thentomakeareallypleasantcampawindowofsomekindmustbeprovided,andforthispurposethereisnothingequaltoglass.

Righthereaquestionpopsupbeforeus.Wearegoingonthistripfarbackintothevirginforest,andthetrailislongandrough;howthencanwetransportanunwieldy crosscut sawand such fragile stuff as glass?Wewill remove thehandlesfromthesawandbindoverthetoothedgeagroovedstripofwood.Thismakesitsafetocarry,andwhilestillsomewhatunhandyitisthebestwecando,forwecannotshortenitslength.Forthewindow,wewilltakeonlytheglass—sixsheetsofeightbytenortenbyfourteensize.Betweeneachsheetweplaceapieceofcorrugatedpackingboard,andthewholeispackedinacase,withmoreof the samematerial in top and bottom.Thismakes a packagewhichmay behandledalmostthesameasanyothermerchandise,andwecanscarcelytakeintothewoodsanythingthatwillgivegreaterreturnincomfortandsatisfaction.

Ifwearegoingtohaveastoveinthiscabinwewillalsorequireapieceof

tinorsheetironabout18inchessquare,tomakeasafestovepipehole,butarewegoingtohaveastoveorafireplace?Letusconsiderthisquestionnow.

On first thought the fireplace seems the proper thing, for it can beconstructedinthewoodswherethecampismade,butafireplacesomademayor may not be satisfactory. If we know the principles of proper fireplaceconstructionwecanmakeonethatwillnotsmokethecamp,willshedtheproperamountofheat,andwillnotconsumemore fuel thanawell-behaved fireplaceshould, but if one of these principles be violated, trouble is sure to result.Moreover, it is difficult to make a neat and satisfactory fireplace without ahammerfordressingthestones,andatoolofthiskindwillweighasmuchasasheet ironstove, therefore it isalmostasdifficult to takeinto thewoods.Thenthere is one or two days' work, perhaps more, in making the fireplace andchimney,with the addeduncertainty of its durability, for there are only a fewkindsof stones thatwill standheat indefinitelywithoutcracking.On theotherhand the fireplace renders theuseofa lampunnecessary, for itwill throwoutenoughlightforallordinaryneeds.

Thegoodpointsof the stoveare that it canbemadebyanybody inahalfday's time; it does not smoke the camp, does not black the cooking utensils,givesthemaximumamountofheatfromtheminimumquantityoffuel,andwillnotgiveoutorgobadunexpectedlyinthemiddleofthewinter.Ifyouleaveittomeourcampwillbeequippedwithasheetironstove.Whilethestoveitselfisnot now to be considered,wemust knowbeforewe commence to buildwhatformofheatingandcookingapparatuswillbeinstalled.

CHARTSHOWINGLOCATIONOFCAMP

Havingdecidedonwhichpartofthecountryistobethecentreofoperations,welookforasuitablesiteforourcabin.Wefinditnearastreamofclearwater.Nearbyisastretchofburnedlandcoveredthinlywithsecondgrowthsaplings,andneartheedgeoftheevergreenforestinwhichwewillbuildourcampstandsplentyofdeadtimber,tamarack,whitespruce,andafewpinestubs,allofwhichwillmake excellent firewood. In the forest itselfwe find straight spruce trees,bothlargeandsmall,balsam,andafewwhitebirches,theloosebarkofwhichwillmakethebestkindlingknown.Withinthreerodsofthestreamand50yardsfrom the burn is a rise of ground, high enough to be safe from the springfreshets, and of a gravelly groundwhich is firm and dry. This is the spot onwhichwewillconstructourcabin,forherewehavegooddrainage,shelterfromthestorms,waterandwoodnearathand,andmaterialfortheconstructionofthecamprightonthespot.

Thefirstthingtosettleisthesizeoftheproposedbuilding.Tenbyfourteenfeet,insidemeasurement,isacomfortablesizeforahomecabinfortwomen.Ifitwere tobeusedmerelyasastoppingcampnowandthen itshouldbemuchsmaller, for the small shack is easierwarmed and easier to build. I have usedcamps for thispurposemeasuringonly sixandahalfbyeight feet, and foundthem plenty large for occasional use only. But this cabin is to be ourheadquarters,wherewewillstoreoursuppliesandspendthestormydays,sowewillmakeittenbyfourteenfeet.Thereisjustonespotclearoftreeswherewe

canplaceacampofthissize,andwecommenceherefellingtreesfromwhichtomakelogsforthewalls.Withthecrosscutsawwecanthrowthestraightsprucetreesalmostanywherewewantthem,andwedroptheminplaceswhichwillbeconvenientandsavemuchhandling.Assoonasatreeiscutwemeasureitoffandsawitintologs.Thesemustbecutthirteenandseventeenfeetlong,andastheywillaverageafoot indiameterat thestumptherewillbeanallowanceofthree feet forwalls andoverlap,or18 inchesat eachend.Wecut the trees asnearthegroundaswecanconveniently,andeachtreemakestwoorthreelogs.All tall treesstandingnear thecampsitemustbecut,andused ifpossible, forthere is always danger that a tree will blow over on the camp some time, ifwithinreach.

THECORNERCONSTRUCTION

Onthespotchosenforthecampwenowplacetwoofthelonglogs,parallelwitheachotherandexactlytenfeetapart.Weblockthemontheoutsidesotheycannot bemoved easily out of position. Thenwe place two of the short logsacross theendsandin thesewecuthalf-roundnotchesdirectlyover theplaceswhere they rest on the long logs, and almost half through each piece. Aftercuttingthesenotchesweturnthelogsnotchedsidedown,andthesecuts,iftheyhave been properly done, fit snugly over the long logs, thus binding the fourpiecestogetherandformingthefirstroundofthewalls.

Beforegoing farthernowwemustdecide justwherewearegoing tohavethedoorwayofourcabin.Wewillplaceitonthesouthside,forweliketohavethewarmsunrayscomeinwhenthedoorisopen,andifplacedonthenorthorwestsidesitadmits toomuchcold.Wewillplaceitnearoneendandthenwecan also put our window in the same side. About two or three feet from thecornerwewill cut out a section from the top of the log,making the cut fourinchesdeepandtwoandahalffeetwide,thebottombeinghewnsmoothandtheendssaweddownsquare.Thenwecutoneofthebalsamtreesandsawasectionfromthebutt thelengthoftheproposeddoorway.Thisshouldbenotlessthan

fivefeet,sowemakeitthislength.Thenwesplitthroughthecentrewiththeaxeandapairofwoodenwedges,andhewthetwohalvesintotwosmoothplanks.Wealsomakeaplanktwoandahalffeetlong.Whentheseplanksarefinishedwe stand the two long ones upright in the place cut in the log and nail themfirmly.Weseethattheystandperfectlyplumbandinlinewithoneanother,thenwe nail the short plank across the top, thus completing our doorway.On thisside,as thewallsare laidup,wesaweachlogoffsquarelyat theproperplaceandpushitupagainst thedoorframe,fasteningit therebynailing throughtheplank.The notches are cut to such a depth at the corners that the logs fit oneagainsttheotherandthisleavesnolargecrackstoclose.

Tomakeourcabincomfortableitmusthaveafloorandwehavethisinmindaswework.Beforebuildingthewallhigherwewilllayoursillsforthefloor,forit is difficult to get these cut to the proper length and fitted in place after thewallsarecompletedandthetimbermustbebroughtinthroughthedoorway.Wecut three straight logsabout eight inches thick in themiddleand14 feet long.Thesearebeddedintothegroundinthecabin,onealongeachsidewallandtheotherinthecentre.Theymustbeplacedatanevenheightandthisisdeterminedbymeansofastraightten-footpole,whichwhenplacedacrosstheselogsshouldrestoneach.Ifoneofthemistoohighinspotswedresstheseplacesdownwiththeaxe.

Wewillnowleavethefloorsandproceedwithbuildingthewalls.Roundbyroundthe logsarenotchedandfitted intoplace,until thewallshavereachedaheightofaboutfourfeet.Thenwemakeawindowboxingofplanksandfastenitin thewall in the samewaywe did the door frame. The ends of the logs arebuttedagainst thewindow frameand fastenedwith largenails, driven throughthe planks into the logs.But beforemaking thewindow frame the size of theproposedwindowmustbedetermined,andthisisdonebymeasuringthewidthof the glass andmaking the proper allowance for the sash.When the logs areplacedinthewallswetrytoselecttimbersofsuchasizethatoneroundoflogswill comewithin about three inchesof the topof thewindowboxing, and thenextlogiscutouttofitdownoverthiswindowandtheframeisnailedfasttothislog.Thesamethingisdonewhenthetopofthedoorframeisreached,andthisgivesagreaterdegreeofrigiditytothewalls.

THEGABLES

When the walls have been raised to a height of about six and a half feetabovethefloorsillswecommenceworkonthegables.Theseareconstructedbyplacingafulllengthlogacrosstheend,ashorteroneontopofthis,continuingthusuntilhighenough.Thisisbestdonebysettingapoleupintheendofthecampexactlyinthemiddleoftheendwall,thetopbeingjusttheheightoftheproposedgable.From the topof this straightpole,polesare rundown toeachcornerandthesegivetheslopeofthegables,alsooftheroof.Thelogsarethencutoffonan inclineat theends toconformwith the lineof thispole,andarefastened one on top of another by boring holes and drivingwooden pins intothem.Whenbothgableshavebeenraisedtohalftheirheightwecuttwo17-footbindingpoles,eachsixinchesthickinthemiddle,andnotchthemintothelogsofthegables.Theselogsorpolesnotonlygivemorestabilitytothegables,butthey alsomake a support for the roof, and are a nice foundation for a loft onwhichtostorearticlesafterthecampisfinished.Whentheendsarebroughtuptowithinabouteightinchesoftherequiredheightastout,straightridgepoleofthesame lengthas thebindingpoles isplacedon top,andnotched lightly intothetoplog.

Our camp is now ready for the roof, andwhat arewe touse for thismostimportantpart.Ihavenodoubtthatcamproofshavecausedmoregrayhairsforwoodsmen than anyof the other problems theyhave to solve. If itwere earlysummerwhen thebarkcouldbepeeled fromcedarandspruce treeswewouldhavenotrouble,butbarkisnotavailablenow.Abouttheonlystyleofroofthatwecanmakenowiswhatiscalledascooproof,madefromsplitlogs.Wemustfindastraight-grained,free-splittingwoodforthis,andofthewoodsathandwefind balsam the best, so we cut balsam trees about eight or ten inches indiameter, andmake logs from the butt of each, about seven feet long, so thatthey will reach from the top of the ridge-pole to the walls and extend a footbeyond.Thesewesplitthroughthecentreandhollowouteachinatroughform,

bycuttingnotchesintheflatside,withoutcuttingtheedges,andsplittingoutthesectionsbetween.Weplacealayerofthesetheentirelengthoftheroof,hollowsideup,andnotcheachinplacesothatitcannotsliporrock.Betweeneachsetofthesetroughswewillplaceathree-inchpole,andontopofthepoleweplacemarsh moss. Then we place over these poles a second layer of the troughs,hollowsidedown,andovertheridgepoleweplacealarge,full-lengthtrough.Thislatterwemustmakebyhewingalogflatononesideandthenhollowingitout,forwecannotfindatreewithsuchastraightgrainthatwecansplita17-footlengthwithoutmoreorlessofatwist.

THEROOF

Beforecompletingourroof,infactwhenthefirstlayerofscoopsareplacedon, we must make provision for our stove pipe, for it must have an outletthrough the roof, and the location the stove is to have in the cabin must bedetermined.Ahole12or14inchessquareisleftintheroof,byusingafewshortscoops,andthisholeiscoveredwiththesheetoftinwebroughtforthepurpose,andaslightlyoblongholeiscutinthisforthestovepipe.Theedgeofthisholeweturnupwiththehammer,whichmakesitwaterproof,andwhenfinisheditissuchasize that thepipemakesasnugfit.Thewhole thing issoarranged thatwatercannotrununderfromthetop,butthisisdifficulttoexplain.

Arooflikethiscausesalotofwork,infactasmuchastheremainderofthecamp in some cases, but if carefully made it is a good roof, warm andwaterproof.Itmustbewellmossedorsnowwillsiftin,andthelowerendsofthetroughs,fromwheretheycrossthewalls,shouldbecutdeeperthantheportionabove.If this isnotdonetheicewhichformsintheendsof thesetroughswillbackthewaterupuntilitrunsovertheedgesanddownthewallsofthecabin.Itmayevenbenecessaryoccasionallyduringthewintertocleanthesnowoffthelower edge of the roof and clip the ice from the troughs with a hatchet. Thesteepertheroofthelesstroubletherewillbefromthissource.

Withtheroofcompletedourcabinbecomesarealshelterandwecancamp

insideatnight. Ifnecessary theflooringmaybepostponedforafewdays,butwemayaswellfinishitatonce,sowecleanoutthechipsandcommencelayingthefloor.Thiswemakeofstraightsprucepolesaboutfourorfiveinchesthick.Intheendofthecampwhereourbedsaretobeweleavethemintheirnaturalroundstate,merelyflatteningthemontheundersidewheretheyrestonthesills,tomakethemfitandliefirmlyintheirplaces.Butwhenthefloorhasgrownatthisendtoawidthofaboutfourfeetweadoptadifferentplan.Wenowhewthepoles straight and smooth on one side their entire length, and flatten theundersidewhere they rest on the sills, also straighten the sides so they fit upsnuglyagainstoneanother.Attheplacewherethestoveistobeplacedweleavean opening of two and a half by four feet, and around this place we fastensmoothpiecesofwoodaboutfourinchesthick,sothatitmakesoftheopeningasortofbox.Whenourflooriscompletedwenaildownalongeachwall,apole,whichcoverstheendsofthefloorpolesandholdsthemallfirmlyinplace.

THEDOOR

Tocompleteourcabinnowweneedonlyadoor,awindow,andsomethingtoclosethecracks.Foradoorwesplitcedarorbalsamwoodintoplanks,whichweplaceonedgeinnotchescutinalog,andhewdownsmoothlyonbothsideswith the axe. Then we straighten the edges and measuring our door framecarefullywefittheboardsintotheopening,bindingthemalltogetherbynailingacrossneareachendanarrowboard.Wealsoplaceastripdiagonallyacrossthedoor from near one corner to the opposite, to stiffen the door and preventwarping.Hingeswemakeofwood,fastenthemtogetherwithasinglelargenail

througheach,andfasten thedoor to thewall.Thenon theoutsidewehewtheendsofthelogsuntiltheyareflushwiththeedgesofthedoorframe,andnailaflattenedstripalongbothsidesofthedoorway.Thisisnotabsolutelynecessary,butitgivesthedoorwayamorefinishedappearance,andincreasestherigidityofthewall.

Ourwindowsashalsomakesconsiderablework.Forthiswesplitsoft,deadcedarandhewitintothree-inchstrips.Fromthesewemakeaframethatwillfitinsidethewindowboxing,andmakethestripsofthisframeflushatthecornersbycuttingawayhalfofeach.Thenattheproperplaceswefitourlightercrossstrips, sinking them into thewood at the ends, and fasteningwith small nails.Grooves are then cut in the strips and the frame itself to receive the sheets ofglass,whichareputinplaceandfastenedwithtacks.Thewindowisthenplacedinthewallandsecuredbynailingnarrowstripsofwoodagainstit.Asawindowatitsbestisapttoadmitalotofcoldairitwillpaywelltospendsometimeatthisworkandmakethewindowfitsnugly.

All that now remains to be done is to close the cracks between the logs.Sinceour logswereofauniformsizeandhavebeenwellnotcheddown therearenolargecracks,andnoblockingisneeded.Thewarmestchinking,outsideofrags,whichwedonothave, iswoodsmoss.That foundgrowingonrocksandlogsisbest,foritdoesnotdryoutandshrinkasmuchasmarshmoss,andthereisanabundanceofthisnearathand.Wegatherafewbagsofthismossandwithapieceofwoodwedriveitintothecracksallaroundthewalls.Wealsokeepasmallquantityofthismossinthecabin,fornomatterhowfirmlyitisdrivenintothe cracks it will shrink and become loose after awhile, and this must betightenedandmoremossdrivenin.

Ourlittlecabinisnowcomplete.Ithastakenmuchhardworktobuildit,butit isworth the effort for it is a comfortable, home-like camp.The coldwinterwindsmayhowlthroughtheforestandthesnowmayfalltoadepthofseveralfeet,butherewecanliveascomfortablyaswoodsmencanexpecttoliveinthewilds.

FURNISHINGTHEHOMECAMP

Asingleday'sworkwilldowonders towardsmakinga cabincomfortable.Sometimesthroughpressofmoreimportantwork,suchasgettingoutalineoftrapswhiletheseasonisyetyoung,thetrappermaywellneglectthesetouchesofcomfort,andthesimplestofcampfurnishingswillansweruntilastormydaykeeps him indoors, when he canmake good use of his time inmaking campfurniture. A bed and a stove or fireplace are the only absolutely necessaryfurnishingstostartwith,ifotherworkdemandsimmediateattention.

But in our own case such neglect is not at all necessary. The precedingchapter sawour cabin completed, that is thewalls, roof and floor, all that canreallybecalledcabin,butmuchmoreworkwillbe requiredbefore it is reallycomfortableandreadyforoccupancy.Providingthecampwithsuitablefurnitureand adding conveniences and comfort is the next step, sowhilewehave timeandthereisnothingtohindertheworkwewillpushitalong.

Most important of all camp furnishings is the stove.Nothing else adds somuchtothecheerfulnessandhome-likeaspectofacampasaproperlyenclosed,well behaved fire, which warms up the room, enables us to cook our foodindoors, and dispenses the gloom of night by driving the darkness into thefarthestcorners.Iftheweatheriscoldnothinginthecampissoindispensable.

Forthelodgewhichwebuiltintheprecedingchapterwewillmakeastoveof sheet iron. I havemade a number of camp stoves by riveting together foursectionsofnew,unbentstovepipe intoasquaresheet,bending this intopropershape,fittingends,andcuttingholesforcookingutensilsandfor thepipe.Butforthiscampwehavesecuredfromahardwarestoreapipeofsheetironthreefeetwide by four feet long.We now place this on the floor of the cabin andmeasureofffromeachend17inches,thenoneachedgeatthe17-inchmarkwemakeathree-inchcut.Thiswedobyholdingthesheetmetalonablockorflattoppedstump,placingthecorneroftheaxeonthemetalattheproperplace,andstrikingontheheadwithabilletofwood.Thenweplaceastraightedgedstripofwoodacrosstheendonthe17-inchmark,andstandingonthiswoodwepulltheendofthemetalupward,bendingittoarightangle.Theotherendistreatedthesamewayandthisleavesthemetalintheformofabox,threefeetlong,17incheshigh,and14incheswide,openontopandatbothends.Nowweturnthisupside down and in the topwe cut two seven-inch holes, as round aswe canmakethem.Thesearetoholdthecookingutensils.Nearoneendwecutasmallhole,notmorethanthreeandahalfinchesindiameter.Theedgeofthisholewe

cutatintervalsallthewayaround,makingstraight,one-halfinchcuts.Thenweturntheseedgesup,andwehaveastovepipehole,withacollartoholdthepipeinplace.Wenowclosetherearendofthestovebybendingthreeinchesofthesidesintoarightangle,thesameamountofthetopbeingbentdown.Thisisthepurpose of the three-inch cuts wemade when we first commenced the work.Nowwerivetapieceofsheet-ironintothisend,usingforrivetstheheadendsofwirenails.Theymustbecutshortandrivetedontheheadofanaxe.Beneaththetopofthestove,betweenthecookingholeswerivetafoldedstripofmetal;thisis tostiffen the top.Thenwe turn in three inchesof the frontof thestoveandrivetthecornerswheretheylap.Thisleavesaneight-inchopeninginfrontoverwhichwewillhingeadoor.Thisdoormusthavesomekindoffastening,andasimple little twist of wire working in a punch hole is easily arranged andconvenient.Wecanmakeaverycrude stoveof this ifwe like,butwedonotwantthatkind,sowetakeplentyoftimeandturnoutasatisfactoryarticle.

Ourstoveisnowcompletedexceptforthecoverswhichareeasilymade.Wesetitupinthebox-shapedopeningleftinthefloorandfillarounditwithsandtoaheightofsixinches,alsofilltheinsidetothatheight.Whiledoingthiswemustseethatthestovestandsperfectlylevel,andthatthepipeholeisdirectlybeneaththehole in the roof.Thismakesa fireproofstoveand thebedof sandholds itrigidlyinplace.Adraftismadebeneaththedoorbyscrapingawayalittlesand.The pipe is five-inch size and we fit it with a damper for that is the way toregulatethedraftandkeeptheheatfromgoingupthepipe.

1.THESTOVEBEFOREBENDING2.AFTERBENDING

2.AFTERBENDING3.COMPLETE.

STANDINSANDTOLINEA

Ourstovecompletedandinworkingorderwenextturnourattentiontothebed,sinceitrankssecondinimportance.Wesetanuprightpostfourinchesthickandthreefeetlongagainstthesidewallaboutfivefeetfromtheendoftheroomandnail itfirmlyinposition.Thenataheightofabouttwofeetfromthefloorwe fasten to the wall another four-inch piece, this extending in a horizontalpositionfromtheposttotheendwall.Thenwesetupacornerpostatthefootofthebed,placingitfivefeetfromtheendwallandnailingthetopsecurelytotheroofbindingpole.Inlinewiththisagainsttheendwallwesetupanotherthree-footpostandspikeitsolidlytothelogsofthewall.Thenwecutnotchesinthesetwolatterpoststwofeetabovethefloorandintothiswefitandnailfastafour-inch cross strip. We now have the foundation for our bed and we make thebottomofstraight,smoothpoles,nailedfasttothehorizontalends.Thesepolesmust all be of about the same thickness tomake a satisfactory bed, otherwisesomeofthemwillbendorspringwhilethestiffoneswillnot.Ifitweresummernowwewouldlinethisbunkwithbarktokeepthebalsamneedlesfromfallingthrough,butsincewecannotgetbarkatthistimeofyearwecannotdothis.Wemakethesideandendofthebedbynailingpolesagainsttheposts.Thenwefillthebedwithbalsamboughs.Thesearetheendsofthebranchesandtheheavieststemsarelessthanafourth-inchthick.Wecommenceattheheadandstandtheboughsonendatanangle,stemsdown.Whenentirelyfilledwehaveasoftandfairlycomfortablebed,ofcoursenotequal tothespringbedwehaveathome,but then we are not expecting home comforts in the big woods, and we arealwaystiredenoughtorestwellinaboughbed.Forpillowsweusegrainbagsinwhichweplaceourextraclothing.

This bed is at its best when freshly filled. Each night's use reduces itssoftness,andthecomfortdecreasesatalikerate.Theonlywaytokeepaboughbed in good condition is to replace the bough filling occasionally with freshevergreens.Whenwekillsomebiggameanimal,adeerorcaribou,wewilldrytheskinandplaceitonourbed,hairsideup,forthiswillmakethebedwarmerandsofter.

Thetableisnextinorder.Manytrappersthinkatabletoomuchofaluxuryandaccordinglydispensewithit,butahomecampisfarfromcompletewithoutitandit isaneasypieceoffurnituretomake.Itshouldbeplacedonthesouthside of the cabin before thewindow, so thatwe can get the advantage of thelight.Wewill standup twopostsof theproperheightabout twofeet fromthewall and six feet apart.Thesewe secure inplacebynailing them to the floor.

Fromthetopsofthesepoststothewallweplaceflattenedpiecesofwoodandsecure them by nailing to thewall and to the posts. This is the foundation orframeworkforourtable.Thetopwewillmakeofthreestraighteight-inchlogshewnononesidetothecenter,andflattenedontheothersideattheends.Whenplacedonthesupports,flatsideup,andfastenedbynailingattheends,wehavethe table completed. It is rough, but it answers our purpose aswell as amorefinishedone.

Infrontofthetablewewillplaceabench.Thiswewillmakefromahewnlog,halfround,andintheroundsideneareachendweboreholesforthelegs.Theseareboredatsuchananglethatthelegswillstandabout20inchesapartatthebase.Thelegsaremadeoftwo-inchstickswhittledtofittheholesanddrivenin, the lower ends being cut off afterwards at the proper length to make thebench stand firmly, andat the rightheight.Wewill alsomakeanother shorterbenchwhichwewillplacebythesideofthestove.Perhapswhenastormydaycomeswewillmake a couple of chairs, but for the present at least these twobencheswillserveverywell.

CAMPFURNITURE.TABLE,BENCHandLAMPSHELF

Wecannotbelonginthewoodsuntilwerealizetheneedofsomemeansofsecuring our food where it will be inaccessible to woods mice. These littlecreaturesareaseriouspestandcansoonruinabagofflourorasideofbaconifthey are able to get at it. In an effort to placemy flourwhere they could notreach it I suspended it from the ridgepolewithapieceofcodfish line,but the

nimblemicewentupanddownthatcordlikemonkeys.ThenImadeaplatformand suspended it from the roofwith four pieces of hay balingwire.On this Iplacedmyfood;butevenhereIfounditwasnotsafe,forthemicedroppedontothe platform from the roof poles. The only way I found that was perfectlysatisfactorywastomakeatightboxwithawellfittedcoverinwhichtokeepthefoodsupply.AsaresultImadeafoodboxforeachcamp.

Wehavenowfound that it isnecessary tohavesomemeansofpreservingourfoodfromtheravagesofmice,andprofitingbyexperiencewedonotwasteour timeon theories,butset towork tomakea tightwoodenbox. If itwereatime of the yearwhen barkwould peelwewouldmake a frame of poles andcover itwithbark.But this is impossiblenow,sowesplitboardsfrombalsamandcedarandhewthemflatandsmooth.Fortheendswemaketheseboardstwofeetlongandfastenthemtogetherbynailingstripsacrosstheendsoftheboardsafter they have been placed side by side with the edges fitting one againstanother.Theboardsforthebottomandsidesaremadethreefeetlongandthesewenailtotheends.Thecoverisfittedtothetop,butisnotfastened.

Luxuriesbecomenecessitiesthroughuse.Thefurnishingswhichwehavesofar brought into our cabin may be considered as coming properly under theheadingofnecessities.Buttherearemanylittleextrapiecesthatmaybeaddedwhich may be called luxuries at first, but through use they become almostindispensable.Onthewallswewillbuildshelvesandwefindthemveryusefulplaces for storingodds and ends.A small shelf is placedon thewall near thestovetoholdthelamp,andanothersimilarshelfforthesamepurposeisplacedabovetheleftendofthetable.Thentherearetwoorthreelongershelvesplacedinconvenientlocations.Theseshelvesareallmadeofhewnboardssupportedbystoutpinsdrivenintoaugerholes.

Ifwearenotby this time too tiredofmakingboardswithanaxe,wewillmakeawoodentubinwhichtowashourclothes.Sincewehaveasawthisisnotasdifficultas it firstappears. It ismadesquarewithslopingsides.Theboardsmustbecarefullyfittedandsecurelynailed.Then,afterwehavemadeitastightaspossiblebynailingwewillgatherasmallquantityofsprucegumandrunitinto thecracks from the insidebymeansofahot iron, inmuch thesamewaythatwewouldsoldertinplate.Awashbasincanbemadeinthesameway,butwehaveatinbasininouroutfitsowe'llnotneedtomakeone.

Behind the stove we nail a slender pole, horizontally, onto wooden pinsdrivenintoaugerholes,sothatthepoleisparallelwiththewallandaboutsixoreightinchesfromit.Onthispoleweplaceoursocksandmittstodrywhenwecomeinfromtheday'stramp.Wehangourcoatsonnailsdrivenintothewall.Oursnowshoeswesuspendfromtheroofwithsnarewireinthecoolestpartof

thecamp,sothatthemicecannoteatthefillingortheheatmakeitbrittle.Perhapsyouwouldbeinterestedinourcampoutfit,foritisadaptedtousein

acampofthiskind.Wehavecomeintothewoodsforthefallandwinter,andwhilewewillgooutoccasionallyforsuppliesoffood,ouroutfitissupposedtobecomplete,andinitarealldiearticlesneededforanentirewinter'sstayinthewilds. The following are the articleswhichwe have broughtwith us as campoutfit:Tworabbitskinblankets,twolargeall-woolblankets,onelargeandonemediumenameledkettle,twoteapails,onewaterpail,onelargefryingpanandtwosmallones,withsockets forhandles, threeenameledplates, twoenameledcups, two table knives, two forks, two table spoons, two tea spoons, onereflectingbaker,onewashbasin,onesmallmirror,fourtowels,onealarmclock,onesmalloillamp(bottomportionofarailroadlantern),threesmallaxeswithlong handles, one cross-cut saw, one hand saw, two flat files, two sharpeningstones(pocketsize),oneauger,onehammer,assortednails,adozensmallbagsfor holding food, a small box of medicines, and a repair kit, consisting ofneedles,thread,wax,scissors,awlandsmallpliers.

The above is the actual camp outfit and does not include personalbelongings, suchasguns, traps, toilet articles, compassesclothing, snowshoes,etc.,thingswhichareusedmoreonthetrailthanincamp,andwhilenecessaryinourbusinesscannotrightfullybeconsideredapartofthecampequipment.Evensomeofthearticlesmentioned,forinstancethetwosmallfryingpans,aremoreforuseonthetrailthaninthehomecabin.

This,andtheprecedingchapter,describewhattomymindisanidealcampfortwopersonsandaperfectequipmentforsame.Thecampsitedescribedcouldnotbe improvedupon,and it is seldomthatwe findallof the requirements inany one place, yet the description is that of one of my own camp sites, andexcept for the size of camp and a few details of furnishings and outfit, alsodescribesoneofmycabins,onewhichIconstructedandusedwhiletrappinginCanada.

OUTDOORFOODS

That foods for outdoormen shoulddiffer from those eatenbypeoplewhoworkindoorsmayappearstrangetosomeofus,butitisafactthatfoodsofthesameclassarenot,asarule,practicalforbothoutdoorandindoorconsumption.Therequirementsofpeoplewhoworkintheopenairdifferbutlittlefromthoseof the indoorworkers,but it ismainly the sourceof supply thatnecessitates adifferentclassoffoods.

The indoorman lives in themidst of plenty.Almost anything his appetitedemandshemayhave.Thetelephonemakesitunnecessaryforhimtogotothestoretoplacehisorderandthedeliverymanbringsthegoodstohisbackdoor.Hisbetterhalforperhapsahiredcook,prepares thefoodforhimandheneednot evenworry about the time required for cooking or thework necessary toprepareandplacetheviandsbeforehim.

Butwiththeoutdoorman,bywhichImeanwoodsmanandotherswhoareemployed outdoors and do their own cooking far from a base of supplies, theconditionsarealtogetherdifferent.Perhapstheouterhascarriedhisfoodalongdistanceonhisbackoritmayhavebeenbroughttohiscampinaboatorcanoe,orbyteamoveralongandroughroad,orevenpackedonhorsebackfrom50to100miles into the roughmountains. Ineithercase itwasnecessary forhim toselectfoodshavingcertainqualities.Inordertokeepthebulkandweightdowntoareasonablelevelallbulky,heavy,wateryfoodshadtobeeliminated.Suchfoodsaswouldfreezeincoldweather,decay,becomerancid,orotherwisespoilifkeptalongtimewithoutspecialcare,hadtobekeptoutofthelist.Alsosucharticles as do not contain much nutriment must be avoided, as well as thosewhichareapttoproveharmfulwhenusedregularly.Notonlythat,buttheentireoutfit of food must be "well balanced," that is, it must have about the rightproportionsofthevariousfoodelementsrequiredbythehumanbody.Toomuchsaltporkandotherpreservedfoods,withtoolittlefreshfood,maycausescurvy;variousarticleswhichareknowntobedifficultofdigestionmaycausechronicdyspepsia, while many constipating foods may in a different way lead to thesametrouble.Inadditionnothingshouldbetakenwhichisdifficulttotransportorapttogetbrokenandcausetroublewhileenroute.

Tosumitallup,therequirementsinoutdoorfoodsthataretobetakensomedistance tocampareas follows:First, reasonably lightweightandsmallbulk;second, good keeping qualities; third, a high per cent, of nutrition; fourth,balance and total absenceof injurious properties; fifth, adaptability to packing

and transportation requirements. We might add to this the quality of beingquicklyandeasilyprepared,for,whilethisisnotrequiredinallofthefood,itisnecessary for all outdoor men to have a number of articles which may bepreparedonshortnotice.

Breakfast in thewoods isusuallyanearlymeal, inwinterbeing invariablyeaten before daylight, and this requires either quickly prepared foods or veryearlyrising.Often,too,thewoodsmancomesinfromatramplongafterdark.Hehashada long,hard journey,perhapshavinghadonlya lunchsincedaybreak,maybe not even that, and the cold, along with the exertion, has given him amarvelous appetite. On such occasions every minute that can be gained incookinganourishingmeal is thatmuch to thegood.Butshort-ordermealsarenotthethingforregularfare,forintimetheywillruinanystomach.

Consideringthefirstrequisite,lightweightandlittlebulk,wemayincludeinourlistasmeetingtheserequirements,allkindsofdriedfruits,vegetables,andmeats,tea,coffeeandcondensedfoods.Freshvegetablesandfruitsareexcludedfrom the list, for they are heavy and bulky and fail also in the secondrequirement, for theyfreezeeasily incoldweatherandsometimesdonotkeepwellwhenitiswarm.Tomakeupforthelackoffreshfruitsandvegetableswemusttakeplentyofthedrykind,anditisalsoagoodplantohaveintheoutfitabottle of vinegar or fruit juice—lime juice is an excellent tonic for use in thewoodsandisasurepreventativeofscurvy.Vegetablesandfruit intinorglassare also prohibitive except in a small way, as, for instance, the fruit juice,vinegar, pickles and condensed milk, all of which may be taken in smallquantities.Ingeneral,however,cannedgoodsshouldbeavoidedunlessthetripismadebywagonorothermeansthatdoesnotprohibittakingheavygoods,inwhich case a quantity of food in tins may be taken. Eggs and other ultra-perishablegoodsarestrictlyprohibited.Thetakingofeggsandfoodinglassalsoviolates requisite number five, for all such articles require far more care inhandlingthanispracticalonthebushtrail.

Notonlydoes thewoodsmanhave toconsidercookingandeating incampbuthemust thinkaswellof themanydays thathewill spendon the trailandthere his foodmust be of themost condensed, light, nutritious and otherwiseperfect form.Hemust therefore takewithhim to his home camp sufficient ofthis quality of food to fill his needswhen hemakes his long trips away fromcamp over the trap line or elsewhere, but always carrying with him hisequipmentandfoodforthetrip.

Amancandepend tosomeextentongameand fish,but ifhe isgoing farbackintothewildernesswherehecannotretreatinadayortwotocivilizationandasourceof foodsupplyheshouldbeverysure that thegameandfishare

actually found in theplacewherehe isgoing, that suchgameand fishwillbeavailable at all seasons, and that there will be no uncommon difficulty insecuring it. Some kinds of big game animals migrate periodically orspasmodically; fish are sometimes hard to find in winter, and the huntingequipmentmayforonereasonoranothergowrong.Forinstance,thecapsizingofacanoemaymeanthelossoftheonlygunoralltheammunitionintheparty,and even a broken gun mainspring may cause great hardship. Of course aresourceful andexpertwoodsmanwouldnot starveeven if turnedadrift in theforestwithoutfoodorgun,butfewcaretomaketheexperimentortoriskgoinghungry.ThereforeIadvisetakingenoughfood,sothatitwillnotbenecessarytodependongame.Ifthereisgametobehaditshould,ofcourse,besecured,forfreshmeatisagreatrelieffromtheeverlastingbaconandbannockandittendsto neutralize the constipating properties of such food. It is possible for one tolive indefinitely on freshmeat and fish alone if forced to it; but the civilizedappetite does not accept gracefully any such radical departures fromwhat hasnowbecomethenatural lineoffood.Moreover, themanwhoelects to liveongameandfishalonemustofnecessitygohungryforlongperiods,infactmaybeforced to face starvation when game is scarce and for one reason or anotherdifficulttosecure.Thereforethewoodsmanshouldnotattempttolivewhollyonfresh meat or to make so much allowance for game that he will suffer fromhungerifthegameisnotprocurable.Nosuchsacrificeshouldbemademerelytoreducetheweightoftheoutfit.

Coming now to the matter of keeping qualities we find that any of theevaporated, dried or condensed foods on the market meet all requirements.Bacon,curedforwinteruse,maynotremaininaperfectlysweetcondition,anditiswelltomakesurebeforepurchasingthatthemeatiswellsaltedandsmoked.Buttermaybecomestrongunlesstheweatheriscold,butIhavefoundthatfirst-classcreamerybutterwillkeepnicelyforaperiodoftwoandahalfmonthsinfairlycoldweather.Foralongertripcannedbuttershouldbeprocured.Itmaybepurchased in Canada from almost any grocer located in an outfitting point.Whilepotatoesandotherfreshvegetablesareprohibitedbecauseofweightandbulktheyarealsoeliminatedfromthelistbecausetheyfreezeincoldweather.Atrappermustoftenbeawayfromcampforaperiodoftimevaryingfromafewdays to aweekormore and anything that can freezewill surely do so in onenightof"40below"weather.AsanexceptiontothisruleIadvisetakingafewonions, for in spite of their weight they are a food worth considering. Theyfreezeasreadilyaspotatoes,butiftheyarekeptfrozenuntiltimeforuseitwillnothurtthemintheleast.TherearemanydishesthataregreatlyimprovedbyanonionflavorandIamveryfondofthisevil-smellingvegetablewhenslicedand

friedwith steak.Ordinary canned goods containingwater are tabooed in coldweather, for they freeze and burst the cans, besides falling short in the firstrequirementofcampfoods,namely,lightweight.

Nutrition in foods is a quality which needs but little expenditure of graymatter if one does not attempt to live a long period on an unvaried line. Bytakingavarietyoffoodsandchangingthemenufrequentlydangerfromlackofnutrimentisreducedtotheminimum.Condensedanddriedfoodsareinvariablyverynutritious.WithfreshmeatoccasionallythefoodswhichIrecommendwillmeetallrequirementsinthisparticular.

Whathasbeensaidonthesubjectofnutritionincampfoodswillsufficeforthe fourth requisite—perfect balance and lack of injurious elements. While IwouldnotadvisetheuseofoneortwoarticlesoffoodasasteadydietthekindInameinthelistsgivenherewith,ifusedintheproportionsgivenandalittlefreshmeatorfishcanbesandwichedinhereandthere,nobadresultswillfollow.Ontheotherhand,ifanyofthearticles,orespeciallyalineofarticleslikethedriedfruits,areomitted,Iwouldnotberesponsibleforthegoodhealthoftheuser.

Within the borders of civilization, and especially with those people doingofficeworkorfollowinganyindooroccupationwhichdoesnotrequireplentyofbodilyexertion,constipationisaseriousmenace,infactIthinkitisthecauseofmany ills which are generally attributed to other sources. In the woods it issomewhatdifferent,forthelongtrampsandotherviolentexercisestendtokeepthebowelsopen,butitisnotsowithallmen,andespeciallywiththosewhohailfromthecity.Eventheseasonedwoodsmanshouldnottriflewithanythingofsoseriousanature,foreventohimchronicconstipationmaycomeastheresultofasteadydietofwhiteflourandotherconstipatingfoods.InthelistswhichIgivethe foods most harmful in this way are wheat flour, especially when used inbakingpowderbread,cheese,rice,beansandpeas.Thefoodsmostvaluableforoffsettingthebadeffectsoftheabovearethedriedfruits,especiallyprunes,andcornmeal.Freshmeatandonionsactas laxativesalso,but toomuchofanyofthese foodsmay cause the system to fortify itself against themand their goodeffects are reduced greatly.Many kinds of food are difficult to digest; but itshouldberememberedthatallstomachsarenotalikeandwhatisindigestibleforonemaniseasilyassimilatedbyanother.Theonlywaytolearnwhatfoodsareharmfulandwhichonesarenot isbytryingthem,but thisshouldbedoneandtheresultsknownbeforegoingintothewoods.

Tea and coffee are used extensively in the woods because they are veryrefreshing to tired travelers. Tea is especially invigorating. But both of thesedrinks,ifusedinexcess,areharmful.Coffeeinjuresthenervoussystemdirectly,while indirectly itworks on other organs, and tea is injurious to the stomach,

also thenerves.Taken in reasonableamount thesedrinkswilldonoharm,butthey should never be used to the exclusion of water. The latter is the naturaldrinkandwecannotusetoomuch.

Thefifthrequirementincampfoodsisonethatmustnotbeforgotten.Onalongtripintothebushtheoutfitissuretogetacertainamountofroughusage;apackstrapmaygivewayorthepackermaystumbleorslipanddowngoesthepack. With but few exceptions, then, everything which will not stand areasonableamountofroughhandlinghasnorighttoaplaceontheouter's list.Theexceptionsareafewarticleswhichwhentakeninsmallquantitiesmustbeput up in glass and these few foods are pickles, vinegar and others of similarnature.Ifanyotherlessbreakablecontainercanbefoundfortheseitisbettertouseit,butifthesefoodsareinbottlesamemustbecarefullypackedtopreventbreakage.Eggsarethemostunsatisfactoryofallfoodsfortransportationintothewilds,for theyareeasilybroken,cannotbekeptduringcoldweatherandspoilquicklywhentheweatherismild.

This is not an article on packing or otherwise transporting outfits into thebush, but Iwish to say this in regard to packing foods, that all packages andcontainersshouldbeaslightaspossibleconsistentwithstrengthanddurability.Papersacksarenottheproperthing,fortheyaresoeasilytorn.Itisbyfarthebetterplantohavesmallduckormuslinbagsforalldryfoods.Nothingshouldbe taken if put up inwoodenboxesor other containers having sharp edgesorcorners,butallsucharticlesshouldberemovedandplacedintheclothsacks.Ifthisisimpossibleitisbettertoeliminatesuchgoodsfromthelist.

Togivealistoffoodswhicharesuitableforsteadydietinthewildsiseasy,and itmaybeaperfect list,wellbalanced,nourishingandhavingall theotherdesirable qualities, yet it may not be satisfactory for general use. Individualtastesdonotall follow thesamechannelsand therearenoendofpeoplewhocouldpick fromany listof foods that Imightgiveanumberofarticleswhichthey cannot eat or which are not received kindly by their respective systems.Anotherthingis thedifferenceinquantityoffoodconsumedbydifferentmen.While a life in the open air with continuous physical exercise from beforedaylightuntilafterdarkdevelopsanappetite inanyman,withsomementheirappetites seem absolutely insatiable and they consume enormous quantities offood. It is therefore difficult to give a listwhichmay be taken as an accurateguideandapproximatequantitiesonlycanbegiven, thesebeing in thepresenttime based on what I consider a normal woodsman's appetite. Note in thefollowing listsquantities intendedforonemanonemonth'suseand if the listslookgoodtheymaybeusedforabasisonwhichtofiguretheamountsoffoodrequiredforthelengthoftime.

ListNo.1.

Twentypoundswheat flour and tenpounds cornmeal, or 25poundswheatflourandfivepoundscornmeal;oneandahalfpoundsbestbakingpowder,freeofalum;threepoundstablesalt(thisismorethannecessaryforfood,butallowsforpreservinggame); tenpoundsbaconor fivepoundsbaconand fivepoundssaltpork;onepoundlardor"Crisco"(thisisseldomneededifallbacongreaseissavedandusedforcooking);threepoundscreameryorcannedbutter;10poundsbeans, small or large, as preferred; four pounds split peas; five poundsevaporated fruit, either apples, apricots or peaches, assorted if desired; fourpoundsprunes;sixpoundssugar(sevenpounds ifused in teaandcoffee); twopoundstea(black,greenormixed)orthreepoundsgroundcoffeeinairtighttins;one bottle, about two pounds, sour pickles; four pounds evaporated,unsweetened milk in small size tins; two pounds cheese; one ounce blackpepper.Eighty-sevenandahalfto891/2poundstotalweight.

TheforegoingismystandardlistonwhichIhavebasedmanyapurchaseofsupplies,andwhileIvaryquantitiessometimes,andaddluxuriesnowandthen,thelistalone,justasgiven,makesanexcellentoneforrealwoodstrips.

In the following Ihavecutdown thequantitiesof somearticlesandaddedthe equivalent in other goods, thus giving greater variety andmaking a rationthatislessapttogrowtiresomeintime.

ListNo.2.

Eighteenpoundswheatflourandfivepoundscornmeal;twopoundscrackersorsodabiscuits;onepoundofbestbakingpowder; threepoundstablesalt;sixpoundsbacon and fourpounds salt pork; three and ahalf pounds creameryorcanned butter; seven pounds beans; three pounds split peas; five poundsevaporated fruits, assortedasdesired; fourpoundsprunes; eightpounds sugar;twopounds teaor threepounds coffee, ground and in airtight tins; two-poundbottlesourpickles;fivepoundsevaporatedmilkinsmalltins;fourpoundsrice;onepoundseeded raisins; twoouncescinnamon;oneounceblackpepper; twopoundscheese;fivepoundsBermudaonions.Ninetyandahalfpoundsto911/2poundstotalweight.

Ithinktheabovelistwillbemoregenerallysatisfactorythanthefirst,butifthe camper has preferences in regard to the kind of food selected hemay usetheselistsonlyasabasisonwhichtofigure.Theweightsgivenarenetanddonot includeextracontainers. Itwillbenoted that the totalweight isnearly thesameinboth;butthesecondallowsforamorevariedmenu.Ihaveaddedtothis

one four pounds of rice. The raisins, with the additional sugar and milk, aremainlyforthisdish.Ihavealsoaddedanextrahalf-poundofbutter,foritwillbeneeded tomake rice pudding. The cinnamon is for use in apple sauce and onrice.Byeliminatingthecrackersandhalfthesaltacoupleofpoundsofoatmealandabrickofmaplesugarmaybeadded,therebyagainincreasingthenumberofitemswithoutadditionalweightandmakingagoodwholesomebreakfastdish(oatmealporridge),oronethatcanbepreparedquickly,alsoprovidingsyrupforthepancakes—"whitehopes,"asoneofmycampingcompanionscalledthem.

Some of the above-named foods can be cooked satisfactorily only in thepermanentcamp,whileothersaresuitableforuseincamporonthetrail.WhenmakinglongtrampsawayfrommycabinandcampingoutatnightbythesideofafireIliketotravelaslightlyequippedaspossiblewithoutsacrificingcomfort,thereforeIcarryverylittlecampequipmentandespeciallyfewcookingutensils.This necessitates the use of very simple, easily prepared dishes. Ordinarily Icarryonly the followingfoods:Flourmixedwith theproperamountofbakingpowderandsalt;bacon,slicedandwiththerindremoved;oatmeal,sugar,butter,tea, and a small sack containing a few ounces of salt. The latter is for use incookinggamekilledduring theday. Itwillbeobvious then that if thecamperfollowsmyplanhemustbasehisquantitiesofthesearticlesontheproportionoftimewhichhebelieveswillbespentonthetrailorcampingout.Ifthetimesospentwillbelimitedhecancutdownslightlyontheamountsofthesefoodsandaddothersmoretohislikingifhewishes,but,ontheotherhand,ifheexpectstodomuchcampingouthemustincreasethequantityofsuchfoodsascanbeusedonthetrail.

Judgingfrommyownexperienceitiseasiertochoosegoodcampfoodsthanto knowwhich to use from the list for ameal and how to prepare them. Onstormydays,orwhenforanyotherreasonthecamperisspendingsufficienttimeat themaincabin,hecancooksuchfoodsasbeans,splitpeas, rice,game,saltpork and dried fruits, also can make good use of the maple syrup and otherluxuries. For short ordermeals, as, for instance,when returning to camp longpast meal time and in a half famished condition, oatmeal porridge, bannock(bakingpowderbread),baconandteaorcoffeewillgenerallysatisfy.Here,forinstance,isagoodmenuforadaywhenthehunterortrapperwantstomakeajourneyawayfromthemaincamp,returninglateintheafternoon.Herisesearlyin the morning and prepares breakfast of coffee, pancakes, maple syrup andbacon,or,perhaps,hasfriedvenison,mooseorcaribousteak.Immediatelyafterbreakfastheplacesoverthefireakettleofbeanswithapieceofsaltporkandheboilsthisuntilheisreadytoleavecamp,whichmaybeanhourlater.Whilethebeansarecookingandheiswaitingfordaylighthepreparestheoutfitwhichhe

will takewithhimfor theday.His lunchwillbecrackers,or ifnot toocoldapiece of bannock, a few slices of bacon, a small piece of cheese and tea.Thebushmanalwayscarriesasmallteapailwithhim,ifonlyatincanfittedwithawirebail.Hereturnsaboutsunsetandassoonashehasmadea fireheplacesoveritthepartlycookedporkandbeans.Bythetimetheyhavefinishedcookinghe has baked a bannock, stewed some fruit or prunes, or made rice pudding.Thushegoesondayafterday,varyinghismenuasfaraspossible,aswellashismethodsofpreparingthefoods.

In the listswhichIhavegivenIhavepurposelyrefrainedfromnaming themanypreparedandcondensedcampfoods,becausemyexperiencewithmostofthemhasbeenlimitedandmanyofthemIhavenevereventasted.Irefertosucharticlesasdesiccatedvegetables,driedeggs,milkpowder,erbswurst,pemmican,saccarine,teatablets,souptablets,etc.

BeforeclosingIwouldliketosayafewwordsinregardtogameandfishasfood.WhileIdonotadvisemakingmuchallowanceforthemwhenpurchasingsupplies themanwhogoes into thewilds tocampshouldavailhimselfofanyopportunitywhichofferstosecuregameandfishforhisuse,butheshould,ofcourse,neverkillmorethanisneeded,andunlessdriventoitbyhungershouldnotkillprotectedgameoutofseason.Ifhekillsmorethanhecanuseatthetimeandtheweatheristoowarmtokeepitwithoutcuringheshoulddrythemeatandhewillfinditanexcellentarticleforlunchesandwhencampingout.ButwhatIwantedtogetatisthis,thatmanyanimalswhichareseldomconsideredasfitforfoodandaregenerallythrownawayorusedforbaitarereallyfinefoodandbyusing them there will be less need of violating the game laws. Among theanimalswhichare trappedandmaybeusedfor foodarebears (whenkilled infallorwinter),muskrats,raccoons,opossumsandbeavers.Woodchucksarenotbad eating if properly cooked, but they can only be secured in summer. Theporcupineisanotheranimalwhichmaybeeaten,althoughIcannotsaythatthemeat ispalatable.Manypeople inCanadaeat thefleshof lynx,but Idrawthelineoncarnivorousanimals.Ihavetriedit,infact,Ihaveeatenalltheanimalsnamedabove.

My parting advice is to practice economy. The food which has beentransportedoversomanymilesofroughtrailbythehardestkindoftoilshouldnever be wasted. The saving habit is a good one to grow into and it can bepracticedaswellinthewoodsasinourownhomes.

FIRESFORVARIOUSUSES

Mostfiresto-dayarestartedbymeansofmatches,so,asastartingplacewewill first consider thematch. Insignificant little stick—500 for five cents—yetthattinymatchcanstartafirethatwoulddestroyacityorlayahundredmilesofforest in ruin!Manya lifehasbeensavedbyamatch,andmanymillions,yesbillionsofdollarsworthofpropertyhasbeendestroyedbythesameinsignificantlittlestick.Itisononehandoneofthegreatestprovidersofcomfortthatsciencehas produced, and on the other the most powerful destroyer known to man.Therearevariouskindsofmatches,eachhavingpropertiespeculiartoitself,butwe will compare only the most common kinds and judge them from thewoodsman'sstandpoint.

I believe the first matches to come into use were made of a sulfurouscompoundand suchmatches are still used in largequantities inCanada.Theyare generally considered superior to ordinary parlor matches for woodsman'suse,butIcannotseethattheypossessanyadvantageswhatever.Theyarejustasdifficulttolightasparlormatches,ifnotmoreso,justaseasilyblownout,andjustassusceptibletodampness.Theyarenoiseless,whichisintheirfavor,butthey throwoffdisagreeable fumeswhen lighted.Theyare reliablematches forthewoodsman,althoughIwouldtakeparlormatchesinpreference.

We have also the little, so-called "safety" matches now so much used bysmokers.Theyareconvenientforcarryingandgettheirnamefromtheirrefusaltolightwhenstruckonanysurfaceotherthanthesideoftheboxinwhichtheyarepacked.Butthisveryqualitymakesthemunfittolightafireinawindifonemustholdinhishandthematch-boxaswellastheburningmatch,forhecannot"cup"hishandsperfectly.Thisisworthremembering,foroutofdoors,thereisnearlyalwaysenoughwindtomaketroublewhenbuildingafire.Anotherfaultofthesafetymatchisitssmallsize;itisapttobeentirelyconsumedbeforethefirecanbestarted.Theparlormatchthenisthematchforthewoodsman,andheshouldhaveabountifulsupplywhenheturnshisbackoncivilization.

Thestockofmatchesshouldbekept inawaterproofcaseofsomekind.Ascrewtopjarisverygoodifonehasitincamp,butglasswareisnotpracticalforcampingtripsandsomethinglessfragilebutequallywaterproofshouldbefound.Ihaveakodak tankdevelopingoutfit, themetal tankofwhich isexcellent forholdingmatches.Thecoverlocksonbyapartialturnandiswatertight,whilethetankholdsenoughmatchesforawholewinter'suse.

Ofcoursethewoodsmanwillcarrywithhimonhissojournsfromcamponly

asmallquantityofmatchesandatleastafewofthemshouldeitherbesotreatedas to render them impervious to water, or be carried in a watertight box. Itsometimeshappensthatthetravelerinthewoodsgetscaughtinadrenchingrain,or he may fall into the water, and unless some provision has been made forkeepingthematchesdrytherewillbenomoresmokesorteauntilhegetsbacktocamp.Sometimesmoreseriousconsequencesmayfollowsuchnegligence;forinstance,thetravelermaybreakthroughtheiceandwithoutafiremayfreezetodeath.Almosteveryoutdoormancanrecallinstanceswheredrymatcheswouldatleasthaveaddedmateriallytohiscomfort.

There are variousways ofwaterproofingmatches.Theymay be dipped inmeltedparaffine,whichwillkeep themperfectlydry, andwhen theprotectingwax is removed theywill be in first class condition.Varnishesof onekindoranotherwillservethesamepurpose.

Butawaterproofbox ismore reliableandconvenient.There isonematch-box on the market that is very efficient. It is somewhat difficult to open,especiallywhenone'shandsarecold,butforallofthatitisthebestthingIknowof,andasitscontentsaretobeusedonlyinemergencycasesthewoodsmanmaybe content with the box as it is. I have seen match-boxes made from brassshotgun shells which were practically waterproof if kept tightly closed, butsometimes it isdifficult to remove thecover.Asmallglassbottle isalsogoodforcarryingmatchesandisfrequentlyusedforthispurpose.

LIGHTINGAMATCHINTHEWIND

Itisaneasymattertolightamatch;buttostartafireissomethingdifferent,andtobuildafirewhenthewindisblowingisoftendifficult.Eventhesimplelightingofapipeinthewindisveryuncertainwithmanysmokers.Ihaveseenmenoutinanexposedplacestrikematchaftermatchinavainendeavortolightapipe.Yetrightlydonethetrickiseasy.Itisallrighttogetbehindatreeifone

isnear;but it isnot at allnecessary. Inall cases theman should turnhis facetowards thewindandassoonashestrikes thematch,formacupofhishandsandthussheltertheburningmatch.Thenitiseasytothrustthebowlofthepipeintohishandstotheburningmatch.Afirecanbestartedinthesameway,butitisalittlemoredifficultandlesscertain.Thekindlingmustbeproperlyarrangedwith the part to be lighted projecting towards the breeze, and sufficientlyseparatedfromotherobjects,sothatthefirebuildermayenclosethispartintheshelterofhishands,alongwith thematch,and thusprotect the flameuntil thekindling is fairly lighted.Oftena sheetofbarkdroppedagainst the tiny flamewillprotectituntilitgathersstrength.Adrysurfaceonwhichtostrikeamatchis essential and thewoodsmanmust use his knowledge of suitable surfaces tohelphimoutofhistrouble.Apocketmatch-boxusuallyhasonesideroughenedforthispurpose.Averypracticalideaistosewasmallstripofemeryclothontheinsideofthecoat, theupperhalfbeingloosesothatitfoldsdownovertheotherhalfandthuskeepstheroughsurfacefromcontactwiththeclothing.Thebackof a pocket-knife, thebutt plate of a gun, or a keymay alsobemade toanswer.Of natural surfaces the side of a stone or the dry trunk of a treemayserve. But the most common scheme is to utilize the trouser leg for strikingmatches and as long as the clothing is dry it is certainly themost convenientsurfaceforthispurpose.

Whenamatchgetswet,iftheheadisnotsomuchsoftenedthatitrubsoffthe stick, there is hope. Rubbing thematch through the hair will dry it in anamazinglyshorttime.

Thereisnorightorwrongwaytomakeafireunlessitistobeusedforsomespecial purpose, inwhich casewemust know how the fire is to be used andbuilditaccordingly.Asaruleacookingfireisbuiltdifferentlyfromonethatisdesignedmerelytogivewarmth.Butwemustalwaystakeintoconsiderationthestrengthofthewind,whetherthefireisforboiling,bakingorfryingfood,andwhetheraquickorslowheatiswanted,foreachandallcallforadifferentkindoffire.Thevarietyofwoodanditsconditionmustalsobeconsidered.

Formostkindsofcookingonlyasmallfireisrequired,infactwegetbetterresults from a small flame.But it is essential thatwe have some arrangementwhereby the cooking utensils will be held steadily and securely. The mostcommonpracticeistoplacethekettleorfryingpanontopofthefuel,shiftingthewood about until the utensils set level. It is about themost unsatisfactorymethod,outsideofholdingthembyhand,andmanyamealhasbeenupsetintothefiresimplybecausethecookwouldnottakethetroubletoprovideasuitableplacetopreparethemeal.Thesimplestwayofsuspendingakettleoverthefireisbyhangingitfromtheendofastickwhichhasbeenthrustintothegroundat

an angle of about 20 degrees. In the woods of the north this method is usedgenerallyforboiling.Whenthebushmanstopsfortea,whichisalwaysthemostessential and importantpartofhis repast,hebuildsa fire, thencuts a stickaninchoralittlemoreinthicknessandaboutfourfeetlong,andthrustsitintothegroundinsuchawaythatwhenthetea-pailissuspendedfromtheendithangsatjust the rightheight above the fire.Onlya small fire is required,but it shouldgiveaclear,steadyflame,forthewatershouldbebroughttoaboilquickly.

For frying, baking, etc., I find an arrangement of two small green logs,flattenedontopandbottom,andplacedsidebysideaboutahalffootapart,themost satisfactory thing for holding the utensils securely.Between these logs asmallfireismade,andthereisnodangerofthefoodspillingintothefire,orthehandlesoftheutensilsbecomingsohotthattheyhavetobemovedwithsticks.Forasingleutensil,likeafryingpan,Ifindtwostraight-sidedstonesplacedtherightdistanceapart, fullyasgoodas the logs,andonlyafewembersfromthecampfirewillbeneededforthecooking.

FIRESFORCOOKING

Almost everybody who camps for the night builds a camp fire, in fact,without it a campwould seem far from complete, even though the night is awarmone.Cooking,however,shouldbedoneoverasmallerfireplacednearby.

Therearealotoflittlehelpfulwrinklesregularlyusedbywoodsmenthatcanhardly be imparted to the green-hand because of their number, their

insignificance,andthefactthateachmustbeadaptedtotheprevailingcondition,buttheyimmediatelybrandtheuserasanoldhandatthegame.Theyaresimplytheresultofexperienceandareusedalmostunconsciously.Irefertosuchthingsas themanner of placingwood on the fire, handling embers,moving cookingutensils,etc.Itistheknowledgeofhowtodosuchlittlethingsasthisthatmakesthe work of the expert look so easy and run along so smoothly, while Mr.Amateur is having all kinds of trouble. There is no way to acquire thisknowledgeexceptbylongexperience,orbyworkingincompanywithonewhohas"beenthere."

Iknowawayofbuildingaverygoodcombinationheatingandcookingfire,whichmaybeusedduringrainyweathermoresatisfactorilythananyotherkindwith which I am acquainted. Two small green logs about five feet long, areplaced side by side about 20 inches apart. Two shorter logs are then placedacrosstheendsandanotherfive-footloglaidlengthwiseontop.Thefireisbuiltbetweenthetwobottomlogsanddirectlyundertheonewhichhasbeenplacedontop.Thenpiecesofgreenwoodarestoodupagainstonesidesothattheyrestagainst thetopandoneof thebottomlogs.Thisformsaroofover thefireandthecookingisdoneovertheopenfront,betweenthelogs.Theroofburnsawayslowly on the under side and as the sticks burn off they are added to the firebeneathandothersplacedontoptokeeptheroofbuiltup.Thisisagoodstyleoffiretoreflectheatintothecampandisexcellentforusewithametalbaker.

AFIREFORRAINYDAYS

Theregulationmethodofbuildingafireforheatinganopen-campistoplaceitagainstalargegreenlog,oragainstaledgeofrock,awallofstonesbuiltupartificially,or apileof shortgreen logs restingagainst two stakeswhichhavebeen driven at a slight incline. The fire burns best when there are two shortpiecesofwoodplacedcrosswiseonthegroundonwhichthefuelmayrestandleaveanopening fordraft beneath.Greenwood isbest forholding fire; but it

mustbemixedwithgooddrywood,or itwill not burnwell.The selectionofwoodfor thecamp-fire is important.Standingdead treesarealwaysdrier thanthosewhichhavefallen,unlessthefallentreesareheldupsufficientlyabovethegroundtokeepthemwelldried.Woodcutonlow,dampgroundisnotasgoodas that found on higher places and usually pops and throw sparks into theblankets,whichmakeitobjectionable.

Almostallkindsofdry,hardwoodburnreadilyandthrowoffplentyofheat.They alsoburn to embers andhardwood therefore shouldbe selectedwhen abedoflivecoalsisneeded.Ofthesoftwooddrypineandcedarburnfreely,butare consumed quickly, leave no embers and make a lot of smoke. They areexcellentwood for kindling and for use in connectionwith green, hardwood.Greenpine,cedar,firandtamarackburnslowlyandrequiremuchdrywoodtohelp keep themburning.White birch is excellent for camp-fires; dry or greenanddrytamarackisoneofthebestofcamp-firewoods.

Therearevariouswoodsthatanswerwellforkindlingandthecampermustalways find something thatwill be good for this purpose.Drywhite-pine andcedar shavings and splints light readily from thematch, but dead "fat" pine ismuchbetter.Pineknots,remainingaftertheloghasrottedaway,whensplitareheavyandyellowwithdriedpitchandifsplitintosplinterswillburnlikeoil.Anoldpinelogisofteninthesamecondition,andifthecampercanfindanywoodofthiskindheshouldtakesometocampsothathewillnotneedtohuntaboutfor a suitable wood for starting a fire. In the north where there is little pinetimbersuchkindlingisscarce;butnaturehasprovidedanexcellentsubstituteinwhite-birchbark.Theloosebarkhangingtothetreetrunkscontainsanoilwhichcauses it to light readily from the match and burn with a bright flame and ahissing noise. When traveling in the northern bush during cold weather Ifrequentlycarriedabunchofbirchbarkinthetopofmypack,sothatifIwantedtobuildafirequicklyIwouldnothavetohuntforkindling.

ThereisonemorewoodcrafttrickthatIthinkeverybodywhogoesintothewoodsshouldknow.Whilethewoodsmaninvariablycarriesanaxewithwhichtocut firewood, theremaycomea timewhenhehasnoaxeand isobliged tocamp out over night. Then getting together sufficient wood to keep fire overnightisarealproblem.Sometimeshecanfindaplacewhereonetreehasfallenacross another, or if not, perhaps he can throw one over the other, and at theplacewheretheycrossheshouldbuildhisfire.Thenwhenthelogsburnthroughhe canmove themand eitherkeep shoving the ends into the fire as theyburnaway,orperhapscross thepiecesagainandburn themintoshorterand lighterpieceswhichcanbehandledreadily.

In building any kind of a fire the camper should remember that flame

naturallymovesupward,sothatthewoodshouldbelightedfrombeneath.Itishard to get a fire started in any otherway.He should also remember that thewinddrivesthefireforwardandshouldlightthewoodunderthewindwardside.The finest kindling should be placed first, then finely split dry wood on top,coarserwoodontopofthis,etc.Theheavywoodshouldneverresttoomuchonthekindlingorthelatterwillbecrusheddownintosuchadensemassthatitwillnot burn and the wood must never be placed so that the sticks fit closelytogether;acriss-crossstyle ismuchbetter.Theseareallsimple little rulesandeasytoremember,butitisnecessarytoknowthemthatcamp-firetroublesmaybeavoided.

FIRE

The most common way of building a fire among savages who have notadoptedthewaysofcivilizationisbymeansofabow,spindleandblock.

Thiswayofmakingfirehasbeenexploitedbywritersonwoodcraftsubjects;butthereadershouldnotbedeceivedintothebeliefthatifhebecomeslostinthewoodsandnightcomingon findshimwithoutmatches,hecanbuilda firebythismeans.Whileanyboyscoutcandemonstrate themethodandcanproducefireinaveryfewminutes,hecandosoonlybyhavingpreparedthenecessarymaterialslonginadvance.Thewoodmustbeasdryaswoodcanbemade,andsuchwoodisneverfoundintheforest.Togetwoodintotheproperconditionforfiremakingbythefrictionmethodrequirestheselectionfirstoftheproperkindofwood, and thena thoroughdrying indoors forweeksor evenmonths.Onlycertainkindsofwoodsare reallygood for thepurposeandamong thesekindscedar,balsamandCottonwoodseemtobethebest.Spindleandblockmustbeofthesamekindofwoodandequallydry.

Thematerialsneeded formakinga fireare thebow, spindle,block, tinder,andashell,astonewithasmallcavity,orothersimilarobjectwhichcanbeusedasabearingorcapontopofthespindle.Amusselshellisthebestnaturalobjectforthepurpose,asitislightandhasahollowsidewhichissmoothandmakesanexcellentbearingforthespindleend.

USINGTHEBOWDRILLINMAKINGFIRE

Thebow,abouttwofeetlong,maybemadeofhickoryoranyspringywood,strungwithastout,hard laid twine.Thespindle,ofanyof thefavoritewoods,should be about sixteen inches long by three-fourths or one inch in thickness.Thetopshouldberoundedandthelowerendshapedtoablunt,smoothpoint.It

mustbeverydry.Theblockshouldbeaninchoralittlemoreinthicknessandofany width and length found convenient, but it should be large enough to beeasilyhelddownfirmlywith thekneeswhen in thekneelingpositionassumedwhenworking thedrill. It shouldbeof the samekindofwoodas the spindle.Thetindermaybeanyinflammablematerialwhichcaneasilybefiredfromtheburningdust,suchastheshreddedinnerbarkofacedartree,verydryandfine,mixedwithshredsofwhitecottoncloth.

TousetheoutfittheoperatorcutsaV-shapednotchaboutthree-quartersofaninchdeepintheedgeoftheblock.Ontheflatsideoftheblockattheapexofthenotchhethenmakesasmallholewiththepointofaknifeasastartingplaceforthespindle.Aroundthisnotchheplacesasmallquantityofthetinder.Then,giving the stringof thebowa turn around the spindlehekneelson theblock,placesthepointofthespindleonthemarkatthepointofthenotch,placestheshellovertheotherend,andthrowinghisweightuponthespindleheworksthebowbackand forthquicklyandsteadily.Thespindle, revolving rapidly,boresitswaydownintotheblock,thedustwhichiswornfromtheblockandspindlefiltering down through the notch among the dry tinder. An increasing heatdevelopsfromthefrictionofthedrywood,andsoonanodorofscorchingwoodwillbenoticed;thenathinwispofsmokearisesfromthedustinthenotchandthisgrowsstronger,afterawhile thesmolderingfire itself isvisible in thedustwhichhas accumulated in thenotchandabout thebaseof the spindle.At thisstage the operator stops the drill and blows the fire into flame. All that isnecessarythenistoplacefine,drytwigsoverthetinderandthencoarserwood,andthiswonderfulfeatofbuildingafirewithoutmatchesisaccomplished.

USINGTHEFLINTANDSTEELTOSTARTAFIRE

Matches are a comparatively recent invention.When this countrywas firstsettledtheywereunknownandfiresgenerallyweremadebymeansofflintandsteel.Bystrikingglancingblowswithasteelobjectalongtheedgeofapieceof

flint,showersofsparkswerethrownintoalittlepileoftindertobeblownintoaflame by the fire-kindler. It is said that for an expert the trick was not at alldifficult,andthatfirecouldbeproducedveryquickly;butitisobviousthatverydrymaterialswerenecessary.

To the unfortunate who is cast away on a desert island, like the hero offiction, this lattermethodof firemaking is themostpromising, forheusuallyhassomesteelobject,evenifonlyapocketknifeandapieceofhiscoatliningpicked into shredsmay answer as tinder. The difficultywill be in finding theflint;butthatiseasyinthestory.

Buttheeasiestofallwaystomakeafirewithoutmatchesisbymeansofamagnifyingglassorotherlens.Areadingglass,ifthesunisbright,willproduceafirealmostasquicklyasitcanbemadewithamatch,providing,ofcourse,thatit isused therightway. In theabsenceofa readingglass,awatchorcompasscrystal,aneyeglass,thelensfromafieldglassorcamera,orevenabottle,maybeusedforconcentratingthesun'sraysontoapileoftinderandthusproducingafire. Ifyouareskepticalas to theheatcausedbyaconcentrated light ray, justholdareadingglassafewinchesaboveyourhandandturntheglasstowardsthesunsothatatinypointofintenselightisthrownontoyourhandandyouwillbesurprised to seehowquickly itwill burn ablister.Apipemaybe lighted thatwayveryeasily,somethingthatisworthknowingifonehappenstogetcaughtinthewoodswithoutmatchesandwithamagnifyingglassinhispocket.

STARTINGAFIREWITHAMAGNIFYINGGLASS

But he may not have a glass of any description and then—well here isanotherway:Amantravelinginthewoodsnearlyalwayscarriesagunofsomekind.Lethimremovethebulletfromacartridgeandsubstituteasmallbunchofdry tinder; shredded dry cotton cloth is as good as anything, and loading thiscartridge into the gun, fire it into another small pile of tinder and blow the

smolderingpileintoaflame.The safest andmost convenientwayof all is, of course, to carrymatches,

and to have a portion of them in awaterproof box.Matches are cheap and awaterproof boxwill not bankrupt awoodsman. I always,when in thewoods,carry matches in a waterproof match box, and I never use them except inemergency,carryingmyregularsupplylooseinasmallpocket.

TherewasonetimethatIwellrememberwhenthatboxofdrymatcheswastome about themost valuable thing in the world. That was the time when Ibroke through the iceofa lake in thenorthernwilderness, far fromcamp,andmy clothes froze stiff before I had gone a hundred paces. The dry matchesenabledmetomakeafirequicklyanddrymyfrozenclothes.WhatcouldIhavedonewithoutthewaterproofmatchbox?

Fire is asuseful to themodernwoodsmanas itwas to theprehistoricmanandinthefarnorthitstandsbetweenhimanddeathwhenKingBoreasreigns.But it can also do a world ofmischief. Is it not strange that the great forceswhicharesoterriblydestructivewhenletlooseinalltheirstrengtharethemostbeneficial and useful to mankind?We could not exist more than a few dayswithoutwater,yetfloodsdestroyeachyearmillionsofdollarsworthofpropertyand thousands of lives. Electricity is, perhaps, the most useful power in theworld andwe have grown so used to it that to give up its comfort,whichwederiveintheformoflight,powerandheat,wouldbeanawfulhardship,andyetelectricityisthemostdangerousanddeadlyelementknown.

Firealsoissoneedfulthatwecouldnolongerexistwithoutit.Italonecanmake our homes comfortablewhen thewinterwinds howlwithout. Its heat isnecessary for the preparation of the greater portion of our food. Yet fire is adangerousanddestructiveelement,andmustbecloselywatchedatalltimestoprevent it from breaking out of bounds. From the harmless comforter of thehomeitbecomestherelentlessdestroyer.

Thelossbyfirewouldbereducedgreatlyifallpersonswouldobserveafewsimple rulesand in thehope that someof the readersmaybecome just a littlemorecarefulinthisrespectIwillgivetheseruleshere:

(1) Use only "safety" matches. They will ignite only by friction on thepreparationfoundonthesideoftheboxinwhichtheyarepurchased.Ifoneofthesematches fallson the floor it isharmlesssince itcannot lightaccidentallyandthuscauseafire.Iftheyfallintothehandsofchildrentheyarealsoharmlessasfarasstartingafireisconcerned.

(2)Donotthrowalightedmatchontothefloor,oramongrubbish.Burnedmatchesshouldalwaysbeplacedsomewherewheretheycannotpossiblyigniteanythingincasealittlefirestillsmoldersintheburnedwood.

(3)Don'tdropcigarettesorcigarendsintoplaceswheretheycandoharm,and if there appears to be the least possible danger they should be carefullyextinguished.Apipedumpedintoawastebaskethasmanytimesstartedcostlyfires.

(4) Be sure that there is no woodwork so near the stove that it growsscorchinghotwhenthestoveisoverheated.Likewisemakesurethatnorubbishisthrownnearthestoveorfireplaceandthatthereisnodangeroffiredroppingoutontothefloor.

(5)Neverleavethehousewithafireburninginthestove,orfireplace.(6)Keroseneandsimilarsubstancesshouldneverbeusedforkindlingfires;

their use is exceedingly dangerous.Gasoline especially is very dangerous, notalonethroughthefactthatitisveryinflammablebutevenmoresofromthefactthatthefumesofgasolineexplodewithgreatviolence.Itshouldneverbeusedinahousewherethereisafireoralightedlamp,andafireshouldneverbelightedinaroomwhereithasbeenuseduntilthefumesarecompletelyclearedfromtheroom.

Burningoilcanbeextinguishedbysmotheringwithwoolenblankets,orbythrowingsandonit.Watermerelyspreadsthefire.

Whilefiresinsettledcommunitiesdothemostdamage,adryseasonmayseemany destructive forest fires. Such conflagrations destroy the forests and killgame and song birds, besides being amenace to settlers. This country suffersgreat losses through forest fires, many of which could be prevented by anobservance of the rules already given, especially those relating to smoking.Campersarealsoresponsibleformanyfiresofthiskindbyfailingtoextinguishcampfires,orbybuilding theminplaceswhere rubbishabounds.Acampfireshouldneverbemadeexceptonaspotofcleangroundandifnecessaryaspotshouldbeclearedbeforebuildingthefire,diggingawaythevegetablematteronthe surface, if needbe.Likewise the camper shouldbecertain that there isnodangerfromthefirespreadingbeforeheleavesit.

Ordinarilyhecanfeelsureofthisonlywhenhehascompletelyextinguishedthefirebypouringwateruponit.

BLANKETS

Oneofthefirstthingstolearnisthatblankets,nomatterhowgood,arenot"warm,"theydon'tgenerateheat.Wrapajarofwater inthewarmest, thickest,softestwoolenblanketyoucanfindandplaceitoutofdoorsovernightinazerotemperature and see what you have in the morning. No, there is no warmthcomingfromtheblankets,butthewarmthcomesfromthehumanbodyandthepurpose of the blanket is to retain this warmth, to prevent its escape. Itmustthereforebeanon-conductorofheat.Andrememberthatthereisnosuchthingascold,forwhatwecallcoldismerelyanabsenceofheat,andwecallitcoldforconvenience.

Supposeyouaresleeping,orattemptingtosleepoutofdoorsonanightsocoldthatthetreespoplikepistols.Youarewrappedinapairofwoolenblanketsanditisonlythiswrappingthatisbetweenyouandthefrosty,chillingair.Butinsideofthoseblanketsyourbodyisgivingoutheatwaves,theairontheinsidebecomeswarm,andyouarecomfortable.Supposeagainthattheblanketsarenottherightkind,theywillnotretainheat,andasaconsequenceyoubecomecold.Yousitup,replenishthefireandsweartoyourself,butyoudon'tknowwhyyoucan't keepwarm.You say the cold gets throughyour blankets andyou firmlybelievethis.Asamatteroffactitistheheatthatgetsthrough,notthecold.

Outsideoffurthebestheat-retainingmaterialusedforblanketsispurewool.Alittlecottonmaydononoticeableharm,ifproperlyusedinconjunctionwiththewool,butitcertainlydoesnogood,anditreallydecreasesthewarmthoftheblanketindirectproportiontothequantityused,thereforeIsaythebestblanketsaremadeofpurewool.And there is adifference inwool, too.Scotchwool isgenerallyadmittedtobethefinestproduced.

Ithasalwaysbeenmybeliefthatwoollooselywoven,sothatitformsasoft,thickcloth,isabetterheatretainerthanthesamequantityofwooltightlywoven,so that it makes a thinner, tighter and harder material. Anyway, I think thesurfaceshouldbeaswoollyasitispossibletomakeit.

Nowitisnotdifficulttogettogetheraquantityofblanketsthatwillkeepaman warm on the coldest night, but the trouble will come when he wants totransport them. Ihave sleptoutonnightswhen itwouldhave requiredahalf-dozen or more of the heaviest woolen blankets made to keep me near-comfortable, but a bed of this kind would have made a pack that woulddiscourageabushIndian.No,youcan'tcarrywithyouenoughwoolenblanketstokeepyoucomfortablywarmwhentravelingthenortherntrails inmidwinter.

Now think it over and it will become obvious that either a man cannot becomfortable in the woods during zero weather unless he has a way oftransporting his camp duffle other than by back-packing, or he must find alighter,warmerblanketthancanbemadeofwool.Thelatteristhesolution.

Woolenblanketsaregood,infactthebestthingmade,forcampinginspring,summerand fall.As longas thespiritsdonotgo lower than10or20degreesabove zero and a fire may be kept burning all night a pair of Hudson Bayblankets are hard to beat. But when the temperature falls lower the shiveringspells preceding each "fire-fixing" become too frequent and the cat-naps tooshort.

Theblanketswebuyforuseonthebedaredouble,butforcampusesingleblanketsarepreferable.Theyshouldbeofgeneroussize,forawhitemancannotsleepcomfortablyifhemustdrawhiskneesupagainsthischin.Whatismore,theblanketsshouldcoverhisheadaswellashisfeet,sotheyshouldbeafootandahalflongerthantheuser'sheight.Theyshouldalsobewide—sixfeetwilldo,butnothingless.Withsuchblanketsamancanlieonone-halfandpulltheotherhalfoverhim,andbysuddenlyelevatinghispedalextremitieshecandropthe loweredgeof theblanketsunder them,while theupperpart canbedrawntightlyaroundhisheadandshoulders.Thushecansleep inrealcomfortwhilethefireburns.

Neveruseacottonblanketinthewoods.Blanketsmadeofcottonarecoldtothetouch,anddonotretaintheheatofthebodyaswellasthosemadeofwool.Inadditionto this theyhavethebadfaultofnotbeingasnearly impervioustosparksaswoolenblankets.Nowamanof the traildoesnotsleepwithhis feettowardsthefirelikethepioneerscoutofborderfiction,butheliesbythesideofthefire,wherehewillgetthebenefitofitsheat,andsometimesherollscloserthanheshouldforsafety.

This I learned from actual experience about the first time I ever triedcampingout.IbelievedfirmlythatIcouldn'taffordtobuywoolenblankets,soIusedapairmadeofcotton.IwassleepingbythesideofafireandasitwasquitecoldIsnuggledclose.Iawoketofindadecidedlywarmfeelingaboutmyknee,andonhastyexaminationfoundalargesectionofonetrouserlegburnedawayand a hole in the blanket over a foot in diameter. I then decided that I couldaffordwoolenblanketsandhavestoodbythatdecisioneversince.

One of the best blankets for camping purposes that I ever owned was asquare horse blanket, fromwhich I removed the trimmings. Its thick all-woolbodyandgeneroussizemadeitidealforcampuse.TheHudson'sBayblanketsareexcellent,beingheavyandoflargesize.Thentherearemanycampblanketsoflessnote,mostofwhicharegood.Reallygood,heavy,all-woolblanketsofa

size72x84 incheswillcost from$5.00 to$10.00each forsingleblankets,andtwicethatmuchforthedoublekind,ifyoucangetthem.Thesesingleblanketsshouldweighfromfourandahalftofivepoundseach.Colorisimmaterial—ifyoufancythebrightscarletkindbuyit,foritwillgiveasgoodserviceasagrayone.Butawhiteblanketisalmostsuretocontainallgoodwool,foritishardertoconcealshoddystuffthatisnotdyed.Whiteisnotagoodcolorforcampingpurposes,butitisnotadifficulttasktodyeawhiteblanket.

Awoolenblanket isneitherheavy,bulky,norstiff. It iseasilyfoldedtofitthepack,andwhenproperlyarrangeditformsapadwhichprotectsthebackofthepacker from thecornersof thecookingutensils and theever-gouging steeltrapsandotherhardware.Ifthepackerhasnopackclothhecanusetheblanketforthispurpose,althoughitisnonetoogoodfortheblanket.Ifitgetswetitiseasilydriedwithoutdangerofburning,andifitdoesnotgetthoroughlydryitiswarmerstillthanacottonblanket.

Butwhenzeroweatheristobecontendedwithwoolenblanketsmusttakeabackseat for the Indian'skind,woven fromstripsof rabbit fur.Nothing that Ihave ever foundwill equal or even approach inwarmth a rabbit skin blanket.One suchblanket,weighingeightor tenpounds, is all that aman requires forsleeping out of doors in a temperature of 40 below zero. Yes, I know that itsoundsfar-fetched;butatrialwillconvincethemostskeptical.ManyamorningIhavefoundmynosealmostfrozenwhenIawoke,butotherwiseIwasperfectlycomfortable;thereasonbeingthatmynosewastheonlypartofmyanatomynotenvelopedintherabbitskinblanket.Icouldn'tbelievethatitwassocolduntilIemerged from the foldsof thecovering tokindle a fire.Withoneof these furblankets I have slept comfortably off and on during an entirewinter north ofLakeSuperior, inacabinwhichhad thecrackschinkedon twosidesonly, theothertwosideshavingopeningsbetweenthelogsthroughwhichIcouldputmyhand,andIneverhadafireatnight.

THISSKETCHSHOWSHOWTHERABBITSKINBLANKETISMADE.

TheseblanketsaremadebyallnorthernIndiantribes.Theyarewovenfromtheskinsofthesnowshoerabbit,orvaryinghare,cutintostripsforthepurpose.The animals producing these skins are found in almost incredible numbers inmostofthewilderpartsofCanada,aswellasinpartsofthenorthernStates.Theblankets can be made only in winter, when the fur is white and in goodcondition. The rabbits are taken in snares, case skinned, and the skins are cutintostripswhilegreen.Thisworkisdonebythesquaws.Themethodistotrimtheopenendof theskin, thenstartingat thisendwithasharpknife theentireskiniscut intoasinglestripaboutaninchwidebyholdingitonthekneeandcuttingaroundandaround.Eachskinwillmakea strip10or12 feet long.Assoon as it is cut the skin rolls up like a cord, fur on all sides.These strips ofgreenfurarewoundintoaballandplacedoutofdoors,wheretheywillfreezeand remain frozen, each day's accumulation being added to the ball until asufficientnumberhavebeensecuredtomakeablanket.Icannotsayhowmanyskins are required, but believe about 50 or 60, perhaps more. Of course thenumberneededwoulddependpartlyonthesizeofblanketdesired.

NowwhenMrs.Indianhassecuredenoughskinstoformthedesiredblanketshemakesasquareframeofpoles,aboutthesizethefinishedblanketistobe,andfastensaroundtheinsideapieceofheavytwine.Thensewingtheendofafurstriptothecordatoneoftheuppercornerssheweavesthisstripacrosstheendoftheframebyloopingitaroundthecordinasuccessionofsimpleloops,using her finger as a gauge tomake themesh a uniform size.When a gaugereachestheendofthestripshesewsonanotherandweavesitasbefore.Whenshehasmadesucharowoflittleloopsallacrossthetopoftheframeshepassesthe fur strip around the side cord a few times and then starts another rowbackward, looping the strip into the row of loops already formed. Thus she

weavesthestripsoffurbackandforthacrosstheframeuntiltherobeisfinished.Thesesimpleloopswillnotslipafterthefurhasbecomedry.Theentireblanketmustbeperfectlydrybeforeitisremovedfromtheframe,anditmustneverbeallowedtobecomewet.Theskinsarenottanned,simplydried.

Theseblanketsareusuallywideratoneend thanat theother, so that therewillbesufficientwidthtowraparoundtheshouldersoftheuserandyetnomorematerial,bulkandweightthannecessary.Ifinditmostsatisfactorytodoubletheblanketlengthwiseandloopacordthroughtheedgesacrossthefootandathirdof thewayup the side, thus fastening theedges firmly together andmaking itsomewhatlikeasleepingbag.SomadeIdonotgetmyfeetuncoveredatnight,andyet it iseasytoget intoandoutof it.Theseblankets,orrobesas theyaresometimescalled,areso looselywoven thatamancanputhis fingers throughanywhere,yetfortheirweighttheyarethewarmestbeddingIknowof.

Ibelieveanordinaryrabbitblanketwillweighabouteightpounds.Itappearsbulky,forwithfuronbothsidesitisquitethick,butitcanbetiedupintoafairlysmallpackage.Iusedtorollmineintoapackagemeasuringabout10inchesindiameter by 20 inches in length, and this could be placed in the bottom of acommonpacksack.Thereitformedasoftpadforthebackandtheheavyarticleswerethrownhigherupinthepack,wheretheweightshouldbe,ifweightiseverreallyneededinapack.

IfancyIhearsomebodyaskinghowthisspeciesofbeddingistobekeptdryinrainyweather.Ifitiswarmenoughforrainarabbitrobeisnotneeded—thatisthetimetousethewoolenblanket.Itneverrainsduringcoldweather.Inthenorth,where these furblanketsareneededandused, theweather turnscold inNovember, remaining so until March or April, and during this time it isconsideredremarkableifiteverbecomeswarmenoughtorain.Ihaveneverhadone of these blankets wet, except that nearly every morning the fur on theoutsidewillbemoreorlesswet,presumablyfromthemoisturewhichitthrowsout to the surface.This is onlyon theoutside fur andwill soondryoff if theblanketishungwherethewarmthfromthefirecanreachit.

The only fault I find with these fur blankets is that they are continuallysheddingthehair,andrabbithairisapttoappearinthebiscuits,andiscertaintobesprinkledplentifullyovertheclothing.Thisisnotsoobjectionabletooutdoormen,butitprohibitstheuseofthearticleinthehouse.

Anytrapperlivinginthenorthernforestshouldbeabletomakearabbitskinblanketforhisownuse.Afewdayssettingandtendingsnareswillprovidethenecessarynumberofrabbits,andtheweavingoftheblanketmaybedoneonacolddayorintheevenings.Ihavenevermadeone,forIhavebeenabletobuythemfromtheIndiansatpricesrangingfrom$6.00to$10.00each,andthat is

cheaperthanIcouldmakeonemyself.Thecampbedthat isgenerallyunloadedontheunsuspectingtenderfoot is

someformofsleepingbag.TheremaybegoodsleepingbagsanditispossiblethatIamundulyprejudicedagainstthisformofcampbed,forIhavegivenonlytwostylesarealtryout,butIcansayemphaticallythatthekindsIusedwerenogood.Myfirstsleepingbagwasmadeofheavycanvas, insideofwhichwasaseparate bagmade of a blanket. It was very unsatisfactory, for in addition tobeingexceedinglystiffandinconvenientforhandling,gettingintoandoutofit,itwasalsoaverypoorprotectionagainstthecold.

The next investment along this line was one of the sheepskin-lined bagsadvertisedsomuchabout10or15yearsago.Itwasmadeofheavyduckwithaliningofsheepskinwith thewoolon.Insideof thiswasablanketbagandthiswas also fittedwith a removabledrill sack,which couldbewashed. Ifweightandthicknessweresureindicationsofwarmththisshouldhavebeenallrightforthepolarregions,forthecompleteoutfitmusthaveweighed25pounds.Ifounditverylittlewarmerthanthebagwiththeblanketlining,andIwasnotlongingettingridofit.

Thisistheextentofmyexperiencewithsleepingbags,butitissufficienttoturnmeagainsttheentirefamily.AsIsaidbeforetheremaybegoodones,butIam fromMissouri. The plain, heavy, all-wool blanket for me as long as theweatherisnotbitterlycold,forwhenzerotemperaturecomesIwantarabbitfurblanketifIamtodomuchcampingout.ThesearegoodenoughformeuntilIfind something better, and I don't expect to find it. They have been withmeunderthemosttryingconditionsandhaveprovedtheirworth.

What isneededby the trapper,orbyanybodywhofindsoccasion tocampout, is something light with little bulk that will keep him as warm andcomfortableashecanhopetobeunderthecircumstances.Thishefindsinthearticlesrecommended.

Otherfurs thanthatof therabbithavebeentriedoutforblankets,butIamtoldthattheyarenotasgood.Lynxandwolffurareperhapsthebestkinds,astheyarelonganddense,whiletheskinisrelativelylight.Buttheyareallheavierthanrabbitfur,lesswarmandmuchmorecostly.

Adeerskinmakesanicespreadforthetopofthecampbedtosleeponwhentheweatheriscold,foritstopsmuchofthecoldairthatcomesupthroughthebed from beneath and helps retain the heat generated by the body of theoccupant.Theskinneednotbetanned.

Amanneedsanightcapof somekindwhensleepingoutofdoors. Ihaveslept quite comfortablywhenwearing awool toque, and I have also used theloose hood,which isworn bymost northern bushmen to keep the snow from

getting inside of the clothing. Some men can get along very well with anordinaryhatorcap.

Inthebushman'soutfit,asIseeit,theblanketissecondinimportanceonlyto the ax.Howcangood,purewoolbeusedmore advantageously than in theformofablanket,whichwillkeeptheownercomfortableeightorninehoursoutofeach24?Theworthofablankettothemanofthewoodscanhardlybeover-estimated.Andwhen its days of usefulness as a blanket are ended itwill stillbringhimmuchmorecomfortbybeingconvertedintomittens,hood,andextraprotectionforthefeetwhentheFrostKingreigns.

THEWOODSMAN’SAXANDITSUSES

Ontheaxmorethanonanythingelsedependsthecomfortandsuccessofthenorthernforesttraveler,whateverhiscalling.Hemay,tolightenhisload,discardallofthearticlesinhisoutfitwhicharenotabsolutelyessential,butneverbyanychanceistheaxamongthosecastaside,becausethistoolisthemostnecessaryandthemostusefularticleusedbythebushman.Notadaypassesthattheaxisnotputtostrenuoususe,andonthetraplinenearlyeveryhourofthedayfindstheaxatwork, smoothing the roughpathof the travelerandproviding forhiscomfortandwelfare.

Howcould thewilderness trapper existwithout the aidof thismost usefultool? On it hemust depend for his night's supply of firewood, and when theweather is cold this means not only comfort, but life itself, for the hardiesttrapper could not long survive a temperature of forty below without a goodwarmfirebesidewhichtospreadhisbed.Withtheaxhecutspolesfortheframeworkofhisnight'scamp;heusesittoblazethetrailthathemayfollowitagainwhenhegoestheroundstogleanhisharvestfromthetrapswhichhehasset;heuses itwhenmaking the sets themselves; forcutting thedrooping, snow-ladenbranchesacrosshistrail,andmanyminoruseswhichcannotnowbementioned.Whenmakingahardtriphemayleavehisgunincamp,andmayeventravelandcampwithoutblankets,shelterorcookingutensils,buttheaxmustgowithhimoneverytrip.

WearetoldthatinearlydaystheIndianspaidfabulouspricesforthemostsimpleandcommontools,andithasbeensaidthatasmuchasahundreddollarsin furs has been paid by an Indian hunter for an ax. It seems like wholesalerobbery,butthebargainhadtwosides—twopointsofview.TheIndiansimplyexchanged what was practically worthless to him for what was of pricelessvalue,andfromhispointofviewhedroveasshrewdabargainasdidthetrader.Whenweleavecivilizationbehindusvalueschange,andutilitarianworthcountsmorethanintrinsicvalue,therefore,theaxbecomesmorevaluablethanawholeseason'scatchoffurs.

Ifanyclassofpeopleneedperfectgoodsitistheclasswhomustdependonthese goods for their existence. The woodsman should have a perfect gun,perfecttraps,perfectcampequipment,thebestfoodhecanbuy,butaboveallaperfectax.Itshouldbeofthefinestmaterialandofthebest temper, toughbutnothard.Whenputtoagreatstrainsteelwilldooneoftwothings—itwillbendoritwillbreak.Ifofgoodquality,withtheproperproportionofcarbon,itwill

standanunusuallysevere testbefore itwilldoeither,butwhen itdoesgive itshouldbend rather thanbreak.Of this kindof steel the trapper's ax shouldbemade,and it shouldhavea temperwhichwill enhance thesegoodqualities. Iftheax is tempereda little toohard theedgewillbreakwhencutting intohardknotsorfrozenwood,orwhenthefrosthasnotbeendrawnfromtheedgebeforeusing. When once the edge becomes dulled it is difficult to sharpen, for thetrapper of the great woods has no grindstone, and must depend on file andwhetstone to keep his cutting tools in perfect condition. A hard ax cannot befiled,sothatputsthetabooontheaxwithhightemper.

I haveemphasized thenecessity forperfection in the trapper's ax, and thatyoumayrealizetheseriousnessofthis,IwillrepeatwhatIsaidatthebeginningof this article, that often the camper's life depends on the ax and its ability tostand thewoodsman's test. The northern orwestern trapper frequently finds itnecessary tomake long trips in terribly coldweather, camping out night afternight. Since the entire camp outfit and food supply must be carried on thesejourneystheoutfittakenmustofnecessitybemeager.Onlyasingleblanketandasmall,lightcanvassheltercanbetakenandtosleepwithoutafireundersuchconditionsisoutofthequestion.Agoodhotfiremustbekeptgoingandsuchafirewillconsumenearlyhalfacordofwoodduringthelongnorthernnight.Thismust be cut into lengths that can be handled and what would become of thecamperifhisaxweretobreakbeforethenight'swoodwascut;hefarfromthehome camp, darkness at hand, and the temperature far below the zero mark.Freezingtodeathcouldbetheonlypossibleoutcome,unlesshecouldretracehisstepsinthedarkandtravelallthelongnight.Soyouseeitwillpayyoutotestyouraxwellbeforeyoutakeitintothewoods,andtakeonlyonethatwillstandthemostseveretrial,evenifyoubreakadozenaxesbeforeyougetonethatissatisfactory.

WhatIhavesaidof thematerialof theaxheadapplieswithequalforce totheaxhandle.Itshouldbeofsound,strong,straight-grained,springywood,forsometimesabrokenaxhandle isasdisastrousasabrokenblade. Ihaveneverfoundabetterwoodforaxhandlesthangoodsecond-growthhickory,butyoungwhiteoak,thesapwood,isalmostasgood.

Even if the temper andmaterial of the ax and handle leave nothing to bedesired, if the ax is not of the right pattern, weight and length, it will beunsatisfactory.Perhapsthemostusefulpatternforthewildernesstrapperisthathavinga longnarrowblade,but thisshouldnotbecarried to theextreme,asanarrowbladeismoreeasilybroken.Thelongbladeisveryusefulwhencuttingholesintothesidesoftreesforsettingmartentrapsorinmakingdeadfalls,andformanysimilarusesaboutcampwherethesimplicityoftheoutfitnecessitates

making of the ax a general utility tool. If made extremely long and narrow,however, the consequentweakening and the fact that anarrowblade is not sosatisfactory for hewing and for chopping in heavywoodmore than offset thegoodqualitiesof thelongblade.Theeyeof theaxshouldbelarge,sothat thehandlemaybelargeintheeyeoftheaxandclosebythehead,anditshouldbeenlargedslightlyatbothedges.Thiswillmakeitpossibletowedgethehandlesothat it will hold the head solidly, and it will leave the handle if fitted well,thickestwherethegreateststraincomes,closetotheeyeoftheax.

THEWOODMAN'SPERFECTAX

POSITIONOFAXWHENCUTTINGBRUSH

CUTTINGTHEFIRSTNOTCH

Intheshapingofanaxbladetherearesomerulesthatmustberememberedandadheredtoifthemaximumofefficiencyisdesired.Thesesamerulesmustbe known to the user of the tool, for in the grinding, a bad chopping axmayoftenbemadebetter,whilebadgrindingmakesitworse.Oneoftheserules,andthemost important, is tohave thebladeorbit thinnest on the "inside corner,"whichistheendofthebladenearesttotheuser.Thehastyconclusionwouldbethatifthiscornerwerethinnest,theoppositesideofthebladeshouldbethickest.This iswrong.The thickest part of the blade should be two-thirds of theway

acrossfromtheinsidecorner,theplacemarkedXinthedrawingofwhatIcall"the woodsman's perfect ax." A blade so shaped will have the maximumchoppingpower,willsinkeasilyintothetree,willburstthechipwell,andwillnotbindinthewood.

Ithinkitbestthattheaxheadbemadeofwroughtiron,split,andawelded-insteelbit.Thisgivesthemaximumstrength.Thebuttoftheaxmightalsobeofsteel,andwouldbemoreconvenientforthetrapperifithadaclawfordrawingtrapstaples.Iftheeyeoftheaxisnottemperedintheleasttheentireheadmaybemadeofsteelandwillbealmost,ifnotfully,asstrong,whilethemakingissimplified.

Youmaywonderwhyatrapperneedconcernhimselfwiththemakingoftheaxifhecanbuyitreadymade,butifthereisatrapper'sperfectaxmade,Idonotknow of it. I know, however, that many readers of this article have in theirlocalityablacksmithwhoisfullycapableofmakingsuchanaxtoorder.

ForthenorthernforestandthewesternmountaindistricttheaxthatIwouldrecommend would weigh only about two pounds, handle not included in theweight.Someofyoumaythinkthisentirely toolight,but thenorthernIndiansuseaxesofonlyoneandahalfpounds,andfindthemheavyenoughforpracticalpurposes,whilelighttocarryonthetrail.Tomakealightaxeffective,however,itmusthavealonghandle.Anaxlikethisshouldhaveahandleoffromthirtytothirty-fourinchesoverall,andwithsuchatoolyouwillbesurprisedtoseewhatheavyworkcanbedone.

Assaidbefore,Idonotknowofabetterwoodforaxhandlesthanhickory.Itisverystrongandspringyanditalwaysstayssmooth;ascoldtothetouchastheaxheaditself.Itisdifficulttogetaxhandlewoodwhenwereachtheupperpartof the northern tier of states or Canada, for hickory is not found there. Hardmapleisusedextensivelyforaxhandlesintheseplaces;butitdoesnotcomparewellwithhickory.About theonlywaytogetahandleof theproperlengthforthewoodsman'saxistoremovethehandlefromalargeaxandworkitoverintothepropershapeandthickness.Thefullsizesinglebitaxesusuallyhaveclubsofhandlesandthereisplentyofwoodonwhichtowork.

DidyoueverwonderwhyanaxhandleiscurvedinanSshape?Itismadetofit the hands of the userwithout strain on the arms orwrists, and this curvedshapeenableshimtoholdtheaxmoresolidlywhenstrikingablowthancouldbe done with a straight handle. The handle should be quite thick and "hand-fitting"neartheendwhereitisgraspedbythelefthand(orright,accordingtowhethertheuserisrightorlefthanded),buttheotherpartshouldbeshapedsothehandcanslideeasilybackandforthwhilechopping.

Thehandleshouldbefastenedintotheaxwithawedge,whichinturnisheld

inplacebyascrew.Thewedgehasaheadsothatwhenthescrewisremoveditiseasilypriedout,andthenifitisnecessarytoremovethehandletheaxcanbedrivenintothetopofastumporintoalog,andthehandleeasilydetached.Suchwedgesmaybeboughtfromalmostanyhardwarecompany.

This is my idea of what a woodsman's ax should be, and such a toolweighingtwopounds,withawell-shapedhandlethirtyorthirty-twoincheslongfrom the end to the ax eyemakes anefficient toolof lightweight andagreatarticleforuseonthetrailortrapline.Imightsayofit,asDavyCrockettsaidofhis knife: "Itwill jump higher, dive deeper, shavemore hogs and standmorebendingwithoutbreakingthananyothermade."

Asnearly allwoodsmenaregoodaxmen, itmay seemsuperfluous togiveadviceregardingthecareofanax,thewaytogrindit,andhowtouseit,butthisarticle is not intended for thosewho know, but for thesewho do not, and aredesiroustolearn.Byareckless,carelessblowatahemlockknotIhaveseentheentire bit broken off an ax,while other axes of no better temper but properlygroundandwellhandledhavegone throughanentireseasonof"barkpeeling"withoutanickofanyconsequence.Ihaveseenaxesruinedinahalfday'sworkcuttingbrushclose to theground,andhavemyselfusedanaxdayafterdayatthesamekindofworkwithoutmakinganickwhichcouldnotbewhettedoutinafewminuteswithasmallaxstone.

Thereisalsoalotofdangerinthecarelessuseofanax.Ihaveknownofatleast twomenwhohavecuttheirheadsbysplittingwoodunderaclothesline.The same thing may happen when working under a tree with low, droopingbranches.Inthewoodsitwillpaydoubletomakeitaruleoneveryoccasiontobesurethatthereisnoteventhesmallesttwiginthewaytocatchtheaxbeforeyoumake a strokewith itTrimall brush away fromarounda treebeforeyoucommence to cut it, and observe the same precautions when you cut it intolengthsorwhenloppingthebranches.Whencuttingthefallentreeintolengths,thecommonandmostconvenientwayistostandonthelogandchopithalfwaythroughbetweenthefeet,thenturnandcuttheothersideinthesameway.Usedoubleprecautionwhendoing this, for Ihaveknownofanaxbeingdeflectedandanastycutbeingtheresult.Itseemsthatthesmallestbranchorsproutcanturntheaxtowardthefootofthechopper.

Whenchoppingdowntimberthetreecannearlyalwaysbethrowneitherofthreeways—thewaythetreeinclinesortoeitherside,butnottheoppositewayfrom its inclination. In addition to the incline of the tree, the influence of thewindandtheweightofthebranchesmustbeconsidered,andwhenalloftheseforcesarebroughttobearthetimbercuttermustbewell"ontohisjob"toknowjusthowtocutthetreetomakeitfallinthedesireddirection.Agoodchopper,

however,canthrowthetreetoanyspotdesignatedwithinthefallingzonealmosteverytime.Thewindisagreatfactorandmustbeconsidered,especiallywhenthebreezeisstrongorwhenthetreeappearstostandperfectlystraight.Atreeonaslopethatappearstobeperpendicularwill,innearlyeverycase,falldownhillif free to fall as itwills,providing there isnocontrarywind. If the tree reallystandsperfectlyuprightandthereisnowind,itwillfallbesttowardthesidethathas themost branches, or to the side having the greatestweight. If allowancemustbemade,however,forbothwindandgravity,itisthenthejudgmentofthechopper is put to the test. If he can estimate accurately the power of each oftheseforces,hecandrophistreeexactlywherehewantsto,buthow?

Itisverysimple.Incuttingatreeanotchiscutonthesidetowardwhichthetreeistofall.Rememberthatthisnotchshouldbecutintothecenterofthetree,andwhenfinished,shouldbeexactlyatarightangletothelineonwhichthetreeistofall.Anotchisthencutontheoppositeside,justalittlehigheronthetree,andwhenthisnotchiscutinalmosttothecenterthetreewillfall.Ifthetreeisnotched to fall theway it inclinesand there isnothing toprevent itgoing thatway,thesecondnotchshouldbecutexactlyparalleltothefirst.If,however,thetree leansa little toone side, if therearemorebrancheson that side,or if thewindblowsinthatdirection,thesecondcutshouldnotbeparallelwiththefirst,but should be farther from it on the side fromwhich thewind comes, so thattherewill bemorewood to break on that side. In no case should the notchesentirelymeetontheotherside,foriftheydo,shouldthetreebecutentirelyoffononeside,itwillsettlefartherovertothatside.Justhownearyoudarecutitoffon theone side andhowmuchyoumustholdon theopposite side canbelearnedonlyfromexperience.

There are other little things that have a certain amount of influence. Forinstance, if there is nothing to interfere, the tree in falling will draw slightlytowardthehighsideofthenotchfirstcut.Then,too,ifthenotchisnotperfectlycut,ifitismoreacuteononesidethanontheother,asthetreefallsthetopandbottomofthenotchwillmeetononesidebeforetheydoontheother,andthisiscertaintoswingthetreeslightlytowardthewideorobtusesideofthenotch.Aheavyweightofbranches,too,ononesidemaycausethetreetorollslightlyinfalling.

Foryourownsafetyitisalwaysbesttogetbackasafedistancefromthetreewhenitstarts tofall,becauseif it fallsoverarock,a log,ora littlerise in thegroundthebuttofthetreewillkickandmayliftyourheadoff,whichwouldbedecidedly unpleasant. If there are other trees in the way, look out for fallingbranches.

Ihavealreadytoldhowtocutthetreeinsections,butthebranchesmustbe

trimmed off before it can be cut up entirely. In trimming,work from the butttowardthetop,asthebranchesusuallygrowthatway,cuteasier,andarenotinthewaywhile chopping.Hold the ax rigidlywhen trimming, as the knots arelikelytobehardandanaxthatisnotheldfirmlymaybreakorbend.Makeitaruletodonomoretrimmingthannecessaryonsuchwoodsashemlockandfir,whichhaveveryhardknots.Frozenwoodisalsolikelytobreaktheax.

Whensplittingwoodstrikestraightanddon'ttrytospringthesplitopenbyplyingwith the ax, for that is the easiest way I know to break an ax handle.Usually it is easier and better to merely start the split with the ax and finishopeningitupwithwoodenwedges,usingtheaxonlytodrivethewedgesandtocutthecontraryfibres.Justhowtosplitablockeasiestcanbelearnedonlyfromexperience.Sometimesitisbesttogorightataknotorthetoughestplace,andsometimes you must attack the clearest place, depending on circumstances.Ordinarilyapieceofwoodsplitseasiestbystartingtheendoftheblockwiththeax and following up with a pair of wedges, using the ax to cut the bindingsplints.

Learntocutclosetothegroundwithoutstrikingthestones.Itrequirescare,thatisall,butonecarelessstrokemaymeanabadlydamagedaxandanhourormoreofhardworktomakeitsharpagain.Don'tstrikedownwardwhencuttingbrush;grasptheshrub,ifasmallone,withthelefthand,andcutitbyasinglestroke,asillustrated,usingtheaxwithonehandonly.Iftheshrubisalargeone,handle the ax with both hands and cut close to the ground, making a strong,slashingblow.

Grinding an ax requires some care, but it is really quite easy and it issurprisinghowmanyaxmenwillnotattempttogrindanax.Ihaveknownmanygood choppers,working in log camps,who could not grind an ax, or at leastthoughttheycouldnot.

As theaxcomesfromthestore itusuallyhasadecidedbevelon theedge,and the first grindingmeans considerablework, for thisbevelmustbegroundentirelyaway.Startwellbackonthebladeandgrinditslightlyroundingdowntotheedge,untiltheedgeiscleanandeven,thengrindtheothersideinthesameway. Some axmenmaintain that the ax cuts better, or to use thewoodsman'sexpression,"draws"betterifinfinishingthegrindingtheaxisgivenawabblingmotion.KeepinmindwhatIsaidabout theshapeof theblade,andif it isnotalreadytheproperform,trytoimproveiteachtimeyouputitonthegrindstone.After grinding, whet the edge thoroughly with a fine whetstone until thescratchedeffect causedbygrindinghasgivenplace toa smooth surfaceandacleankeenedge.Ifyoudonotwhetitaftergrinding,theedgewillcrumbleawayandtheaxwillcut"dead."

Thefirstgrindingwilltellyouwhethertheaxishardorsoft.Youcantellbythesoundofitandbyitsgriponthegrindstone.Ifitissoftitcutsrapidly,gripsthestonehardandgivesadull,deadsound.Ifhard,itgivesaringingsoundandthestoneglidessmoothlyunderit,cuttingslowlyandwearingthesteelbright.

The woodsman cannot take a grindstone into the woods and the bestsubstitute is a file. I always choose a flat mill file about eight inches long.Alwayspushthefilefromwellbackonthebitdowntotheedge,andneverfromthe edge towards the eye of the ax, or youwill be almost certain to cut yourhandsbeforeyouhave finished.After the filing,whet the axuntil youhave asmooth,sharpedge.

Itwillbeevidentthatanaxthatmustbekeptsharpwithafileandwhetstonemust not be too hard, for a file will not cut hard steel. The axes sold by theHudson'sBayCompanytotheIndiantrappersareverysoft,sothattheymaybefiledeasily,andtheIndianfilesonlyontheedge,sothattheaxsoonhasabevelalmostequaltoachisel.TheaverageIndiantakesjustaboutasmuchcareofanaxasawomandoesofabutcherknife.

Astheministersays,"Justonewordmore,"andthatisinregardtocarryingthe ax on the trail. I have tried many ways, but do not find anything moresatisfactory than having a leather pouch to slip over the head of the ax andtuckingitheaddowninthepack.Whendrawingatobogganitisslippedunderthebindingcords.IfIamcarryingmyoutfitanddonothaveagun,Icarrytheaxinmyhand,whichisthemostsatisfactorywayonsuchoccasions.TheIndianthrustshisax throughhis sash,handle to the rearandbladedown,but Ineverfanciedthatwayofcarryinganax.

SNOWSHOES-HOWTOMAKETHEM

Myfirsteffortsatsnowshoemakingcameaboutthroughtryingtorepairthebroken filling of a pair of Indian made snowshoes. In removing the windingfromthetoecordIaccidentallydiscoveredtheplacewherethefillinghadbeentiedat the finishof the last round.This fillingwasbadlywornand I reasonedthat if I could remove it in the reverse order from that in which it had beenstrungIwouldknowhowtoweavetheintricatewebofasnowshoe.Itrieditout,successfullyfillingtheoldframes,andwhileitwasfarfromperfectworkIhadatleastlearnedthesecretofsnowshoeweaving.

Removing the stringing from a pair of snowshoes, carefully noting everyturn, twist and loop, is thebestway to learnhow the filling is strung, butnoteverypersonwhohasambitionsalongthislinehasapairofsnowshoessomuchworn thathewould care to risk removing the rawhide strands.Clearlywritteninstructions,supplementedwithworkingdrawings,arethenextbest.

Whenapairofsnowshoesaretobemadethefirstthingistoplanthesize,shapeandgeneralcharacteroftheshoes.Theframes,orbows,arethefirststepoftheactualmaking.

Snowshoe framesaremadeof tough, lightwood.Manykindsofwoodareused,andwhileIamnotpreparedtosaypositivelywhichkindisbestIbelievethatyoung,straightgrainedwhiteashisaboutasgoodawoodascanbefound.Butmy experience has beenmostlywithwhite birch, andmy instructions formakingtheframesapplytotheuseofthiswoodinparticular,foritispeculiarinmanyways,andcannotbesplitandworkedas freelyascertainotherkindsofwood.

To find a suitable tree for this purpose is sometimesdifficult. I oncewentintothebushadistanceofsevenmilestogetatreewhichIhadfound,splitit,andcarriedonehalfhome.Isurelyearnedthatwood,butImadefromitapairofframeswhichwere so light that old bushmen said Iwould break themonmyfirsttrip;however,Iusedthemallwinter,thengavethemtoanoldGermanwhoworethemuntilthefillingwascompletelygone,yettheframeswerestillgood.

Thetreefromwhichtheframesaretobemadeshouldbenotmorethaneightinches in diameter, and one of six inches is better. It should have droopingbranches,andmusthaveeightortenfeetofthetrunkstraightandclean,freeoflimbs,andabsolutelywithoutaparticleoftwisttothegrain.Suchtreesmaybefoundoccasionallygrowingalongtheedgeofaswamp.

After the tree has been felled and a section of the proper length cut off, a

grooveaboutoneandahalfinchesdeepiscarefullycuttheentirelengthalongoneside,carebeingusednottostrikehard,asthatwouldinjurethewood.Whenthegrooveisfinishedasimilaroneiscutontheoppositeside.Thestickshouldbesplitwithwoodenwedges,andifitisproperlydonethesplitwillfollowthegrooves.Thebesthalfshouldthenbechosenfortheproposedsnowshoeframes,andthisshouldberippedlengthwisewithasaw,orsplit,asdesired.Eachofthepieceswillmakeaframeorbow.

MAKINGASNOWSHOEFRAME1.THESTICKBEFOREBENDING2.BENDINGONTHEFORM3.THEFINISHEDFRAME4.THEENDFASTENING5.THREADINGTHE

LANYARD-INSIDEANDOUTSIDEOFFRAME

Onesideofthestickisthencutandplaneduntilitisperfectlystraight,anditsfaceatarightangletothebarkside,oratleastitmustbesointhemiddle,whichformsthetoeofthesnowshoe,forthereshouldbenothingtakenoffthebark side, not even the bark, until after the wood is bent into shape for thesnowshoeframe.Itisbestiftheentirestickisworkedoutfromthebarkside,butthe woodmay be planed straight at all parts except in themiddle, where thegreatest strain comes. Then the third side of the stick is marked off with amarkinggaugeandeithercutorsawedtothemark.Thefourthside,theinsideofthestick,whichwillbetheinsideofthefinishedframe,isthencutdowntotheproperdimensions,butonthissideaneventhicknessisnotmaintained,thetoeportionbeingcutthinnest,withtheheel—endsofthestick—comingnext.Forasnowshoeofaveragesize,say44inchesinlengthand14incheswide,thestickshouldmeasureeightandahalffeetinlength,oneinchinwidth,seven-eighthsinchthickatthepartswhichwillbecomethemiddleoftheshoe(BtoCinfigureone),one-halfinchatA,andaboutfive-eighthsinchattheends.

Before anythingmore can be donewith thewood a form for bending theframesmustbemade.Aconvenientformisshowninfiguretwo.Forsteamingthewoodproperlyitisnecessarytohaveasteamingbox,whichismerelyalongcasemadeofnarrowboards,openatbothends.Thestickisplacedinthiscase

andthesteamfromaboilingteakettle turnedinoneendsothat thehotsteamtravelstheentirelength.Thewoodshouldbesteamedthusanhourandthenitisreadyforbending.

Figure two showshow thewood isbent and securedon the form.The toemustbeformedverycarefully,bendingonlyalittleatfirst,thenreleasing,thenbendingalittlemore,andsoonuntilthewoodcanbeeasilyandsafelybenttocompleteshapeandsecuredbynailingblockstotheform.Theformshouldbemade from two-inch planks, so that itwill accommodate the two frames. Thewood is allowed to dry thoroughly on the form before filling, and this willrequireatleasttwoweeks.

After the frames are dry theymaybe taken from the form, the tail end ofeachfastenedandthecrossbarsfittedintoplace.Theendsmaybesecuredwithawoodscrewuntilaftertheframeshavebeenstrung,butthescrewshouldthenberemovedandtheendstiedwithrawhide,throughgimletholes,thepartbetweenbeingcountersunksothatthethongswillbeprotectedfromwear.Thisisshowninfigurefour.

Thecrossbarsarepiecesofflat,strongwood,aboutoneandafourthincheswideandnearlyahalf inchthick,withroundededges.Theseshouldbeplacedabout16or17inchesapart,measuringfromcentertocenter,andsoplacedthatwhentheframeissuspendedonthehandsmidwaybetweenthesetwosticksthetail will outweigh the toe by just a few ounces. These crossbars should becarefullymortised into the frame as shown in the small diagram in center offigurethree.

THELOOPBYWHICHTHETHONGSAREFASTENEDTOTHEFRAME

Inbothsidesof the framefromDtoE,alsofromF toG,gimletholesarebored through thebows fromoutside to inside at intervals of two inches, or alittlemore,theholesbeinginpairsobliquelyplaced,andcountersunkbetween.Threeholesarealsoboredthrougheachcrossbar,asshown.

The frames are now ready for filling. Regarding material for filling, forordinaryuse, there isnothingequal tocowhide,a fairlyheavyskin.Thegreenhideshouldbeplacedunderrunningwaterforaweekormore,untilthehaircanbepulledouteasily.Thehairshouldthenbepulled,orscrapedoff,butcaremustbeusedthatthegrainoftheskinisnotbrokenorscrapedaway.Thehideshouldthenbe thoroughlystretchedanddried inanairybutshadyplace.Whendry itmaybecutintostrands.Awholehidewillfillseveralpairsofshoes.Theportionalongthebackisbestandthisshouldbeusedforfillingthemiddlesection.Thelighterparts fromtheedgesof theskinwillanswer forstringing theheelsandtoes. All strands should be cut lengthwise of the skin, and full length. Theirwidthwilldependonthethicknessoftheskin,theweightoffillingdesiredinthesnowshoe,thegeneralcharacterofthesnowinwhichtheywillbeused,andthesize of mesh in the web. If cut while dry, then soaked, stretched, and againallowedtodry,astheywillbewhenstrungintotheframes,itwillbefoundthatthe length of the strandswill be increased greatly,while the thicknesswill bemuchdecreased.Itiswelltocutseveraltrialwidths,sothattheproperweightofstrand may be determined. For a coarse webbed shoe the thongs, after beingstretched and dried, should be about five-sixteenths of an inch wide for themiddle portion of the shoe; for the ends an eighth inch is sufficiently heavy.Thesestrandsofhideshouldallbesoakedandstretchedthoroughly,allowedtodrywhilestretched,andthensoakedagainjustbeforeusing,andstrungintotheframeswhilewet.

METHODOFFILLINGTHETOESECTION

The ends are filled first and as I always commence with the toe I willdescribe mymethod of stringing that part first. A strand of the water-soakedrawhideisstretchedtightlyaroundtheinsideofthetoeportionthroughthelittlegimletholes,asshowninfigurefive,startingandfinishingatoneoftheholesintheforwardcrossbar.Thisthongiscalledthelanyard,anditspurposeistoholdthefillingwhichiswovenintothetoe.

A small needle of very hardwood, or bone, is used for filling the ends. Ihaveshowninthedrawinghowthefillingruns.Startinginthelowerleft-handcorner it goesup to thepartmarked1, passes around the lanyard, twists backaround itself about an inchand thengoesdown to2, therepassingaround thelanyardandagain twistingaround itself, thenaround the lanyardat3,a singletwist,andthenacrossto4,whereitagainturnsaroundthelanyard,thentwistsdownaroundthefirststrandtothestartingpoint,underthelanyardat5andupto6.Fromtherethestrandloopsandtwiststhesameasinthefirstround,exceptthatatthelowercornersitloopsbackaroundthefirstround,thentwistsarounditself,thenaroundthelanyard,andonthesameasbefore.Thisloopingbackofevery second round is continued until the filling extends across the entireforwardpartofthetoe,whenitisdiscontinued,andeachroundismadelikethefirst.Thisloopingbackthrowsthefillingalternatelyfromsidetoside.

HOWTHEHEELSECTIONISSTRUNG

Thefillingmustbestretchedinverytightlyandmustnotbeallowedtoslip.Whenonestrandisusedupanotherisjoinedoninthemannershown.Caremustbeusedtoseethateveryroundcrossestheothersintheproperway,andallthetwistsmustbemadealike.Theamateurshouldkeep thesepicturesbeforehimforaguide.Occasionallyheshouldlookhisworkovercarefully,andifanerroris discovered the stringing should be removed and made right. It will benecessary to straighten out the completed portions occasionally, and for thispurpose I use a round-pointed hardwood stick. The weave will finish at thecenterofthecrossbar.

Thefillinginthetailendorheelisverysimpleandisshownsoplainlyinthediagram that I think adescription superfluous. It starts at theupper right-handcornerandfinishesinthemiddleofthecrossbar.Iagainadvisethatgreatcarebeused to get the twists and loops right, and to see that the thongs cross in theproperway.

FILLINGTHEMIDDLEOFTHESNOWSHOE

Fillingthemiddlesectionisalsomoresimplethanitappearsatfirstglance,foritispracticallyarepetitionofthesystemusedinthetoeportion.Theedgesofthewoodshouldberoundedslightlytopreventthemcuttingthethongs.TheNorthernIndianswindthispartoftheframewithastripofcloth,tomakeasortofcushionforthetightlystretchedthongs.Thisclothwindingservesitspurpose

well,but inacountrywherewetsnowsarecommonitsuse isnotadvised, fortheclothholdsthedampnessandcausestherawhidetorot.

While the system of stringing this part may appear quite intricate it is inreality simple, and it is themoreelaboratearrangementof the forwardportionthatmakesthissectionappearsocomplicated.Thestoutbunchofthongsshowninthedrawing,knownasthetoecord,isstrunginfirst,therawhidestrandbeingtightly stretched and crossing the frame some four or five times, a loop beingthrown around thewhole on the inside of the frame on both sides in the lastround.This should be so executed that the last loopwill be on the right-handside.Thethongthenloopsaroundthisbunchofcordsagainaboutaninchfromtheframe,fromtherebeingstrunguparoundthecrossbar,thentwistingarounditselfbacktothestartingpoint,fromtherepassingdowndiagonallytothecenterof the rearcrossbar,where it loopsand twistsagain, thenup to theupper left-handcorner,where it twistsup the sameason theopposite side.Fromhere itwillbenotedthethongrunsdownashortdistanceandloopsaroundtheleftsideoftheframe.Thesimpleloopusedforthispurposeisclearlyshowninasmalldrawing.Fromthislooptherawhidestrandtwistsbackaboutaninch,thenrunsstraightacrosstheshoetotheright,wheretheloopisrepeated.Thiscompletesthefirstroundofthefilling.Thesecondroundstartsinaboutthesamewayasthefirst,goesuptothecrossbarattheleftofthefirstround,twistsbacktothetoecord,fromtheretotherearcrossbar,thenuptotheleft-handcorner.Herethesystemchanges,forthestrandisrunupandtwistedaroundthetoecordandfirstroundoffillingbeforeitisloopedtotheframe.Afterloopingitisbroughtacrosstotheright,whereitagainloopsandtwists,andthentwistsaroundthetoecordandfirstroundoffillingexactlyasontheleft,afterwhichitisrundowntotherear crossbar. In thisway the stringingcontinues, every second round twistingforwardaround thepreceding two.Thisbinds the filling firmlyand, itwill benoted,alsoalternatesthesuccessiveroundsfromsidetoside.Whentheprocessof filling has progressed so far that there are four twists around the forwardcrossbar,oneachside,thistwistingshouldbestoppedandtheremainderoftheforwardportionleftopen,forthisiswherethefootofthewearerworksthroughwhenwalking.Thisopenspaceshouldmeasureaboutfourandahalfinchesinwidth,andifitdoesnotthefillingmustbeshifted.Inverycoarsemeshedshoesthreetwistsoneachsidewillbeallthatcanbegiven.Anextraturnaroundthetoe cord should also be made on each of these two twists of the filling, forconsiderable strain is thrown onto this portion. From this point on, instead ofrunning forward and twisting around the crossbar, the filling simply twistsaroundthetoecord.Butherecaremustbeusedtokeepthefillingsmoothandthe toe cord flat, otherwise sore feet will result fromwearing the shoes. The

weavefinishesinthecenterofthetoecordandtheretheendofthethongshouldbe securely andneatly fastened.The last touch is towind a strandof rawhideabout the twisted thongs on each side of the foot opening and around the toecord,tomakethesepartssmoothandprotectthemfromwear.

InthedrawingsoftheheelandtoesectionsitwillbenotedthatIhaveshowntheweb tied to the crossbarswith twine. This is not a permanent feature, forwhenthecenteroftheshoehasbeenfilledthesestringsmayberemoved.

After making one pair of snowshoes the workman will undoubtedly seewhereinhecanimproveonthedesignoftheshoe,onthestyleoffilling,or inthe method of making. There are many labor-saving devices and ways ofhandlingthematerialthatmaketheworkeasier.Butthesetheamateursnowshoemaker will learn in time and I believe I have now given all the instructionsnecessaryforthosewhowanttomaketheirownsnowshoes.

SNOWSHOES-HOWTOUSETHEM

Snowshoesofonekindoranotherareusedinallnortherncountries,fortheyare a necessity to thosewho live in the snowynorth, and earn their living byoutdoorwork.Whereorwhentheyoriginatedwouldbehardtosay,definitely,but since it is inAmerica that theyhavebeenperfected andwereusedby theIndianswhen this countrywas first visited bywhitemen, it seems reasonablethat the snowshoe is an invention of the early North American savages, andprobablywasfirstusedmanythousandsofyearsago.

The snowshoe is copied from one of Mother Nature's many unpatentedinventions.Sheistheinventorofthesnowshoe,forshegavethisgifttomanyofthenorthernanimals,forinstancethemarten,thesnowshoerabbit,andeventhecaribou. The marten and the rabbit have large heavily furred feet, especiallylargeand furryduring thewinter, andbecause these feet covera largeareaofsnow in proportion to the animals' weight, they support their owners whereanimals unprovided with a "snowshoe" would sink, and would have greatdifficulty in traveling. The caribou has a highly split foot of large size; itsspreadsgivesdownunder theanimal'sweightuntil thedewclawsalsohelp insupporting it, and thuscover somuchsurface that thisbigdeercanwalkonasnowcrustthatwouldnotcarryaman.

Asa further illustrationofnature'suseof thesnowshoeprinciple,comparethefootofaCanadalynxwiththatofabobcatorbaylynx.Theformeranimal,meant for an existence in theNorth and the high altitudeswhere deep snowsprevail,hasaverylarge,furrypawthatsupportstheanimalwonderfullyontheloosesnow,whereas themoresouthernwildcat,averyclosely relatedspecies,has a foot relatively small and with shorter fur. The snowshoe therefore wasmerelycopiedfromnaturebymankindandnodoubtitwasastudyofthenaturalanimal snowshoe that gave the early-day savage the great idea and set him toworkonaschemebywhichhecouldincreasethesizeofhisfeetinaconvenientandpracticalmanner,and thusbeable towalkon thesnow insteadofwadingthroughit.

Whatevermayhavebeenthestyleofthefirstsnowshoesorthematerialusedin them, the first white visitors to the American continent found the Indiansusingsnowshoeswithframesofwood,strungwithrawhide,infact,exactlythesameasarebeingusedto-day.Whilethewhitemenmayhavesoughttoimproveonmaterialsandgeneralform,itiscertainthattheycouldfindnothingbetteroreven as good, for the Indians' snowshoewas adopted and is being used in its

original form to-day where serious use is required. Snowshoes are oftenmodifiedinformfortheuseofthewhitepeopleinandnearthesettlements,butfortherough,wildcountrytheIndians'snowshoescannotbesurpassed,unlessitbeintheselectionofmaterialsandinworkmanship.

EASTERNBEARPAWSNOWSHOES

EASTERNBEARPAWSNOWSHOES

Everybodyknowsthatsnowisnotalwaysofthesamenature.Thecharacterof the snowdepends onweather conditions.Coldweather causes it to remainloose and fluffy;warmdays and coldnights settle the snowand forma crust,while duringmidday it becomeswet and packy;wind following a snowstormmakesdriftsofmoreor lesssolidity.Theseareallverydifferentconditionsofsnowandasnowshoethatisperfectinformforonekindoftraveloronekindofsnowcannotbeperfectforanother,althoughitmayanswerforallkindsofuse.Inwidelyseparateddistrictstheprevailingweatherconditionsmaycauseoneoranother condition of snow to predominate the season through, and as aconsequence the proper snowshoes to use in any particular place are the onesadapted to the prevailing snow conditions. Likewise the nature of the countrywithrespecttosurfaceandvegetationgreatlyinfluencethestylesofsnowshoes.

Thesportinggoodscataloguesshowsnowshoesofverydifferentformsandproportions,andtheextremeconditions,notforgeneraluse.Butthecataloguesseldomgive any information on this subject thatwill aid the tyro in selecting

snowshoesadaptedtohisuse,andifuninformedonthesubjectheisallatsea.Long,narrowsnowshoesareusedforfasttravelinopen,fairlylevelcountry.

Ingeneral,theyarenotgoodonroughground,inbrushydistricts,orwherethesnowdoesnotfalltoagooddepth.Ifthetoesareturnedupsomewhatandmoreor less pointed they are better for travel in loose, powdery snow. But theupturnedtoesrendertheshoesworthlessforhillclimbing,astheframeswillnottake a grip on the snow, while on hard trails or crusted snow, such as wesometimes find on the frozen lakes, theymake thewearer's feet sore throughlackofspringintheframes.

Themostperfect typeofsnowshoesforgeneraluse is thatshowninfigurefive.Ithastheaveragedimensionsandproportions,allextremesbeingavoided.Itmeasuresabout44inchesinlengthby14inchesinwidthatthewidestplace,and this is the proper size for the average person and general conditions. Aheavyman, if of average height, or taller, can use larger shoes to advantage,while for a smaller and lighter man slightly smaller snowshoes are betteradapted.Thetoeisroundandflat.Itslipseasilythroughthebrush,takesagoodgriponthehardsnowofthehillsidesandcoversenoughsnowtokeepitupnearthesurfacewhilethenarrowheelcutsdown.Thetailisshort,whichadaptstheshoebetterfor turninginbrushyplacesandreduces liabilityofbreakagewhencrossinglogs.Thestringing,itwillbenoted,isheavyandcoarse,whichmakestheshoebetterfordamp,stickysnow.Afinemeshfillingisallrightwherethesnowisalwaysina loose,drycondition,butwhenthesnowbecomespackyitclosesuponthewebandmakescontinuoustrouble.Theendsarefilledwithafinermaterial,forherethestringingissubjecttolessstrain.

ALASKAPATTERN

THECREE

NORTHERNSNOWSHOES

The Indians of Canada frequently fill the heel and toe of their snowshoeswithfinetwineinsteadofrawhide.Thismaterialwearsmuchbetterthanwouldbeexpected,providingthesnowisdeepandthesnagswellcovered,astheyareup there inwinter.But a twine filling is not nearly asgoodas rawhide and isusedonlybecauseitisamoreconvenientmaterial.

Manykindsofrawskinsareusedforfillingsnowshoes,butthereisnothingbetter than cowhide. Horsehide is said to wear very well. Calfskin is a goodmaterial for stringing light shoes, for use on broken trails or for women andchildren.Moose and caribou skin aremuch used in theNorth, but are not asdurableascowhide.Exceptthatthehairisremovedfromthehideitundergoesno other preparation for snowshoe filling, no oiling nor tanning beingpermissible.

Intheframesalsovariouskindsofwoodareused,thisdependingpartlyonthewoods obtainable where the snowshoes aremade. A tough, light wood isrequired.Whitemenusuallymakeuseofwhiteash,averygoodmaterialforthepurpose.Blackash isalsoused,but isapoorwoodfor snowshoe frames.TheCanadianIndiansusewhiteandyellowbirch,bothverygoodifgoodjudgmentis used in selecting the trees. In the far Northwest snowshoe frames aresometimes made of spruce, while in the West service wood is frequentlyemployed.Therearemanyotherwoodsthatwillanswerverywell.

In the illustration are shown twopatterns of long, narrow snowshoes.Onehas a pointed, upturned toe, the frame being made in two pieces, fastenedtogetherwith rawhide at heel and toe.This style of shoe I think originated inNorthwestern Canada, anyway it is used there by Indians and whites alike.Snowshoesof thispatternareusuallymade five feet longand12 incheswide.The toe curves up seven or eight inches and the length from the toe cords onwhich thewearer's foot rests to the point of the upturned toemust exceed thelengthfromtheballofhisfoottohisknee;ifitisnotso,thetoeofthesnowshoewillstrikehiskneewhenheliftshisfoot.

ASNOWSHOEOFSTANDARDSHAPE,ANDAFOOTHARNESSFORSAME

Theother longpatternisastyleusedinAlaskaandYukon.It issoshapedthatitgivesthemaximumofsurfacecoveringqualitiesforashoeofthatlengthandapracticalwidth.Thestringingisveryopenandisputintotheframebyapeculiarsystem,quiteunlikethatusedinothersnowshoes.Thisisanexcellentsnowshoeforfasttravelindeep,loosesnow.

Very short snowshoes made without tails are known as the "bearpaw"pattern.Ihaveshowntwoofthese.Theonemadewithoutcrossbarsisusedbythe Indians ofWashington. It is a very simple, easilymade snowshoe, and isespeciallyusefulintherough,brushyground.Itworksnicelyinthemountainsof Pennsylvania and is probably as good for use in that place as in theNorthwest. The other bearpaw shoe illustrated is a style that originated in theAdirondackMountains. Itwasdesignedfor theuseof thesprucegumhunters,its short length making it a perfect snowshoe for use in gumming, walkingaround trees, turningandzigzagginghereand there.Thispattern isoneof thebest forverybrushyground,whererocksandfallen treesabound,and it is thebest shape for use in the North when the first snows come and the smallunderbrush,snags,rocksandlogsarenotyetdeeplyburied.Apairofsnowshoeslikethismaybecarriedinapacksackifthetrapperismakingajourneyoverhislinewhen the first deep snow is due, and hewill not then be caughtwithoutsnowshoeswhenaday'sjourneyortwofromcamp.Thishashappenedtome,soIcannowseetheimportanceofcarryingapairofsnowshoesatthattime.

Snowshoes of all types have an opening in the forward part of the centralsection throughwhich thewearer's toesmoveashewalks.At the rearedgeofthis opening are the toe cords, a bunch of five or six strands of rawhide, andwheninusethispartisbeneaththeballofthefoot.Atoe-strappassesoverthefoot at this point.There is always someother formof fasteningused, but thismaybeanythingfromtheIndian'shitchofsoftcaribouskinorlampwickingto

theharnessleatherfasteningofthewhiteman,whichbucklesacrosstheinstepandabovetheheel.Inallcasesthefasteningmustpassaroundthefootabovetheheel, for it is thisstrap that supports theweightof thesnowshoeas the foot islifted;itismovedforwardbythetoestrap,andthispiecealsoholdsthefootinplaceontheshoe.

The Indian'smethodof tying a snowshoe to the foot has some advantagesover thewhiteman's harness fastening, but in otherways it is imperfect. Theprincipal advantage is that the fastening need not be opened for removing thesnowshoes or attaching it. I have used snowshoes a week at a time withoutopeningtheknot.Asimpletwistofthefootwithbendedkneewillservetofreethesnowshoefromthefootanditisjustaseasilyreplaced.Butitdoesnotholdtheshoeasrigidlywithrespecttosidemotionasthestrapandbuckleadoptedbywhitemengenerally,andIthinkit ismorelikelytocausesorenessofthefeet.Theharnessshownisoneofthebeststylesandiseasilymadeandadjusted.

ForsnowshoeinginNortherndistricts,wheretheweatheriscoldallthroughthewinterandthesnowremainsinaloose,drycondition,buckskinmoccasinsarethebestfootwear.BythisImeanmoccasinsofanykindofdeerskin,tannedbytheIndianmethod.Suchmoccasinsarenotwaterproof,butthatmakeslittledifference,forthedrysnownevermakeswetfeet.Buckskinissoftandlightandif the moccasins are large, plenty of warm, woolen socks may be worn. Forspringwear,whenthesnowismoreorlessdamp,orforuseanywherewhenthesnow is in this condition, oil tanned moccasins or rubber overshoes may beworn.Rubber is somewhat hard on the filling of the snowshoes, but if this isheavy and of goodmaterial itwill stand a lot ofwear.Ordinary rubber shoesshouldnotbeworn,however,withoutfirstremovingtheheels.

Whenwalkingtheentiresnowshoeisneverliftedclearofthesnow;thetailalwaysdrags. It is easy to learn touse them. Iwalked12miles the firstday Itried snowshoeing.My greatest trouble was in keeping one shoe clear of theother, but this is soon learned. Theremay also be trouble in learning to turn,especiallyinbrushyplaces,andinattemptingtocrosslogs.Whencrossingalogthefootitselfmustbeplacedonthelogandthenextstepmustbeofsufficientlengthforthesnowshoetoclearit,orthefootmustbeturnedsideways.

Togetsatisfactoryservicefromapairofsnowshoesnecessitatespropercare.Thewearershouldalwaysavoidwalkingoversnags,orlittlehummocks,whicharecertainindicationsofobjectsbarelycoveredandwhichmayinjuretheweboftheshoes.Donotsteponaplacewhichwillsupportoneorbothendsoftheshoesolidlyunlessthemiddleportionisalsothussupported,foriftheframesdonot break the strain theywill beweakened andwill sooner or later take on acurvedshape.Neverstepdownfromahighplacewithallofyourweightonthe

snowshoes,forthestrainonfillingandframeisgreat.Snowshoes require care, not onlywhile in use, but at other times aswell.

Beingstrungwithrawhide,thismaterialisverysusceptibletoheatandmoisture.If theshoesarenotdriedthoroughlyafterbecomingdamporwet thestringingwillrot,whileifdriedtoorapidlythefillingbecomesbrittleandbreakswhenputtoastrain.Incampsnowshoesshouldbesuspendedfromtheceilingbyawire,formicewill eat the filling if they can reach them. Shoes should bewatchedcloselyalsoforwornstrandsandwhenastringlooksdangerouslyweaktheshoeshouldberepairedatonce.

It cannotbeexpected that after themost exhaustivebook study thenovicewill know enough about snowshoes to discriminate between the ordinary badandthosewithoutfault.Buttherearepointsthatifkeptinmindwillaidgreatlyin selecting snowshoes thatwill not only be desirable, but also satisfactory inregard to size, proportions and pattern.The extreme styles, as already pointedout,arenotfortheuseofthebeginner,forhissnowshoeingisgenerallyoftheregulationkind.Thesnowshoeswhichheshouldbuy,andwhichhewillfindinstockwithmost dealers, aremore or less on the lines of the pattern shown infigure5.Thestandardsize,orabout14x44inches,willanswerwellinnearlyallcases.Ifthecountryisnottooroughandhillytheymayhavethetoesturnedupan inch or two, but otherwise they should be flat, as shown. It matters littlewhetherthetoeberound,squareorquitepointed,butitshouldberatherlargeinareawhiletheheelendshouldbenarrow.Thelongtailusuallyfoundonstocksnowshoesisanuisanceandmayasarulebecutoff toadvantage,forusuallythebalanceofthesnowshoeisimprovedbysodoing.

A snowshoe should almost balance when suspended midway between thetwo crossbars, the tail end being just a little the heavier. Very few stocksnowshoesaresomade,mostofthembeingtooheavyintherear.

Whenbuying snowshoes examine the frameswith care, for if they are notmadeofgood,straightgrainedwoodtheyareapttobreak.Thewoodshouldbeheaviestatthesidesandthinnestatthetoe.Theremustbenoknots,cutsorotherdefects. Sometimes in bending the frames the makers split slivers loose andafterwardsgluethemdown,solookcarefullyforsuchplaces.

Thefillingshouldbeclearandyellow.Itshouldbeofalmostequalthicknessand thereshouldbenosplicesclose to the frameor in thecentre.See that thethongsarethoroughlystretched,forpoorlystretchedfillingissuretostretchandsag the first time the shoes are used on damp snow. If the thongs do not runperfectly straight across the shoe, reject it, for this is a sure sign of poorlystretchedfilling.

What are sold as first-class snowshoes bring prices ranging roughly from

fivetotendollarsperpair.Goodsnowshoescannotbemadeandsoldatlessthanfivedollars,andiftheyarelargeorhavemuchworkaboutthemtheycannotbemadeforthisprice.IdonotfindanymaterialdifferencebetweensnowshoesofIndianmakeandthosemadebywhitemen.TheverybestsnowshoesIhaveeverfound being made for sale are those made by a friend of mine living in theAdirondacks. He uses the best of material throughout and the stringing aloneused in a pair of his best shoes will cost him as much as the price at whichordinary snowshoesare sold.Thebestpossible snowshoesarenotavailable tomany readers of this article unless they have learned tomake them, inwhichcasetheycanuseasmuchcareandasgoodmaterialasdesired.

WINTERTRAVELINTHEWOODS

WhatachangecomesoverthegreatforestsoftheNorthwhenwinterreignsandholdsallnature inhis icygrip.Thefleecymantleofwhitecovershillandvale, stream and bush alike, bending to the ground the lower branches of thesprucesandhemlocks, smoothingover the rough trailsof the fall,andburyingthe logs, stumps and underbrush from view until the following spring. Thewoodsthroughwhichwetraveledwitheaseandcomfortwhenthegroundwasbarenowhasaforbiddingappearanceanditrequiresallthenervewecanmustertoattempt topenetrate thedense, snow-ladengrowth,whereweknow that thefirststepwillreleaseasmallavalancheofsnowuponus.Thebendedbranchesandsmallergrowthsofthethicketsgiveadifferentappearancetothewoodsanddistancesseemshortersothatwefinditdifficulttokeeptotheoldcourse,andwise is the trapper or otherwoods travelerwhohas blazedout hismain trailsbeforethecomingofthesnow.Inthiswinterwoodsitwouldseemthatonlythewild creatures inhabiting it would be at home and perfectly familiar with thechangedsurroundings.

Buttheseasonedwoodsmandoesnothesitatetotravelthewintertrail.Ifheisatrapperorsprucegummerthewinterishisharvesttime.Hefeelslittleofthestormswhich inmoreexposedcountrywouldkeeponeclose indoorsmuchofthe time.On a stillmorning the coldmay be intense and on all sideswill beheardpistol-likereportsfromthefreezingtrees,butifhecannotkeepwarmbyrapid walking, he treads down a spot of snow, pulls some loose bark from awhitebirchtree,placesoveritdeadbranchesbrokenfromthetrunkofanearbyevergreenandappliesalightedmatchtotheoilybirchbark.Inafewsecondshehasaroaringfirebythesideofwhichhecanrestandrestorethechilledbloodtoits normal state. The Northern frost gives no warning; it creeps cautiouslythroughtheclothingandatoncecommences tofreezethefleshbeneathandatsuchtimesafirecannotbelightedtooquickly.

One cannot travel the snowy bush in comfort and safety unless hewiselypreparesforsuch travel,bywearing theproperclothingandcarryingwithhimthemostsuitableequipment.Clothingmustbeofthecorrectweight;justheavyenough to keep the wearer warm while traveling but no heavier, as bulkyclothingistiresometoonewhowalksthetrails.Alongcoatisbadfortravel;itclings to the legs and interferes with stepping over logs. The outer clothingshouldbeofakindtowhichthesnowwillnotcling,yetitmustbesoft.Windproof cloth is not needed, in fact a medium thick but loosely woven cloth is

warmerinthewoodsthansmooth,closelywovenfabrics.Thevestorwaistcoatis seldom worn in the forest, at least not by woodsmen. Woolen clothing,always,isthechoice.

WhatIknowonthissubjectIhavelearnedfromactualexperience,andweare told that experience is the best teacher, butwe could often save ourselvesmuch discomfort if we would profit by the advice of others. However,knowledgeacquiredattheexpenseoftime,health,comfortandmoneyisoftenless costly than ignorance. The clothing and outfits I recommend are those 1have found best formy own use, but an article ismost usefulwhen properlyused.

I consider the following the best dress for winter wear in the timberedcountryoftheNorthandsodressedahealthymanmaytravelthewintrywoodsin comfort. Starting with underwear, I advise wearing pure woolen goods,always,ofmediumweight, andall inonepiece.The soft, finekind shouldbechosen.

THEWINTERTRAIL

Woolabsorbs theperspirationand is reasonablywarmwhendamporevenwet. It nevergets coldanduncomfortable like cottonunderweardoes, thenapdoes not flatten down, and it keeps the skin warm and induces a healthycirculationofthebloodnearthesurface.

THEWINTERTRAIL

THEWINTERTRAIL

Wearwoolensocksforthesamereasons;twoorthreepairs,asrequired,andapairofheavyknitwoolstockings,kneelength,overthem.Thisistoomuchforwarmweather,butIamtalkingofclothingforwearwhenitiscold.Theamountofstockingsrequiredwilldependsomewhatontheconstitutionofthemanwhowears them; for one traveler can keep the feetwarmwithwhatwould not besufficient foranother.Donotat anytimewearmore socks thannecessary, andwash them frequently, as it freshens the wool and makes them warmer. Anumberofpairsofmediumweightsocksarebetterthanonepairofveryheavyones. They are easier washed, easier dried and more comfortable. Manybushmen wind a strip of woolen blanket about the foot, and this has theadvantageofbeingcheaperthanextrasocks.Iwearboththesocksandthelongstockingson theoutsideof the trousers,and thestockingsshouldbeheldbyastrap at the top. Stretch out the toes of the socks and stockings a little beforeputtingtheshoesormoccasinsonoverthemanditwillkeepthemfrombindingthetoes.

Theonlyfootwearforwintertravelwhentheweatheriscold,especiallyforsnowshoeing, is the buckskin moccasin. By "buckskin" I mean Indian tannedmoosehide,deerorcaribouskin,orthewhiteman'sasbestolcordovanhorsehide,thelatterbeingthebestwearingmaterial,butnotassoftandcomfortableastheothers.Caribou skinmoccasins aremypreference for snowshoeing, and I likethe Ojibway pattern with pointed toe and cloth top; they are not as likely tocausesoretoesastheSiouxpattern(theregularfactorymadestyle)andtheclothtopiswarmandholdsthesnowshoestringsbetterthanthebuckskintopdoes.

Buckskinmoccasinsarenotwaterproof, infactwaterwillgothroughthemalmost as readilyas throughcloth,butwaterproofqualities arenot required infootwear for winter use in the North, as the snow never becomes damp untilspring, and allwater, except the smooth rapids, iswell coveredwith ice. Theonlytimewhenthe traveler is likely togetwetfeet iswhensnowshoeingovertheiceonthelakes;thenafterawindstormthereissuretobewaterunderthesnowontheice.

Amediumweightgraywoolenshirtsuitsmebestforwoodswear.Trousersmaybeofalmostanykindofstrong,softwoolenmaterial,andshouldberoomy,butfitwellatthewaist.Iprefertowearabeltratherthansuspenders,butthisisimmaterial. If the snow clings to the trousers behind the knees, whensnowshoeing,wearlightoverallsoverthem.Ihaveneverfoundanythingbetterincoatsthanthosemadeofmackinawcloth,suchaslumbermenwear.Iliketheplain colors best, blue black being my choice. All outside pockets should be

coveredwithflapstokeepthesnowout.Mackinawisasoft,warmmaterialanditwill turn considerable rain. It has only one objectionable feature—the snowwillclingtoit,especiallyacrossone'sbackjustabovethepacksack,whichthewoodsman nearly always haswith him; thewarmth coming through the clothcausesittocollectthesnow.

My choice of head dress is a good grade, long wool toque which can bedrawndownover the forehead and ears.Over this I sometimeswear a sort ofhoodmadeofthinwoolencloth,whichhangsdownwelloverthecollarofthecoat and ties under the chin. This hood is very desirable, as it is a greatprotectionfromcoldandsnow.Whenwalkingthroughasnow-ladenevergreenbushthereisaconstantshowerofsnowbeingreleasedfromtheboughsandthishoodkeepsthefallingsnowfromgettinginsideoftheclothing,whichitsurelywoulddowithoutthisprotection.Itisalsoashieldagainstthecoldwindwhencrossing frozen lakes, where the toque alone would not give sufficientprotection.Isteerclearoffurcaps.Theyaretoowarmforwalking,andIthinkitbest to have no covering over the face, as any such arrangement will gathermoisturefromthebreathandcausefreezing.Unlessoneisexposedtoaseverewind, holding the mittened hands against the face occasionally will preventfreezinginthecoldestweather,providingwedonothavetofacethebreeze.

The hands also need special protection from the cold and much could bewrittenonthissubject.Iknowofnothingbetterthanmittens,notgloves,madeof heavywoolen cloth,with a pair of cotton ones drawnover them.They areeasierdriedthanasinglepairofheavyones;areeasilymadefromoldmaterial,costingnothing,andarewarm.Theyshouldbelooseenoughtopulloffquickly,andthetopsshouldcomewellupoverthewristsinsidethecoatsleeves.Donotbuy gauntlet gloves for thewoods; they collect dirt and snow continually.NokindofleatherglovesormittensthatIhaveeverwornwillkeepmyhandswarmunless they areveryheavily lined and then theyare stiff, so I prefer the clothones.

THEINDIANSNOWSHOEHITCH

Somuch for coldweather clothing, butwhat shallwewearwhen the suncommencestotravelhisnortherntrailandthegripofJackFrostweakens;whenthesnowmeltsduringmiddayandourclothingseemsuncomfortablywarm.Atsuchtimeswecandiscardtheheavyshirtandsubstitutealighterone;leavetheoverallsincampandputthehoodinthepackorthecoatpocket,andwearfewersocks,withoil-tannedshoepacsinsteadofbuckskinmoccasins.Theyarenotasgoodforsnowshoeing,butarewaterproofifkeptwelloiled.Rubbershoeswearthefillingofthesnowshoebadly.

WhileIhavebeenspeakingofclothingforwearinthetimbereddistrictsoftheFarNorthIrealizethattherearemoreofthosewhoreadthislivinginalessfrostyclimate,butforalloftheNorthernStatesthisclothingisquitesuitableandproper, with the exception of the hood andmoccasins. The former is seldomneededinmoreopenhardwoodforest,andassnowshoesarenotusedmuchtheshoepacandrubbershoearethefootwearmostoftenseen.Forwalkingonbaregroundorinshallowsnow,bothshoeshaveadvantagesandfaults.Therubbersareheavierthanthepacsandmoreprotectiontotenderfeet,butaremorelikelytotirethewearer,especiallysincerubberclingssofondlytoallbrushandweedswithwhichitcomesincontact.Butthepacs,whilelighterandsofter,willmaketenderfeetsoreonthebottoms,andtheyslipinsnowmorethandorubbers.Myfavoriterubbershoesforoutdoorweararethoseofankleheight,fasteningwithalaceorwithstrapandbuckle.

Snowshoescanhardlybeconsideredwearingapparel.AnItalianwhocame

over toCanada,when coldweather came, began to inquire about clothing forwear in that climate. When he asked what kind of footwear was best hisinformant told him that he thought snowshoes were the best when the snowcame.Havingnoideawhatsnowshoeswerehewenttoastoreandaskedtobeshownsome,andhewasconsiderablysurprisedwhenhesawwhat theywere.Snowshoes,however,areapartof theNorthernwoodsman'sequipment,andaverynecessarypart.Theyareofferedinanumberofpatternsbysportinggoodsdealers,andthereareotherstylesmadeandusedthatareseldomorneverseeninstores.Somearegood;othersarebetter,buteachkindisgoodinsomesectionofthecountry.It isnotmyobjecttogointodetail indescribingsnowshoes,butIfeel that I must say something about the patterns best adapted for use in thewoods.Theyshouldbeofaboutthestandardshape,eitherroundorsquaretoe,asdesired;for theaverageman,about14by48inchesinsize;framesofgoodstraight grained wood, with the crossbars mortised in without weakening thebows.Thetailshouldbefastenedwithrawhide,counter-sunk,andnotascreworrivet;andthefillingthroughoutshouldbeofgoodrawhidethoroughlystretched,rather fine and close in the ends and coarse and open in the centers. The toeshould be large andquite broad, the tail narrow, and they should balance at apoint just a few inches behind the center of the space between the crossbars.Withsuchshoesyoucantravelfastonloosesnoworhard;theyturneasily;thebroadflat toetakesagoodgripandmakeshillclimbingeasy,anditalsostaysnearly on the surface of the snow while the narrow tail cuts down and as aconsequence they lift easily for the next step. If the filling is too close in thecenterthesnowwillpackunderthefoot;ifthetoesaretoosmalltheycutdownandloosesnowfallsontop,makingthemheavytolift;ifthetailistooheavyitisdifficult toturnwiththem;if thetoeisupturnedtheysliponacrustorhardtrail,makethefeetsore,andarenotgoodforclimbinghills.Unlessyouknowjustwhatyouaredoingitisagoodruletoavoidextremestyles.

If you are a "Down East" man you will undoubtedly select some kind ofsnowshoe boot, harness, fastening or whatever you choose to call it.Most ofthese give satisfaction, but I have used the Indians' methodmostly, the samebeinga tieorhitchwithapieceoffive-eighth-inch lampwick,aboutfourfeetlong.Thetoestrapisseparateandisfastenedbyweavingtheendsinandoutofthefillingatthesidesofthetoeopening.Thewayoftyingtothefootisshownin the illustration more plainly than I can describe it. Both strings are tiedtogetherabovetheheel,andwhenproperlyadjusteditisnotnecessarytountieforputtingtheshoeonorremovingitfromthefoot;asimpletwistwilldoit.Ihaveusedsnowshoesforaweekormorewithoutundoingthefastening,anditisveryniceinextremecoldweathertobeabletoputonorremoveshoeswithout

baringthehands.Ifyouaresimplytravelingthroughthewoodsaimlessly,withnointentionof

makingfutureuseofthetrail, itmakeslittledifferencehowyougo,butifyouareatrapperandarebreakingoutatraplineyouwill,ofcourse,aimtostrikethegood places for sets without walking farther than necessary, and you shouldmakeyour trailwith aviewofusing it afterwards, avoiding steep ascents anddensethickets.Ifpossible,getoveryourtrailthesecondtimebeforethepackedsnowhardensandthetrailwillbesmoother.Blazeyourtrailontreesandbrushasyougoalong. I think itbest tomark thebrushbycutting themhalfoffandbending themawayfromthe trail. Ifyoumustmark trees,mark twosidesandthenyoucanfollowthemarkseitherway,andyoucanalsoindicatetheturnsinthepath.Myobjectiontomarksontreesarethattheycannotbeseenasplainlyascutbrush,especiallyafteradrivingsnowstorm,whenthesnowclingstothetrunksoftrees,andthatthedrooping,snow-ladenbranchesoftenhidethespotsjust when you need to see them most. A foot of fresh fallen snow maycompletelyobliterateyour trail,but if it iswellmarkedyoucan follow it still,andthebeatenbottommakeseasiertraveling,nodifferencehowmuchsnowhasfallenoverit.

Breakingout fresh trails ishardwork,andslow.Youcanbreak trail awayfromcampsixhours,andreturnoverthebrokentrailintwo.Inasnowyclimateitisadvisable,wheneverpossible,totraveleachpermanenttrailatleastonceintendays tokeep it ingoodcondition;but the trapperwillwant togetover thegroundoftenerthanthatanyway.

AssnowshoesarecostlyandtheirlifedependsmuchonthecaretheyreceiveI will give some rules covering this point that is always well to observe. Inbreaking out a fresh trail avoid snags which show through the snow or littleprotuberanceswhich indicate snagsbeneath the surface; alsobewareof placeswherethesnowappearstobeheldupbybrushorsticksbeneath.Ioncebrokeanewsnowshoeframebysteppingintoaconcealedhole;thewholetraildroppeddownandmysnowshoecaughtonasnagofanearbystump,breakingasectionoutoftheframe.Itisthestringing,however,thatisusuallycutoutbythesnags.Becarefulalsowhencrossinglogstoseethattheshoesarenotsupportedsolidlyattheendswhilethemiddleisfreetogodown;suchtreatmentwilleitherbreaktheframesorbendandstrainthem,andiftheyassumeacurvedshapetheyareunsightlyandtiringtothefeet,alsohardtouseinhillclimbing.Ialwaysliketogetstartedonthetrailasearlyinthemorningaspossible,sothatIcantravelafewmilesbeforedaylight,andIcampearlyintheeveningsoIcangetwoodandmakeacomfortablecampbeforedark.Intheearlyspring,whenthesnowmeltsduringthedayandclingstothesnowshoestheonlytimeonecantravelisinthe

morninguntil about teno'clock,and late in theevening.Atnight, if themoonshines,onecanmakegoodtime,butthroughthedayisthebesttimeforrestingat this season.When the snow sticks, the snowshoes get wet and heavy anddampsnowpacksontopandclingstothem,andwhenthesetroublescomeitisbest to cut wood, build a good fire and camp by it until evening. Stand thesnowshoesupinthesnowwherethesunshineandthewarmwindwilldrythem,makesometeaandeatyourlunch,thenrollintoyourblanketandrestuntilthesungetslow,whenyoucanresumeyourjourney.

Itisdifficulttraveling,atthebest,andthestrengthofthetravelerisheavilytaxed.Alwayshehastheheavypackandthesnowshoetrailseemsendless.Thehomecampiseverawelcomesight.Itmeansgreatercomfortandusuallyadayofresttowashandmendtheclothing,andadmirethedryingfurs,theharvestofthetraps.Therearedaysofawfulcold,andthedeep,loosesnowseemsalmosttoo much to endure; yet with all the hardships and privations there is anunexplainablefascinationconnectedwiththefree,wildlifeinthewoodsandintrampingthewintertrail.

TRAVELINGINTHEPATHLESSWOODS,PARTI

Everybody admires the man who can travel in the woods without gettinglost. Such a man always commands respect among his less accomplishedassociates.Thesportsmanneverceases towonderat theabilityofhisguide tofind his way unfailingly through the dense bush, and the white guide alsoadmiresandwondersat the Indian's accomplishments in the same line.To theuninitiatedthefeatsofthewoodsmanseemlikeasixthsense—instinct,theycallit.Butitisnotinstinct,butsimplytheapplicationofknowledgewhichcomestothosewhoareforcedbycircumstancestobeobservinginsuchmatters.Themanwhocantakeanoutfitonhisbackandtravelamonthinthewilderness,livingwithoutaparticleofaidfromhisfellowmen,isawoodsman,andhepossessesaknowledge of woodcraft which would make a better world if it could beimpartedtoallmankind.

IwasbornandgrewtomanhoodinoneofthewildestandroughestdistrictsofPennsylvania.NortheastfrommyhomeIcouldtravel30mileswithoutseeinga human habitation, and northward thewild, uninhabitedmountains reached alikedistance,brokenatoneplaceonlybyanarrowvalleyinwhichtherewereafew small farms. Little by little I learned to know these mountains and thenarrowvalleysbetween.Therewasnotastreamwithin10or15mileswhereIhadnotfishedfortroutandtrappedforminkand'coons,andIhadhuntedeveryswampandredbrushflatfordeer,bearsandgrouse.Ikneweveryplacewhereblueberries grew in sufficient numbers to make the gathering profitable, andoften Iwandered long distancesmerely for the pleasure ofmountain travel. Isoongotthereputationofbeinganaccomplishedwoodsman,anhonorwhichIdidnotdeserve,forIknewnothingwhateverabouttravelinrealwilderness.Thelongmountainsparallelingoneanothermadeiteasytogetaboutwithoutlosingthesenseofdirection,andIkeptmycompasspointsmerelybyfamiliaritywiththegroundonwhichItraveled.

Whenattheageof23IwentintothewildernessofCanada,Iwasupagainstanentirelydifferentproposition.Beforemewerehundredsofmilesofunbrokenbush, spottedwith lakes that at first looked all alike tome, and cut by smallstreamswhich flowed about from lake to lake in themost haphazard fashionimaginable. I had never traveled with the sun as a guide and knew nothingregardingtheuseofacompass,bothofwhichareessentialforwildernesstravel.

My firstmovewas to file on a piece of government land. The land guidehelped to locate me and while we were looking about I saw him look at his

compass,thenheremarkedthatitwasjustnoonandwewouldmakesometea.Iwassurprisedtoseehimgetthetimeofdayfromacompassandaskedhimhowheknewitwasnoon."Becausethesunisdirectlysouth,"heanswered,"anditisin that position only at noon." And then he explained to me how a compasscouldbeusedasawatch,withfairaccuracy,andhowawatchcouldbemadetoanswerverywellasacompass.

ACOMPASSOFAPRACTICALTYPE

The woodsman told me that I could not travel in that country without acompass,andIsoonfoundthatsuchwasthecase.Iborrowedacompassfromafriend, a small, slip-cover instrumentwith a stop to hold the needle stationarywhennotinuse.ButIfoundthattheslip-coverwasinconvenient;dustgotinatthe stop opening and hampered the movement of the needle; and finally thecompassslippedthroughaholeinmypocketandwaslost.BytheseexperiencesIlearnedthatthemostpracticalformofcompassforawoodsmanwasanopen-face,watch-shapedinstrument,withoutastop,andwitharingbywhichitcouldbefastenedtothecoatorvestlikeawatch.Suchaninstrumentdoesnothavethelonglifeofthefinerstopcompass,butitcostsonlyadollarorthereabouts,andafter a year or two of use can be thrown away and a new one purchased.Ofcourse,ifastopcompasscanbefoundthathasnooutsideopeningtoadmitdustitisbetterstill.

AnIndianseldomcarriesacompass,buthetravelsmainlybythe"layoftheland."HelearnsthecountryjustasIlearnedthemountainsofPennsylvania,andasarulehehaslittleideaofdirection.Sometimeshetravelsbysun,infactthesunanswersforbothwatchandcompass.Butwhenthesunisinvisibleandthegroundunfamiliarhesometimesmeetswithtroubleand"loseshiswigwam."But

he ismuch less apt toget lost thanawhiteman,under similar conditions, forwhenheloseshisbearingshedoesn'tlosehishead,infacthedoesn'tconsiderita seriousmatter at all.He simplymakes camp and the next dayhe travels onuntilherightshimselfagain.TheIndianalso,whenforcedtoit,usesmeansofgetting his bearings which only Indians and veteran woodsmen know how touse.

For my own part I travel mostly by the sun when on strange ground,verifyingmydirectionsoccasionallyby reference to the compass. I also studylandmarksandmakeuseof themconstantly, for to travelbycompassalone isslowanddifficult.

Comparatively fewpeoplewhohave never used a compass knowhow theinstrument works; indeed, I once knew a man who thought that the needlepointed towardshomewhen theowner losthisbearings.But it doesn'tdoanysuchthingunlessbychancethehomeliesnorth.

OnthepeninsulaofBoothiaFelix,whichjutsintotheArcticSeanorthwestof Hudson's Bay, is the magnetic north pole, and the needle of the compass,whenfreetorevolve,pointstothisparticularpartoftheearth.Itdoesnotpointdirectly towards themagnetic pole in all parts of theworld, for themagneticcurrentswhichconverge theredonot flow instraight lines. In fact, there isanareainAsia,wherethecompassneedleisdeflectedandpointstoasmallerlocalmagneticpole.Butforbushtravelallthatisnecessaryistoconsiderthattheblueendofthecompassneedlepointsnorth,andtocallthispointnorthalways,theoppositedirection,ofcourse,beingsouth.

PerhapsIshouldnotsaythattheneedlealwayspointsnorth,foritmayloseitsmagnetismwithageorthepivotonwhichitswingsmaybecomedulled,oragain theneedlemaybedeflectedbyametalobjectbeingbrought toonear. Iftheneedlebehavesqueerly,maybeyouareholdingittoonearyourgun,orsomemetal object in yourbelt or pocketmaybe attracting it.All objects of ironorsteelbecomemagnetizedtoacertainextentandwillattracttheneedleifbroughttoonear.Butasidefromsuchoutsideinfluence,andthatofwear,thecompassisa perfectly reliable instrument. Sometimes it tells us that the sun rises in thenorthwest, in which case we should believe it without question, for if we gocontrarytotheteachingsoftheinstrumentwewillfindthat99timesoutof100thecompassisrightandwearedeadwrong.Oneofthegreatestmistakesamancanmakewhenhegetsturnedaroundinthebigtimberistodoubthiscompass,butmanypeoplewilltakeachanceontheirveryunreliableinstinctratherthantotrust a perfectly trustworthy instrument which was brought into the woods toserve themon just such occasions.But one need never be in doubt, for if theneedleswingsfreelyandsettlesdowninthesamepositioneachtime,hemaybe

surethattheinstrumentisallright.Byreferringtothedrawing,whichshowsaverycommontypeofcompass,it

will be noted that the dial is graduated in degrees, on its outer edge,with theprincipalpointsmarkedwithletters.Theselettersmeannorth,east,south,west,northeast, southeast,etc.Tomake the compassworkperfectly itmust beheldlevelandsteadyuntiltheneedlestopsswinging,thenthecompasscanbeturnedeasily,sothattheblueendoftheneedlestandsovertheletter"N."Whenthisisdoneall thepointsof thecompassareshown.Theonlywayacompasscanbeusedistoshowthesedirections,and,ofcourse,theusershouldknowwhichwayhewants togo.Usuallyamanin thewoodsknowssomefamiliar landmark; itmaybeastream,alake,amountain,oreventherailroadwhichheleftwhenheenteredthewoods,andhewillknowwhetherheisnorth,south,eastorwestofthislandmark,sothereislittleexcuseforgettingcompletelylost.Butifheissohopelesslymuddledthathedoesn'tknowforthelifeofhimwhetherheisintheGrandCanyonoraCanadianswampthecompasswillnothelphimverymuch.Ifheistravelingnorthofhislandmarkhecanreturntoitbygoingsouth,andthecompasswilltellhimquicklywhichdirectionissouth.

AROUTETRAVELLEDBYCOMPASS

Supposeyouhavemadeacampinthewildsandhavesetouttoexplorethesurroundingcountry.ForthesakeofillustrationIhavedrawnamapofsomeofmyold-timehuntingground,showingthelocationofoneofmycamps.Thefirstmove would be to learn the country in the immediate vicinity of camp. Thestreambythesideofthecampflowseastandthiswouldbethefirstwithwhich

to get acquainted.A trip along the streambothways from campwill serve tofamiliarize one with the stream and nearby country, so that he would have agood landmark, andhe couldhardly cross this streamknowing that itwas thesameonewhichflowsbythecamp.Hewouldalsoknow,ifheweretoreachthiscreek,whetherthecamplayupstreamordown.Thisthenwouldserveasabasefrom which to operate. We will say now that he wishes to see some of thecountrynorthandnorthwestofcamp.Heseesinthedistanceahighhillwithapeculiarbunchoftreesonitssummit.Byreferringtothecompasshefindsthatthepositionof thishill isa littleeastofnorth.Thenfacinginthatdirectionhenotesthatthesunisbehindhisrightshoulder,foritismorningandthesunisinthe southeast. Replacing the compass in his pocket he starts toward the tree-crownedhillwhichhehaschosenasanobjectivepoint.Aslongasthehillisinsighthehasclearsailing,butwhentheforesthideshislandmarkfromviewhekeeps travelingstraightahead,maintaininghis samepositionwith reference tothesun.Butthesunisalsomovingandhedarenotgofarwithoutagainlookingatthecompassandnotingthechangedpositionofthesun.This,youwillsee,istraveling by landmark, by compass, and by sun, and it will be found a verypracticalway.

Butamancannottravelstraightintheaveragewildernesscountry,fornatureimposes obstacles. Lakes, swamps, unfordable streams and other naturalobstructions force detours, all of which must be kept in mind and a generalstraightcoursemaintained.

Presuming that in spite of the unavoidable detours the traveler has kept areasonablestraightcourseandhasreachedthehighhillwithitspeculiarclumpoftrees,hewillknownowthatsincehiscoursehasbeenalittleeastofnorthhiscampmustbe just thatmuchwestof south from thishill. Itwouldbeaneasymatterforhimtoretracehisstepstocampifhewishedtodoso.

From the top of the hill the explorer studies the topography of thesurrounding country, and notes the lakes; the hollows, which indicate watercourses;theswampandclumpofevergreenbush.Perhapshesketchesamapofwhathesees,thedetailstobeaddedasthecountryislearnedmorethoroughly.

Tothenorthwestheseeswhatappears tobeafairly large lake,andas thislooks interesting he sets out in that direction, traveling as before, by sun,compassandmarker.Sometimeshecanpickamarkahalfmiledistantandatother timeshemustbecontent tomakeuseof adead tree standingahundredyardsorlessaway.Butnearorfar,theyallservethesamepurpose.

Havingreachedhisobjectivehefindsthatwhatappearedtobealargelakeisinrealityachainofsmalllakesorpondsandhedrawsthemintohismap.

Then he sets out down stream, noting that it flows in a southwesterly

direction, and occasionally he takes a compass bearing tomake sure that thiscourse has not changed. After traveling about a mile he decides to return tocamp. By carefully considering the distance traveled in each direction heconcludesthatheisnowabouttwoandahalfmilesnorthwestofcamp,thereforehemusttravelsoutheast,sohestartsinthatdirection.Whenaboutaquarterofamilefromcampherecognizesthesurroundingsandchangeshiscoursealittleatthepointmarkedbythearrow,andgoesstraighttocamp.

Inthesamewaythecamperwouldexplorethecountryforafewmileseast,westandsouth,andwhenhehasbecomereasonablywellacquaintedwith thisgroundheisreadytopushhisexplorationstogreaterdistance,knowingthathecanwithoutdifficulty return to familiarground,and theneasily findhiscamp,for he could not cross the section of country with which he is now familiarwithoutrecognizingit.

TRAVELINGINTHEPATHLESSWOODS,PARTII

Totravelinastraightlinebycompass,andtokeepyourbearingsregardlessof how or where you go, is easy, if the rules I have given are followed; butpeopledonotalwaysknowtheserules,orforonereasonoranothertheydonotobservethem.Asaresulttheygetlost.WhattodoinsuchacaseIcan'ttell;butonethingthatshouldnotbedoneistogetfrightenedandtraveldesperatelyfirstinonedirection,theninanother,alwaysmoreorlessincircles,asmendowhentheywanderaimlessly.

I ama firmbeliever in that "ounceofprevention" adage, forprevention isbetter than cure every time. This policy has carried me through hundreds ofmilesofwildernesswithoutoncegetting lost. Ihaveneverbeen lost, althoughmanytimesIhavelostmybearingsforawhilewhentravelingincompanywithsomebody who was leading the way, or when trying to travel in unfamiliarcountrywithout using themethods I have been describing. I have never goneastraywhenusingacompass,orwhentravelingbyanyoftheotherwaysIhavementioned.

Ashort timeagoIwas talkingaboutbush travelwithafriendandafterhehadlistenedtomychatterforawhileheasked,"Whatwouldyoudoifyouwereto get lost?" "I wouldn't get lost," I answered, "for the rules I have beenexplainingtoyouaretopreventthatandwillalwaysdosoiffollowed.Ialwaysfollowthem.""Thatsoundsall right,"heargued,"butyouknowpeopledogetlostsometimesandIwanttoknowwhatamanshoulddoifhegetslost.Yousaythat you first get acquaintedwith the country near camp, then explore farther,etc.,butherenowissomethingdifferent.Igointothewoodstohuntdeer,withafewfellows.Weknownothingofthecountryandaredependentonourguides.Theyhaveledusintocampandwescarcelyknowhowwecame.Well,thenextday,Isetouttolookforgame,alone,intendingtohuntclosetocamp.Igofirstthis way and then that way, looking at the likely places, and after awhile itdawns onme that I don't knowwhich direction to go to reach camp. In otherwords, Iamlost.NowwhatshouldIdo?" Iwillconfess that thequestionwastoomuchforme.Havingneverbeenlost,Ihadnoexperienceofthiskindfromwhich todraw. I recalledstoriesofpeoplewhowere lostbutcouldn't thinkofanythingthatwouldhelpalostmanfindhisway.Therearemanywaystofindthe compass points, butwhen aman doesn't knowwhat direction hewants totravel,whatgoodisthereinknowingwhichisnorthandeast?

Isuggestedtomyfriendthatamanwouldsurelyalwayshavesomepointin

mind with which he was acquainted and would know approximately whichdirection this place lay. "If he does he isn't lost," he replied. "And even if heknowsthat therailroadrunsnorthandthathe iseastof it, therailroadmaybefiftyorahundredmilesaway,whilehemaybeonlyamileortwofromcamp."

The only practical thing I could suggest was this:When a man suddenlydiscovers that he has lost his bearings and doesn't knowwhich way to go toreachcamporfamiliarground,heshouldaboveallthingsavoidgettingexcitedand"losinghishead."Itisnotatallaseriousmatterandifhewillkeepcoolanduse judgment he will come out all right. First let him note carefully hissurroundingssohewillknowtheplacewhenheseesitagain.Thenhecansetout inwhatseems tobe themostprobabledirection tofamiliarground,buthemusttravelinastraightlinebythemethodIdescribedinthelastchapter.Aftertravelingareasonabledistance,ifnofamiliargroundisreachedheshouldreturntothestartingpointandtryanotherdirection.Ifallthisfails,thevariouspointsofthecompasshavingbeentried,heshouldcomebacktothestartingpointandcamp there until his friends find him. I am presuming that he has lost hisbearingsundertheconditionsnamedbymyfriendandthathehascompanionssomewherenotmanymilesdistant.Thecampfiremayhelphisfriendsfindhimandifhefireshisgunitmayalsodosomegood.ItisaverygoodplantoagreeonsomesortofasignaltouseincasesomememberofthepartyloseshiswaybutIknowthisisseldomdone,fornobodycarestolethisfriendsknowthathefeelstheremotestpossibilityofgettinglost.Ineverleavecampwithouthavingwithmeagoodquantityofmatches.IalwayscarryalightaxandiftheweatheriscoldIputablanketinmypacksack.Thus,ifanythinghappenstopreventmygettingbacktocampIamreasonablyoutfittedforcampingoutanight.

THEWATCHASACOMPASS

InmytalkabouttravelbycompassIhavespokenofkeepingdirectionbythesun and thus doing away to a great extent with frequent reference to the

compass.Doubtless the readerhasbeenwonderingwhatheshoulddoondayswhenthesunisinvisible.Fortunatelytherearefewsuchdaysunlessitisduringarainwhenofcourseverylittletravelingisdone.Buttherearedayswhenfogorcloudsobscurethesunforhoursandthentravelisslowbecauseonemustmakefrequent reference to the compass. The only safe way is to select someconspicuousobjectinthelineoftraveleachtimeacompassbearingistakenandto take a new bearing when this object is reached. A dense fog is the worstpossiblecondition for thennotonly is thesun invisiblebutonecannot see farenough to choose objective points. I seldom attempt to travel under suchconditionsbutwhen Ido, if Imakeahalfor three-quartersofamileanhour,providing I have no stream, lake shore or trail to follow, I consider that I amgetting along very well. Blinding rain or snow storms also make travel verydifficult.Ihavetraveledinaheavysnowstormbymakinguseofthewindasaguide, in conjunction with the compass. The wind seldom changes during asteadyrainorsnowstorm,andanywaythecompasswouldapprisethewayfarerofachangeinthewindbeforehehadgonefaroutofhiscourse.

Therearewaysof learningthedirectionswithoutacompasswhichmaybeusedincaseofemergency.Firstthereisthesun.Intheoryitrisesintheeastandsetsinthewest;butinrealityitonlybehavessoonorveryneartheequator.Asweareinthenorthernhemispherethesunisofcoursesouthoftheeastandwestline all the time, and inwinter it is farther south than in summer, because theearthwabbles back and forth throughout the seasons and the northern portionleansawayfromthepathof thesun inwinter.Asaconsequence thesun risessomewhatsouthoftheeastinsummerandsetsalittlesouthofwest.Inwinteritrisesstillfarthersouthanditspathacrosstheskyisalwaystothesouthofus.Atnoonitisstraightsouth.Thusitwillbeseenthatifoneknowsapproximatelythetimeofdayhecaneasily figureout thecompasspoints.Directionsby thesuncanbelearnedwithmuchgreateraccuracyifonehasawatch,forknowingthetimeofdayexactlyheshouldknowjusthowfarthesunisfromthezenithatthattimeandthuseasilylocatethetruesouth.Havingfoundithehasbuttofaceinthatdirectionandthenorthwillthenbebehindhim,theeastonhisleftandthewestonhisrightside.

Butthereisamuchbetterwayofgettingthecompassdirectionsbymeansofa watch and it is done in this way. Holding the watch so that the hour handpointstoalineperpendiculartothesun,counthalfwayfromthishourtotwelveandthiswillbesouth; inotherwordshalfwaybetweenthehourhandandthefigure twelve is south. Count forward from the hour hand to twelve in theforenoon,butintheafternoonthesouthishalfwaybetweenthehourhandandtwelve, counting back towards twelve.While I may not havemademy point

clear Ibelieve that thedrawingwillconvey the ideamoredistinctly.The timeshownis8p.m.andwiththehourhandpointedtowardsthesun,southwouldbemidwaybetween8and12orinlinewiththefigure10.

When the sun is invisible and no compass or other ordinary means oflocatingdirectionsisavailableitisadvisabletostayincampifpossible.Butitiswell toknowmeansof findingdirectionsunder such conditions for oneneverknowswhatmayhappenandalittleknowledgealongthislinecandonoharmeven if it is never used.We sometimes read or hear fromwoodsmen of suchmeansandusuallytheyaregivenassafeandreliablemethods.Buttheyshouldneverbetakentooseriously.Forinstancewearetoldthatmossgrowsonlyonthenorthsideof trees,while the largerbranchesareon thesouthside.This istrueinageneralwaybutconditionshavetheireffectandtheshelteroftheothertrees or nearby hillsmay reverse the ordermore or less.But the fact that thesun'sraysneverdirectlyreachthenorthsideofatreeencouragesthegrowthofmossonthatside,whilethealmostconstantsunshinebyday,onthesouthside,causesthesaptoflowtheremorevigorouslyandthusgivesagreatergrowthtothe branches on the south side. In prairie country the prevailingwind, usuallyfromthenorth,willgiveapermanentinclinetothegrass,whichmayhelponetolocatedirections.

Itisseldomnecessarytotravelatnightunlessinthenorthwhenthesnowissoftduringthedayandtravelisbetteratnight.Butthenthetravelerusuallyhasa snowshoe trail to follow or he will have some other way of keeping hisdirections.Ifnothecantravelbythenorthstarinthesamewaythathekeepshisbearingsbythesunduringtheday.Thedifferenceisthatthenorthstardoesnotmoveacrosstheskyasdoesthesun,andit isalwaysinthenorth.Tofindthisstar first locate the group which constitute what is commonly known as thedipper.Thetwostarsformingthesideofthebowlfarthestfromthehandleareinlinewiththenorthstaranditisabovetheopensideortopofthedipperbowl.

THESTARTHATMARKSTHETRUENORTH

Ihave remarked thataman travelingwithoutguidanceofanykindalwaysmovesinacircleandIthinkthereadersareallwellacquaintedwiththisfact.Idon'tknowwhywedoso,butonetheoryisthatonelegislongerthantheotherandnaturallytakesa longerstep.Others thinkthetroubleiscausedbyonelegbeing stronger than the other. But whatever the cause it is a fact that a manwanderingaimlesslyinthewoodswill inashort timecrosshisowntrail.ThisfactwasneverbroughthometomesoforciblyasonetimewhenItriedtotravelwithoutacompassonacloudyday.ItwasearlyspringandIwas travelingonsnowshoes,so therewasnodangerofgetting lost, for Ihadmytrail to followbacktocamp.Iwastryingtotravelsouthandwassettingalineoftraps.Ihadtraveledquite a distance straight south as I supposedwhen I sawbeforeme afresh snowshoe trail. I thought at once that some Indian trapper must haveinvadedmy trappingground. I stepped into the trail andwas surprised to findthatmysnowshoes fittedperfectly into the tracks; then the truthdawneduponme—I had been traveling in a circle. Feeling very foolish I started forwardagain,resolvedtokeepastraightcourse.IfoundtheplacewhereIhadmadethefirst turn to the right and here I left the trail and started south again. Aftertravelingperhapsahalfmile I again sawa fresh trail aheadandknewatoncethatIhadmadeanothercircle.OncemoreIattemptedtostrikeastraightcoursesouthandItraveledtheremainderofthewaywithoutcompletingacircle.WhenthetimecametoreturntocampIhadjustonetrapleftandIsetitattheendofthe trail in a ravinewhich led down from a hillside.A fewdays laterwhen IwenttolookatthetrapsIclimbedtothetopofthehillwhereIhadsetthelasttrap,adistanceofabout100yards,andwasverymuchsurprised toseebelowmethelakeonwhichmycampwassituated,andthecabinitselfnotmorethanamileaway.

Totravelstraightbythatquestionablesenseknownasinstinctisabsolutelyimpossible,notwithstandingthestorieswehearofIndians,forestersandotherswhohabituallytravelthisway.Instinctisaveryunreliableguideandsomethingmore tangible is needed. So when you hear stories of a man who can goanywhere and find his way without failure from one part of the woods toanother,itmaybewisetopretendcredulity,butyoumaybesurethatthestoryteller is either elaborating or his hero has a very thorough knowledge of thewoodsandaveryreliable,altogetherscientificmethodofkeepinghisbearings.

Thesurestwaytoget lost is to try to travelonstrangegroundwithoutanyguidancewhatever,andthisisperhapsmosteasilyaccomplishedbylettingsomeotherperson lead thewayuntilyouhavecompletely lostyourbearings. It isastrange fact that few people pay any attention to where they are going ifsomebodyelseleadsthewayandthisprobablyresults inmorecasesofpeople

losing their bearings than all other things combined. I have lost all sense ofdirectioninaveryshorttimebylettingsomeotherpersonleadtheway,andthisinafarmingcommunity.Anothereasywaytogetlostistofollowagametrail,for in suchcases the trail and theprobabilityof sighting thegameso interestsandcompletelyfillone'sthoughtsthatheseldomgivesanythoughttodirectionsordistancetraveled.

Tosumupthewholematterofbushtravel,onethingstandsoutasbeingoftheutmostimportanceandthatistokeepthecompasspointsconstantlyinmindandatthesametimehavefamiliargroundfromwhichtostartoperations.Withthese two essentials there will be no worry about getting lost to mar one'spleasureandhecantravelanywherehechoosesinthebigwoods.

PACKING

The outfit needed for packing camp equipment is, for each horse, a packsaddle,woolenblankets,packcinch,35or40feetofone-halfinchmanilarope,anotherropeofthesamesize,20feetlong,apairofalforjas,apairofhobbles,andabelltoputonthehorsewhenitisturnedoutforthenight.

A pack saddle consists of two crosses of hardwood, fastened to two flat,round-end pieces ofwood, and to this is attached breeching, breast straps andoneortwocinches,withtheothernecessarystrapwork.

Agoodpacksaddleisstrongandwellmade,ofgoodmaterials.Theleatheris a peculiar kind that will not tighten when tied into knots, for the cinchadjustmentsareusuallytiedinsteadoffastenedwithbuckles.Whenselectingapacksaddlebesurethatthebreechingandbreaststrapsarelongenoughforanyhorse on which the saddle may be used, for the makers frequently try toeconomizebyskimpingtherigging,sothattheymaysellatalowerprice.

Be sure also that the saddle fits thehorse reasonablywell, or itwill causetrouble.Mostofthepackhorsesusedinthemountainsaremoreorlesshollowbacked, and the saddle base should not be too longor itwill rest on the endsonly.Ontheotherhand,iftooshortitwillnotbesostableandwillalsohurtthehorse.Thedoublecinchsaddle, suchasshown in the illustration, isby far thebest.

Alforjasaresackstohangonthesidesofthesaddle,inwhichtoplaceallofthesmallarticlesoftheoutfit.Theyaremadeofveryheavyduck,leatherbound,andhave straps or loops of ropewithwhich to suspend them from the saddleforks.Thepropersizeisabout24incheswide,18incheshigh,andwhenopenedout,nineinchesdeep.

Whenpackinganoutfit thehorseshouldbe tiedand theblanket shouldbefoldedandplacedonthehorse'sback.Itshouldnotbelessthanfourfoldsthickandshouldextendalittleaheadandalittlebehindthesaddlebase.Itmustalsocomedownfarenoughonthesidestoformapadforthealforjasandkeepthemfromrubbingandchafingtheanimal.

Thesaddleshouldthenbeplacedonthefoldedblanket.Now,atthispoint,ifyouwanttobekindtothepoorhorse,grasptheblanketbetweenthetwopiecesofthesaddlebaseandpullitupalittle,sothatitislooseoverthehorse'sback.Thiswillallowthesaddle tosettledownunder theweightof thepackandnotbind,whichitissuretodoiftheblanketisnotloosenedalittleasadvised.Thenbothcinches shouldbe tightened, and thebreechingandbreast strapsproperly

adjusted.Thealforjasarethenfilledwiththesmallarticlesofthecampequipmentand

hungontheforksofthesaddle.Ifthepackerisatallconscientious,asheshouldbe,hewillseethateachsackisofthesameweightandthattherearenohardorsharpobjectssoplaced that theywill injure theanimal.Articleswhichare toobigtogointothesacksarethenplacedontop,wheretheywillrestfirmlyandnothurtthehorse,andtheblanketsandtentarefoldedandspreadoverthetopofsaddleandalforjas.

DOUBLECINCHPACKSADDLE

Atthisstagecommenceswhat isgenerallyconsidered the trickofpacking,

tyingthepacktothehorse.Therearemanyformsofpackhitchinuseandanyofthemmaybe learnedquiteeasilybyanobservingperson,nevertheless tyingapackproperlycanscarcelybedoneatthefirstattempt.Themostpopularofpackties is what is known as the diamond hitch and all things considered it isprobablythebestonthelist.

Tothrowthediamondhitch,proceedasfollows:Havingtiedoneendofthelongropetotheringofthepackcinch,gotothenearside(left)ofthehorseandthrowthecinchoverthepackandhorse,thenreachunderthehorseandpickupthecinch.Thehookedendof thecinch isnow towardyou.Drawbackon theropeuntilyouhavealloftheslackandpulltheropedownonthenearsidetothehookof the cinch; double it here andgive it a twist, as shown inFig. 1, thenhookthelooptothecinch.Nowdoublethefreeportionoftheropeandshoveitthroughunderthepartmarkedbythearrow,fromtheback,formingloopA,asshowninFig.2.NowgivethisloopatwistasshowninFig.3,tobringthefreeportionof theropedownfarther towards thenearside.Nextgrasp this ropeatthe placemarked by the arrow in Fig. 3, and draw up a part of the free ropeformingloopB,asshowninFig.4.Allofthistimeyouhavebeenkeepingtheropethatcrossesthepackfairlytight.YounowgototheoffsideandpullloopAdownoverandunderthepack,thencomebackandputloopBunderthepackonthenearside.ThiswillleavethehitchasinFig.5anditisreadyfortightening.Commence first by pulling the rope at A, then at B, C, D, E, F, G and H,successively.TheendoftheropeHisthentiedtotheringinthepackcinchattheoffside,andthediamondhitchiscompleted.Theropesshouldallbequitetight,andiftheygrowlooseafterawhiletheyshouldbetightenedagain.

Thereisanotherverysimplewayoftyingadiamondhitch,whichthoughnotquiteliketheonedescribedindetail, is thesameinprinciple.It isshownveryplainly in the threediagrams reproducedhere.As in the firstmethod the ropeandcincharethrownacrossthepacktotheoffsideandthecinchispickedupfrombeneaththehorse,thentheropeisdrawnupandhookedtothecinch,butthelittletwistisnotputintheropeasinthefirstmethod.Thefreeportionofthe

ropeisthenthrownacrossthepacktotheoffsidesothatitisparallelwithandbehind thefirst rope.Thendouble this ropeon the topof thepackandpush itunderthefirstropefromtherear,asshowninFig.8.Nowbringthisloopbackoverandpushitthroughagain,asinFig.9,formingthesmallloopA.Nowtakethefreeendoftheropedownunderthepackonthenearside,backandupattherear,throughtheloopAagain.ThisisillustratedinFig.10.Thefreeendoftheropethengoesdownunderthepackfromtherearontheoffsideandfastenstothecinchring.Theropeistightenedthesameasintheothermethod.Thishitchis as goodas theother and ismore easily remembered, althoughnot as easilytiedastheonefirstdescribed.

Eitherof thesepack tiesmaybemanagedeasilybyoneman,but theyaretiedmorerapidlybytwomen,onestandingontheoffsideandtheotheronthenearside,sothatneitherneedwalkaroundthehorse.Thenthereistheadditionaladvantageinthattheropemaybedrawnuptightandthereisnodangerthatitwillslip,asoneortheotherofthemencanbeholdingtheropeallthetimethepackisbeingtied.

In addition to the pack ties described there is another hitch that should belearnedasitisusefulforsecuringpackagestothepacksaddlewhenalforjasarenot used, also for holding packs to the sides of the saddle while tying thediamondhitch.ThereareseveralmethodsoffixingaslingropeandthemodeIamgoingtodescribeisillustratedinFig.7.

Forthispurposetheshorterlengthofropeisbroughtintouse.Itisdoubledinthemiddleandloopedaroundthefrontforksofthepacksaddle,thenone-halfof the rope is taken to the near side and the other is dropped on the off side.Takingeitherhalfoftherope,youallowsufficientslacktoholdthepackattheproperheightthenbringtheropearoundtherearforks,thendowntothecentreoftheslackportion,whereitistied.Thepackisthenfixedinthisloopandtheother side is arranged the sameway. After both packs are properly slung theendsoftheropearebroughtupontopandtiedtogether.

Therearemanyformsofpackhitchesother than thosedescribed,althoughthediamondhitchismostusedandmorepopularthananyoftheothers.

A pack horse should never be overloaded, and the animal cannot carry asgreat a load asmany people expect. Twohundred pounds is the limit for anypack,and150isamorereasonableload.Forlongjourneysthepack,perhorse,shouldnotweighthismuch.Ahundredora125isallthatshouldbeallottedtoanyanimal.

A pack trainmay consist of any number of pack animals, and if there areenoughridersinthepartyonemanridesbetweeneachtwopackhorses.Imeanbythat,oneridergoesaheadleadingahorsebehindhim.Thathorseisfollowed

byanotherrider,thenanotherpackhorse,etc.Iftherearenotenoughmenintheparty for this, twopack animals are placedbetween two riders.Themenmayleadthehorsesiftheyareinclinedtowanderfromtheroute,butordinarilythisisnotnecessary,astheanimalswillkeepinline.Butifyouleadapackhorsedonotgrowtiredofholdingtheropeandtieittothehornofthesaddle.Thisisadangerous practice and may result in serious injury to the one who is sothoughtless, for thepackhorsemaybecome frightenedandboltormay swingaround,wrappingtheropearoundtherider.

ANIMALTRACKS1.PARTRIDGE;2.RABBIT;3.SQUIRREL;4.SKUNK;AND5.AFEWFOXTRACKS

Pack horses are always more or less troublesome, and the man who usesthem should have a bountiful supply of patience. At night the animals arehobbled,whichmeansthattheirfrontfeetarefastenedtogetherwithhobbles,sothattheycannottravelfastorfar.Toomuchdependenceshouldnotbeplacedontheseretarders,forWesternhorsessoonlearntotravelquiterapidlywhenthusimpeded,andwillsometimessetoutforhomewhilethemastersleeps.Agoodpracticeis topicketoneor twohorsesinthebestspotsofpasturetobefound,andhobbletheremaininganimals.Theyarenotsolikelytoleaveifthisisdone,

andiftheydo,thepicketedhorsesmustremainbehind,whichinsuresatleastamountwithwhichtofollowtherunaways.Alsoputabelloneachhorse,asthiswillaidinlocatingtheanimalsinthemorning.

Horse feed cannot be carried, and Western horses seldom get any foodexceptwhattheycanfindatnightorwhiletheyarenotinuse,andontheplainsor in themountains where vegetation is scanty they sometimes do not get asmuchas theyrequire.Undersuchcircumstancestheyshouldnotbeloadedtooheavily, or traveled too far in a day, and itmay evenbe necessary, on a longjourneytotakeanoccasionaldayofresttoallowthehorsestorecuperate.

"Ishouldliketoleadthiswholenationintothewayoflivingoutdoors,"wroteErnestSeton,overseventy-fiveyearsago.Ifthenationwasinneedofadoseofnaturethen,wecancertainlybenefitevenmorefromSeton'ssageadvicenow.

Learntobuildacampfire,adam,orabirchbarkbasket;torecognizeanimaltracks,constellations,andallmannerofforestry;tostopanosebleed,easepoisonivy,orsootheasorethroatwithnaturalremedies;tomakedelicious

poisonivy,orsootheasorethroatwithnaturalremedies;tomakedeliciousbiscuitsonthetrailandspotediblemushrooms;andmore.ThisbookisessentialforBoyScoutsandtheirleaders,andgreatfunforanyonedesiringafullerexperienceoflifeoutdoors.

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Therecannotbeahunterandanglerwhohasnot,atsometimeorother,daydreamedaboutbuildinghisorherowncamp.TheHuntingandFishingCampBuilder'sGuideprovidestheconcepts,plans,andknow-howtoturnadaydreamintoareality.MonteBurchappliesdecadesofhow-toskillstodescribethe"insandouts"ofdesignandconstruction.Fromthecabintothefurnitureinside,youcandoitallyourselfandcreatethecamporlodgeofyourdreams.

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Thisclassic,scholarlyhistoryofthefurtrappersandtradersoftheearlynineteenthcenturyfocusesonthedevicesthatenabledtheopeningoftheuntrackedAmericanWest.Sprinkledwithinterestingfactsandoldwesternlore,thisguidetotrapsandtoolsisalsoalivelyhistory.TheeraofthemountainmanisdistinctinAmericanhistory,andRussell'sexhaustivecoverageoftheguns,traps,knives,axes,andotherirontoolsofthisera,alongwithmeticulousappendices,isastonishing.Theresultofthirty-fiveyearsofpainstakingresearch,thisisthedefinitiveguidetothetoolsofthemountainmen.

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