women in parlament 2005
TRANSCRIPT
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WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
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WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES
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Table of contents
Preface: From indicators to action ........................................ 3
Better policies for men and women ..................................... 4
OECD work on gender equalityin developing countries ................................................................. 6
1. Population
Men and women in the populationsof OECD countries ............................................................................. 7
Total fertility rates ............................................................................ 8
Immigration ........................................................................................... 9
2. Education
Students with disabilities,learning difficulties and disadvantages ............................ 10
Student performance ...................................................................... 11
Tertiary education ............................................................................ 12
University graduates by field of study ................................ 13
3. Labour market
Inactive youths .................................................................................... 14
Gender wage gaps ..............................................................................15
Employment ........................................................................................... 16
Unemployment .................................................................................... 17
Self employment ................................................................................ 18
Working hours ..................................................................................... 19
Occupations of men and women ............................................ 20
Immigrants and employment .................................................. 21
4. Political and economic power
Women in parliament .................................................................... 22
Managerial and professional posts ....................................... 23
5. Social issues
Life satisfaction ................................................................................... 24
Social isolation .................................................................................... 25
Prison population .............................................................................. 26
6. Health
Life expectancy at birth ................................................................ 27
Causes of death ................................................................................... 28
Tobacco consumption .................................................................... 29
Overweight and obese .................................................................... 30
Acknowledgements:
This brochure has been prepared by Derek Blades, with
Mark Pearson, Head of the OECD Social Policy Division
as editor. Contributors from across the Organisationdeserve the real credit for the existence of this brochure,
however, for all the work they have undertaken in
developing gender statistics over the years. The
enthusiasm of the OECD Gender group was essential in
getting the project completed. Particular thanks are due
to Pauline Fron, Lynda Hawe and Valentina Kostyleva.
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PrefaceFrom indicators to action: OECD provides the analysis
The OECD exists to promote policies designed to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth andemployment and a rising standard of living. We are proud of the role we play in helping countries learn from
one another in achieving these goals, and in identifying best practice in a very broad range of policies, fromeducation and pensions to macroeconomic policy and trade.
To identify best practice, the OECD develops indicators which illustrate some vital differences in experience,across countries, over t ime and across different groups. Such indicators are not plucked from thin air. Rather, theyare the product of many years of painstaking work in identifying the issue, getting agreement across countries,collecting and standardising data. For many years now, we have been trying to improve analysis by collectingstatistics separately for women and men. Outcomes for women and men are very different across many differentareas of life, and policies have to reflect this. Best practice across countries in many areas of policy cannot begender-blind.
The Quality Framework and Guidelines for OECD Statistics indicates that, whenever appropriate, the OECDshould collect data disaggregated by sex. The indicators in this brochure are a tiny sample of the data which arenow collected by the OECD. They illustrate some important differences between women and men. Sometimesoutcomes are better for women than for men they perform better at school, they are less likely to go to pr ison,to smoke, are less likely to be social ly isolated, and they l ive longer. In other areas, men have a better t ime of it they earn more and are more likely to get into positions of power in both political and economic life.
In addition to these indicators of outcomes, we need to analyse policy. There is not space to showcase all ofour gender-related work in this brochure, but we are making a lot of headway in many different areas of genderanalysis, not just in the areas that you would expect pensions, family policies and education, for example but also in trade, entrepreneurship and development aid. If governments want more growth, employment
and a better standard of living, then they are going to need more of this sort of gender-sensitive analysis, andmore indicators of how men and women are doing. The OECD is committed to sustain this effort providing solidstatistical evidence and analysis.
Dick HecklingerOECD Deputy-Secretary General
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Better policies for men and women
younger age groups, most new claims for disability benefits areby women rather than by men see new reviews on Sickness,
Disability and Work. Some people argue that this is because of anincrease in stress. This in turn is said to be due to the rise infemale employment which, when combined with continuing careresponsibilities, means many women now find themselves doingtwo jobs.
One of the ways in which countries have coped with the increasein demand for carers has been through immigration. Caring isthe main area of employment for female migrants (see reviewsof the Social Integration of Migrants). The fact that women providemore than half of all new immigration into OECD countries (see
the International Migration Outlook) has too often been ignored bypolicymakers.
The OECD has long pioneered analysis of womensentrepreneurship, through elimination of barriers to enterprisecreation and growth. The Istanbul Declaration by OECD Ministershas recognised the importance of womens entrepreneurship,and recommendations have been developed to foster womensentrepreneurship. Local Reviews on Womens Entrepreneurshiphave been undertaken in order to explore the role of womensentrepreneurship in local development.
Gender issues have also been prominent in some unexpectedareas. For example, the OECD Guidelines for MultinationalEnterprises have been used to promote gender equality in theoperations of multinationals in non-OECD countries. Gender andTrade argues that women sometimes face particular barriersin taking advantage of trade liberalisation. Information onEqual Opportunity Policies is collected as part of OECDs work on
Indicators are only the first step in developing better policies for womenand men: the next stage is to understand why these differences occur, and
then what we can do about them. The following describes a few of the mostimportant recent and ongoing projects aimed at improving gender policy inOECD countries. Information on OECD work on gender issues in developingcountries follows.
Gender differences are striking in school performance, asthe OECD PISA study (Programme for International StudentAssessment) of attainments at age 15 shows. National experiencesare being reviewed in an Equity in Education project, which looksat why different groups including the different sexes end upwith different outcomes. While female participation in tertiary
education has grown rapidly in comparison to males, the choiceof subjects remains very different. This contributes in part to theresult that women end up in low-wage sectors of the economy,as documented in country reviews on The Transition from School toWork.
Work on the reconciliation of work and family life (Babies andBosses) and studies in the OECD Employment Outlook and the OECDEconomic Outlook show that taxation, provision of childcare andparental leave, and the availability of part-time work can al l havea big impact on the working patterns of parents, particularly
mothers. Family-friendly policies can also affect Fertility Rates,which have collapsed in many OECD countries.
Children are not the only family members that need care:older relatives may need help too. This is another task whichpredominantly falls on women. OECD work is looking at DisabilityTrends among older people and at different models for deliveringLong-Term Care Services either at home or in institutions. For
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Public Governance. New work is beginning which will look athow specified target groups, including women, could be more
involved in Policymaking. OECD work suggests that having agender dimension in Environmental Policy might be justified women and men behave differently the way they use transport,recycle or purchase organic food.
A guidance document for regulators and industry on how best toassess whether Hazardous Chemicals can harm a womans abilityto become pregnant and have healthy babies is under discussion.The OECD has developed a new hazard category within the GloballyHarmonised System for Classification of Chemicals covering risks duringpregnancy and breastfeeding.
The OECD Health Care Quality Indicators project has collected dataon breast and cervical cancer screening and survival rates, withfurther work underway on colorectal cancer rates, and heartattack and stroke mortality rates.
Some aspects of the pension system favour women over men lower retirement ages (though these are often being phased
out see Living Longer, Working Longer) and longer life expectancycombined with gender-neutral actuarial tables in calculatingpension payouts, for example (see Pensions at a Glance). On theother hand, women have lower pensions than men and are morelikely to be in poverty in old age than men. This reflects reducedearning (and therefore pension contributions) through theirlifetime, partly because of child-rearing. Furthermore, work onFinancial Education suggests that women have less understandingand confidence in making financial decisions, have less to save,and invest more conservatively than do men.
Further information is available on those projects in italics above.Simply go to the Gender Topic on the OECD website (www.oecd.org/gender) and click on whichever link interests you. Alternatively,contact [email protected] for further information.
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OECD work on gender equality in developing countries
Did you know?On average, women in developing countries get married 6 yearsearlier than in OECD countries.
There are still 800 million people in the world lacking basic
literacy skills. Women account for two-thirds of the total.Young women in sub-Sahara Africa aged 15-24 are between twoand six times as likely to be HIV-positive than men of a similarage.
About one-half of aid to basic education and basic health targetedgender-specific concerns.
Progress towards gender equality and womens empowerment isvital for improving economic, social and political conditions indeveloping countries. The OECD helps show how governments
can take gender equality into account in development policiesand practices. OECD countries are encouraged to give aid in a waythat supports gender equity.
The Gender, Institutions and Development database
In large parts of the developing world, traditions and socio-cultural norms stil l trap countries in poverty as they bar womenfrom economic activities: more discrimination less economicgrowth more poverty.
To help governments choose effective policies, the OECD has
created the Gender, Institutions and Development Database (GID). Itincludes comparative data for 161 countries on the socio-economicstatus of women. Its innovation is the inclusion of institutionalvariables that range from intra-household behaviour to socialnorms. Information on cultural and traditional practices iscoded to measure the level of discrimination, making the GID aunique tool for a wide range of analytical queries and allowing acase-by-case adaptation to specific research or policy questions.
By identifying cultural and traditional practices that discriminateagainst women, from forced marriages and female genitalmutilation to restrictions on inheritance and ownership rights, theGID helps design effective policies. More funding will be effectiveonly if the underlying causes of discr imination are addressed. The
Gender, Institutions and Development database can be accessed free ofcharge at www.oecd.org/dev/institutions/GIDdatabase .
Gender equality and aid
The Network on Gender Equality (GENDERNET) (www.oecd.org/dac/gender) is a forum where gender experts from developmentco-operation agencies meet to stimulate fresh thinking andnew approaches to investing in gender equality and womensempowerment.
The OECD asks countries to provide information on aid in support
of gender equality. In the OECDs Creditor Reporting System database(www.oecd.org/dac/stats/crs/gender), donor countries are asked toindicate for each individual aid activ ity whether or not it targetsgender equality as one of its policy objectives. A study conductedin 2005 showed that two-thirds of aid in support of genderequality was in the social sectors, especially basic educationand basic health. About one-half of aid to basic education andbasic health targeted gender-specific concerns, while little wasreported as targeting gender equality in the sectors of transport,communications and energy infrastructure.
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Men and women in the populations of OECD countries
Did you know?Up to their early teens, boys slightly outnumber girls in allthe OECD countries. In the 25-54 age group prime workinglife the numbers of men and women are about equal in all
countries. But in the older age groups women often outnumbermen by more than two to one.
In 2005 women slightly outnumbered men in all OECD countriesexcept Iceland, where the numbers were equal, and Korea andTurkey where there were slightly more men than women. In theOECD area as a whole there are 104 women for every 100 men.
OECD populations in 2005 and ratios of women to men
Population(000)
W/Mratio
Population(000)
W/Mratio
Population(000)
W/Mratio
Iceland 295 1.00 Sweden 9 041 1.02 Spain 43 064 1.04
Luxembourg 465 1.03 Hungary 10 098 1.05 Korea 47 817 0.99
NewZealand
4 028 1.03 Czech Rep. 10 220 1.10 Italy 58 093 1.06
Ireland 4 148 1.01 Belgium 10 419 1.04UnitedKingdom
59 668 1.05
Norway 4 620 1.01 Portugal 10 495 1.07 France 60 496 1.05
Finland 5 249 1.04 Greece 11 120 1.02 Turkey 73 193 0.98Slovak Rep. 5 401 1.02 Netherlands 16 299 1.01 Germany 82 689 1.05
Denmark 5 431 1.06 Australia 20 155 1.03 Mexico 107 029 1.05
Switzerland 7 252 1.06 Canada 32 268 1.02 Japan 128 085 1.05
Austria 8 189 1.05 Poland 38 530 1.06UnitedStates
298 213 1.03
In all OECD countries a few more boys are born than girls, so thatboys predominate in the 0-14 age group. However, men smoke anddrink alcohol more than women, have higher suicide rates, andindeed have higher mortality rates from many other causes. As aresult, women are much more numerous than men in the 80+ age
group.High male death rates in the Second World War explain thewomen/men ratios in excess of 2.0 in the chart below. The maledeath toll was particularly high in Germany, Finland, Japan andthe countries of central Europe.
Ratios of women to men at different ages2005
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Turkey
Mexico
Greece
Icelan
d
Austr
alia
Swed
en
NewZe
aland
Cana
da
Unite
dStates
Norw
ay
Switz
erlan
dSp
ain
Unite
dKing
dom
Irelan
d
Portu
galIta
ly
O
ECD
averag
e
France
Denm
ark
Belgi
um
Slo
vakR
epublic
AustriaJapanKo
rea
Neth
erlan
ds
Cze
chRepublic
Luxe
mbou
rg
Polan
d
Hung
ary
Finlan
d
Germ
any
0 to 14 25 to 54 80 and over
Source: United Nations population projections, 2004 revisions.
Further reading:OECD (2006), Labour Force Statistics 2006 Edition, OECD, Paris.
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Total fertility rates
In all OECD countries, fertility rates have declined for youngwomen and increased at older ages, because women (and men)are postponing the age at which they start their famil ies.
Many reasons have been given for the dramatic change in fertilityrates. The most convincing is that young women, now better
educated than those of earlier generations, wish to have a careeras well as a family. The countries with the lowest fertility ratestend to be those with the highest female employment rates.
Total fertility rates: number of children expectedto be born to women aged 15 to 49
2004 or latest year available
Did you know?The total fertility rate is the number of children that are expectedto be born to women of child-bearing age. A rate of about 2.1 willproduce a stable population. Less than this, the population willdecline unless the shortfall is made up by immigration.
Only two OECD countries have fertility rates above this level:Mexico and Turkey. The average fertility rate in OECD countriesis now just 1.6.
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Korea
CzechR
epublic
Polan
d
Slovak
Republic
Hung
ary
Greece
JapanSp
ainItaly
Germ
any
Portu
gal
Switz
erlan
d
Austria
Canada
OECD
ave
rage
Belgi
um
Luxe
mbo
urg
Neth
erlan
ds
Sweden
Unite
dKing
dom
Australia
Denm
ark
Finlan
d
Norw
ay
Fran
ce
Irelan
d
NewZe
aland
Icela
nd
Unite
dStates
Mexico
Turkey
The chart below shows the long-term decline in total fertilityrates. The countries which had the highest fertility rates in 1970have, unsurprisingly, recorded the largest subsequent declines.Finland, Denmark and Sweden are among those countries whichrecorded the smallest declines: these are countries which have
traditionally had family-friendly employment policies includinggenerous maternity/paternity leave and widely available child-care facilities. Even here, their current rates are below thereplacement threshold.
Decline in total fertility rates since 1970Absolute difference between 1970 and 2004 fert ility rates
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Finlan
d
Canada
Sweden
Denm
ark
Luxe
mbo
urg
Unite
dStates
Fran
ce
Belgi
um
Unite
dKing
dom
Germ
any
Norw
ay
Switz
erlan
d
CzechR
epublic
Hung
ary
Icelan
dJapan
Neth
erlan
ds
Austria
Polan
d
OECD
ave
rageIta
ly
Austr
alia
Greece
Slovak
Republic
NewZe
aland
Portu
gal
SpainKo
rea
Irelan
d
Turkey
Mexico
Source: Council of Europe (2006), Recent Demographic Developments in Europe,
2004; Eurostat and national statistical offices.
Further reading:OECD (2005), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, OECD, Paris.OECD (2002-2004), Babies and Bosses Reconciling Work and Family Life,series, OECD, Paris.
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Immigration
Did you know?There are more female immigrants than male in 20 of the23 countries for which data are available the three exceptionsbeing the United States, Norway and Australia where the numbersare about equal. In other countries women, on average, emigrateabout as often as men in these countries.
Immigrants are usually defined as those born in a differentcountry from where they are now living they are foreign-bornas opposed to native-born.
In the past, in most OECD countries, the majority of immigrantscame from other OECD countries, especially from OECD Europe.This is no longer the case. Asia is now the main source continentof immigrants.
Ratios of male to female immigrants2004 or nearest year available, percentages
The chart below shows the gender breakdown of immigrants livingin European OECD countries and in the United States according totheir countries of birth, where the countries considered are limitedto those with at least 100 000 immigrants. Percentages of womenimmigrants are especially high in Europe for immigrants from the
Philippines, the Russian Federation and Poland, whereas in theUnited States, women are more numerous among immigrants fromJapan, Thailand and the Dominican Republic.
Note that this chart shows only countries of birth from whichsubstantially more women than men emigrate. More men thanwomen emigrate from some of the other sources of migration such asCentral America, Ecuador and India in the case of the United States,and Tunisia, Pakistan, Albania and Morocco in the case of Europe.
Gender breakdown of immigrants in OECD Europeand the United States by country of birth
Selected countries of birth: 2004 or latest year available, percentages
0
1020
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Unite
dSt
ates
Norw
ay
Australia
Luxe
mbo
urg
Neth
erlan
ds
Irelan
d
Germ
any
Fran
ce
Spain
Swed
en
New
Zeala
nd
Belgiu
m
Switz
erla
nd
Cana
da
OECD
ave
rage
Unite
dKi
ngdo
m
Denm
ark
Austria
Finlan
d
Portu
gal
Czech
republic
Italy
Hung
ary
Pola
nd
Male immigrants Female immigrants
Source: OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook, OECD, Paris.
Further reading:OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook 2006 Edition, OECD, Paris.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Polan
d
Colo
mbi
a
Kore
a
Phili
ppin
es
Jam
aica
Germ
any
Trin
idad
&Toba
go
Dom
inic
anRep
ublic
Thail
and
Japa
n
Germ
any
Irelan
d
Fran
ce
Spain
Finlan
d
Ukra
ine
Braz
il
Polan
d
Russ
ianFe
dera
tion
Phili
ppin
es
Men Women
United States OECD Europe
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Students with disabilities,learning difficulties and disadvantages
Did you know?Most OECD countries provide additional resources to helpstudents with disabilities and learning difficulties and those from
disadvantaged families.It appears that 50% more boys than girls receive help of this kindbecause of learning disabilities, and over twice as many boysas girls receive help because of learning difficulties althoughstatistics are available for only about half of all OECD countries.
In all the countries for which data are available, substantially less thanhalf of the students receiving help for disabilities or learning difficultiesare girls. For some countries or regions, the boy/girl disparities areparticularly marked for students with learning difficulties (behaviouralor emotional disorders and specific difficulties in learning) compared
with students with disabilities (organic disorders).Gender distribution of students in compulsory education receiving
additional resources for disabilities and learning difficultiesPercentage of girls
0
5
10
1520
25
30
35
40
45
50
%
Nethe
rland
s
Engla
ndandW
ales
Finlan
d
Switz
erlan
d
Cana
da
(New
Brun
swick
)
Belgi
um(Fr.)
Italy
1
Germ
any
OECD
ave
rage
Franc
e
Turke
ySp
ain
Mexic
o
Belgi
um(Fl.)
Hung
ary
CzechR
epublic
SlovakR
epublic
Japa
n
Disabilities Learning difficulties
1. Data refer to primary and lower secondary education.
1. Data refer to primary and lower secondary education.
Source: OECD (2005), Students with Disabilities, Learning Difficulties andDisadvantages. Statistics and Indicators, OECD, Paris.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
%
Slov
akRepublic
Canada
(New
Brunswi
ck)
CzechR
epublic
OECD
ave
rage
Turkey
Spain
Italy
1
Switz
erlan
d
Finlan
d
Mexic
o
Belgi
um(Fl.)
Neth
erlan
ds
Factors associated with the risk of being disadvantaged includebeing born into immigrant families with poor knowledge of thehost-country language and culture, or into families where theparents are themselves poorly educated. In Belgium (Flanders) and
the Netherlands the percentages of disadvantaged boys and girlsreceiving additional resources in compulsory education are equal;in a number of other countries (or regions) where data are availablethey are only about 45/55 in favour of boys. The gender gap in favourof disadvantaged boys is most marked in the Slovak Republic, theCanadian province of New Brunswick and the Czech Republic.
Why do boys get more special help than girls? Is it a genuine needor do school administrators give more priority to the successfuleducation of boys?
Gender distribution of disadvantaged students in compulsoryeducation receiving additional resources
Percentage of girls
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Student performance
Did you know?OECDs Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)assesses student knowledge and skills in mathematics, reading,and science at age 15.
In general, girls outperform boys in reading by a wide marginwhile boys outperform girls, by lesser margins, in mathematicsand, even less in science.
The chart below shows the gender gaps for scores in mathematics,with in dark colour the significant differences between boys andgirls.
Gender differences (boys-girls) in student performancein mathematics in PISA 2003
Gender differences (boys-girls) in student performancein reading in PISA 2003
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30Score point difference
Korea
Greece
Slovak
Republic
Italy
Luxem
bourg
Switz
erlan
d
Denm
ark
Turkey
CzechRepublic
Irelan
d
New
Zeala
nd
Portu
gal
Cana
da
Mexico
Germ
anySp
ain
Fran
ce
Japan
Hung
ary
Austria
Belgi
um
Finlan
d
Swed
en
United
Stat
es
Norw
ay
Polan
d
Austr
alia
Neth
erlan
ds
Icelan
d
OECD average
Source: OECD (2004), Learning for Tomorrows World First results from PISA2003, Table 2.5c, OECD, Paris.
In mathematics the boys score higher than the girls in the majorityof the countries except in Australia, Austria, Belgium, Japan, theNetherlands, Norway and Poland where the advantage for boys isnot significant, and in Iceland where the girls outperform the boys.
Source: OECD (2004), Learning for Tomorrows World - First results from PISA 2003,Table 6.3, OECD, Paris.
In the reading assessment, however, the girls come out well aheadof the boys in all countries and the gender gaps were exceptionallylarge in Iceland, Norway, Austria and Finland as shown in thechart above.
Science shows the smallest average gender differences among allcontents assessed. Statistically significant differences in favour ofmen are found in Canada, Denmark, Greece, Korea, Luxembourg,Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic and
Switzerland. On the other hand, women in Finland and Icelandoutperform men.
Further reading:OECD (2004), Learning for Tomorrows World: First Results from PISA 2003,OECD, Paris.
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
Icelan
d
Norw
ay
Austria
Finlan
d
Germ
any
Polan
dIta
ly
Austr
aliaSp
ain
Fran
ce
Greece
Belgi
um
Swed
en
Portu
gal
Switz
erlan
d
Turkey
Luxe
mbou
rg
Slovak
Rep
ublic
Unite
dStat
es
Cana
da
CzechR
epublic
Hung
ary
Irelan
d
NewZe
aland
Denm
ark
Japa
n
MexicoKo
rea
Neth
erlan
ds
OECD average
Score point difference
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Tertiary education
Did you know?On average 33% of women aged 25 to 34 have tertiary educationcompared with 28% for men of the same age in OECD countries.
Even in the poorest parts of the world more than 60% of young
girls usually attend primary school. In sub-Sahara Africa andin the Indian Sub-Continent only 3-4% of young women receivetertiary education.
Although tertiary education delays the start of paid employment, itsubstantially increases lifetime earnings and is a good investmentboth for the individual and for society.
In the OECD area, tertiary attainment rates for the population ofworking age range from below 12% in Turkey, the Czech Republic,Italy and the Slovak Republic to over 35% in Canada, the UnitedStates, Sweden and Japan. Female attainment rates exceed thosefor men in just over half of the countries with significantly higherrates in Canada, Finland, Sweden and New Zealand. By contrast,the number of men having attained a tert iary level of education isstill substantially higher in Korea and Switzerland.
Percentage of men and women aged 25-64 with tertiary education2004 or latest year available
The next chart shows that in general young people of both sexesare more likely than their parents to acquire tertiary education.The only exceptions are Austria, Germany, Hungary and theUnited States, where tertiary attainment rates for young men arebelow those for older men. The most striking feature however
is the large difference between the age groups for women. Theincrease in the number of women attaining a tertiary level ofeducation has been particularly marked in Japan, Korea and Spainwhere cultural attitudes about the role of women in society haveprobably undergone more profound changes than in other OECDcountries.
Differences in tertiary attainment bypeople aged 25-34 and 55-64
Percentage of young people with tertiary education minuspercentage of older people with tertiary education, 2004
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Turkey
CzechR
epublic
Italy
Slovak
Rep
ublic
Mexico
Portu
gal
Austria
Polan
d
Hung
ary
Switz
erlan
d
Greece
Luxe
mbo
urg
Germ
any
Unite
dKing
domKo
rea
OECD
ave
rage
Fran
ceSp
ain
Neth
erlan
ds
NewZe
aland
Irelan
d
Icelan
d
Belgi
um
Austr
alia
Norw
ay
Denm
arkJapan
Swed
en
Finlan
d
Unite
dStates
Cana
da
Men Women
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
Men Women
CzechR
epublicTu
rkey
SlovakR
epublic
Germ
any
NewZe
aland
Unite
dStates
Hung
aryItaly
Switz
erlandAu
stria
Unite
dKing
domMe
xico
Denm
arkPo
land
Portu
gal
Neth
erlan
dsSw
eden
Austr
alia
OECD
ave
rageGr
eece
Luxe
mbo
urgFin
landIce
landCa
nadaNo
rwayBe
lgiumFr
anceIre
landSpainJapanKo
rea
Source:OECD Education database and Gender, Institutions and Development(GID) database.
Further reading:OECD (2006), Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.
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13
University graduates by field of study
There are large gender differences in the subjects that young menand women study at university. Female preference for health andwelfare subjects is most marked in Nordic countries Finland,Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark. In these countries lessthan 20% of g raduates in these subjects are men. In Japan, Belgium
and Switzerland, on the other hand, more than 40% of graduatesin the caring sciences are men.
Percentage of university graduates in health and welfare subjects2004 or latest year available
Did you know?For all OECD countries taken together, health and welfare subjectsare the most popular for women with humanities, arts andeducation a close second. For male graduates, subjects related toengineering, manufacturing and construction come first just aheadofmathematics and computer science.About an equal number of men and women opt for life sciences,physical sciences and agriculture and for social sciences, businessstudies and law.
The gender gap is equally marked in subjects related toengineering, manufacturing and construction. Less than 20% ofgraduates in these topics are women in Japan, Switzerland, theNetherlands and Austria. The largest shares of women graduatesin these subjects are in Greece and Portugal.
Such differences in subjects studied at university both reflect andinfluence different career choices, contributing to occupationalsegregation in the labour market.
Percentage of university graduates in engineering,manufacturing and construction subjects
2004 or latest year available
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Women Men
Japa
n
Belgi
um
Switz
erlan
d
Mexic
o
Turkey
AustriaKo
rea
Fran
ce
Germ
any
GreeceIta
ly
CzechR
epublic
OECD
ave
rage
Polan
d
Unite
dKing
dom
Unite
dStat
es
Slov
akRepublic
Neth
erlan
ds
Austr
aliaSp
ain
Cana
da
Hung
ary
Portu
gal
NewZe
aland
Irelan
d
Denm
ark
Sweden
Norw
ay
Icelan
d
Finlan
d
Source: OECD Education database and OECD (2006), Education at a Glance:OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.
Further reading:OECD (2006), Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Women Men
Greece
Portu
gal
Slov
akRepublic
NewZe
alandSp
ain
Icelan
d
SwedenIta
ly
Polan
d
Denm
ark
Fran
ce
Irelan
d
OECD
ave
rage
Hung
ary
Turkey
CzechR
epublic
Cana
daKo
rea
Mexico
Austr
alia
Belgi
um
Norw
ay
Germ
any
Unite
dStat
es
Finlan
d
Unite
dKing
dom
Austria
Neth
erlan
ds
Switz
erlan
dJapa
n
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3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Labour market
Inactive youths constitute both a present and future problem.Present because they are more likely to be involved in variouskinds of anti-social behaviour including property crime and drugabuse. Future, because lacking work experience or marketableskills they are likely to join the pool of the social ly excluded formuch of their lifetimes.
In most OECD countries less than 10% of those aged 15 to 19 areinactive and less than 5% in eight. Rates in excess of 10% were recordedin Turkey, Mexico, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom.
Percentage of people aged 15-19 who were notin education or work (2004)
Did you know?Inactive youths are those between 15 and 19 who have no jobsand are not at school.
In most countries the gender differences are small but there were
substantially fewer young inactive women than men in Norway,Belgium and Sweden and many more inactive women than menin Mexico and Turkey.
The good news is that youth inactiv ity rates have been falling inmost countries since 1995 the first year for which these dataare available. (In the chart below negative growth rates meana decline.)
For the OECD as a whole, female youth inactivity rates have been
falling at just over 3.0% per year compared with 1.9% for men.In most countries where youth unemployment has been rising,the increases have been larger for young men than young women.In Sweden, on the other hand, the annual growth of the inactivityrate for women has been relatively high while the rate for menhas been falling.
Average annual growth in rates of youth inactivity1995 or earliest year available to 2004
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Men Women
Polan
d
Neth
erlan
ds
Denm
ark
Norw
ay
Luxe
mbo
urg
Germ
any
Icelan
d
Belgi
um
Swed
en
Fran
ce
Finlan
d
Hung
ary
CzechR
epublic
Canada
Switz
erlan
d
Slovak
Rep
ublic
Unite
dStates
Austr
alia
Austria
OECD
ave
rage
Irelan
dIta
ly
Unite
dKing
dom
GreeceSp
ain
Portu
gal
Mexico
Turkey
Source: OECD Education database.
Further reading:OECD (2006), Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
2025
Men Women
Icelan
d
Switze
rland
B
elgium
Luxembo
urg
Polan
d
SlovakR
epublic
Italy
Denmark
Hun
gary
Netherlan
ds
Austra
lia
OECDa
vera
ge
Greece
Mexico
UnitedStates
Cana
daSp
ain
CzechR
epublic
Germa
ny
Turkey
Portu
gal
Sweden
France
UnitedK
ingdo
m
Irelan
d
Inactive youths
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3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Labour market
Almost all OECD countries legislate to ensure equal pay for equalwork regardless of gender. But there are all sorts of reasons whythis is insufficient to close the gender gap. Discrimination may
continue, if legislation is not or cannot be applied. More generally,women may end up in lower-paid occupations than men, and maystruggle to be promoted as often as men.
Gender wage gapsGender gap in median earnings of full-time employees,
2004 or latest year available
Gender wage gapsThe chart below shows the gender gaps in wages mens minuswomens for low paid and for high paid workers. (Low and highpaid are defined as those in the 20 th and 80th percentiles of thewage distribution respectively.) In a majority of countries, thegender gap is larger for the high wage earners. This is evidence
that the glass ceiling is no myth women are less likely to getinto higher paid and managerial occupations.
Gender gap at the top and bottom of the earnings distribution2003 or latest year available
Did you know?In all OECD countries median wages for men are higher thanthose for women. The average difference is more than 15% andexceeds 20% in several countries.
Male median earnings are more than 20% higher than those ofwomen in Korea, Japan, Germany, Switzerland, Canada and theUnited States. Note that these are median earnings in full-time
jobs and so are not affected by a widespread preference for part-time work by women (though men tend to work longer hoursthan women). At the other end of the scale, the gender gap is lessthan 12% in New Zealand, Belgium, Poland, Greece and France.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
New
Zeala
nd
Belg
ium
Polan
d
Gree
ce
Fran
ce
Hung
ary
Denm
ark
Aust
ralia
Swed
en
Spain
OECD
ave
rage
Czec
hRe
publ
ic
Portu
gal
Irelan
d
Unite
dKi
ngdo
m
Finlan
d
Unite
dSt
ates
Cana
da
Switz
erlan
d
Germ
any
Japa
n
Kore
a
Source: OECD Employment and Labour Market Statistics.
Further reading:OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.OECD (2002-2004), Babies and Bosses Reconciling Work and Family Life,series, OECD, Paris.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
%Low earners (20th percentile) High earners (80th percentile)
Gree
ce
Portu
gal
Belgiu
m
New
Zealan
d
Fran
ce
Denm
ark
Unite
dKi
ngdo
m
Pola
nd
Australia
OECD
ave
rage
Swed
en
Cana
da
Unite
dSt
ates
Switz
erlan
d
Finlan
d
Germ
any
Japa
n
Korea
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3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Labour market
Employment
A higher percentage of men than women are employed in eachOECD country. Less than 50% of women are in paid employmentin Turkey, Mexico, Italy, Greece, Spain and Poland, while morethan 70% are employed in Iceland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden
and Switzerland. The gender gap is most pronounced in Turkeyand Mexico but is also high in Japan, Korea and Ireland.
Percentage of men and women of working age in employment2004
Did you know?The employment rate is the number of people of working agewho are in employment divided by all those of working age.
Employment rates of women are below employment rates of
men in all OECD countries. But nearly everywhere, the gapbetween male and female employment rates has been falling.There are only five countries where the gap between maleand female employment rates have risen since the mid-1990s Turkey, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Finland and Sweden.
However, differences in employment rates for men and women arefalling in almost all countries. The chart below shows how muchfaster female employment rates have been growing comparedto male employment rates over the last decade. The growth offemale employment has been higher than that of men in al l OECD
countries except Turkey, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Finlandand Sweden. Female employment rates have been growingmuch faster than those for men in Spain, Ireland, Greece and theNetherlands.
Difference between women and men in annual averageincreases of employment rates
Average annual increase from 1991 to 2004
0
10
20
30
4050
60
70
80
90
100
Men Women
Turkey
MexicoIta
ly
Greece
Polan
dSp
ain
Luxe
mbou
rg
Hung
ary
Slov
akRepublicKo
rea
Belgi
um
Irelan
d
CzechR
epublic
Fran
ce
Japan
OECD
ave
rage
Germ
any
Austria
Portu
gal
Austr
alia
Neth
erlan
ds
Unite
dStates
Finlan
d
NewZe
aland
Unite
dKing
dom
Canada
Switz
erlan
d
Swed
en
Denm
ark
Norw
ay
Icelan
d
Source:OECD (2006), OECD Factbook: Economic, Environmental and Social Statist ics,OECD, Paris; OECD (2006), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.
Further reading:OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth 2006 Edition,OECD, Paris.OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and SocialStatistics, OECD, Paris.
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0
0.5
1.01.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Turkey
Hung
ary
CzechR
epublic
Finlan
d
Sweden
Denm
ark
Polan
dJapa
n
Slov
akRepublic
Icelan
d
Unite
dStates
NewZe
alandKo
rea
Norw
ay
Cana
da
Unite
dKing
dom
Austria
Austr
alia
OECD
ave
rage
Switz
erlan
d
France
Portu
gal
Germ
anyIta
ly
Mexico
Luxe
mbou
rg
Belgi
um
Neth
erlan
ds
Greece
Irelan
dSp
ain
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3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Labour market
Unemployment
Compared to men, women have a higher risk of being unemployedin most OECD countries. Twenty-seven countries are shownin the chart and the female unemployment rate is higher thanthat for men in 20 of them. The gender gap in favour of men is
particularly large in Greece, Spain, and Italy. On the other hand,women are somewhat less likely than men to be unemployed inKorea, Norway, Ireland, Japan and the United Kingdom.
Unemployment as a percentage of the maleand female labour forces (2004)
Did you know?For statisticians, the labour force is everybody who is eitherworking or is unemployed. The unemployed are people whoare actively looking for work but who have not found more thanone hour of paid work in the last week. The unemployment rate
is the number of unemployed as a percentage of the labour force.The female unemployment rate is the number of unemployedwomen as a percentage of the female labour force.
Poland has the highest with nearly 20% of the female labour forceout of work in 2004; the Slovak Republic was second with justover 19%.
Have unemployment rates been falling or rising for women overthe past decade? The chart below compares female unemploymentrates in 1994 and 2004. Countries that fall on the diagonal linehave exactly the same female unemployment rates in both years.If they are below the diagonal, the 2004 rate is higher than the
1994 rate. Fifteen of the 27 countries lie above the diagonalmeaning that in most countries female unemployment rates havefallen over the decade.
Female unemployment rates in 1994 and 2004
0
5
10
15
20
25
Men Women
Korea
Norw
ay
Irelan
d
Unite
dKi
ngdo
mJapan
NewZe
aland
Neth
erland
s
Switz
erland
Austria
Unite
dSt
ates
Australia
Denm
ark
Hung
ary
Sweden
Luxe
mbo
urg
Cana
da
OECD
ave
rage
Portu
gal
Finlan
d
Belgiu
m
CzechRe
public
Fran
ce
Germ
anyIta
ly
Spain
Greece
Slovak
Republic
Polan
d
Source: Quarterly Labour Force Statistics and Annual Labour ForceStatistics; OECD (2006), OECD Factbook: Economic, Environmental and SocialStatistics, OECD, Paris.
Further reading:OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth 2006 Edition,OECD, Paris.OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and SocialStatistics, OECD, Paris.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1994
OECD
USAGBR
CHE
SWE
ESP
SVK
PRT
POL
NOR
NZLNLD
LUXKORJPN
ITAIRLHUN
GRC
DEU
FRAFIN
DNK CZE
CAN
BEL
AUT
AUS
2004 or latest year available
3O O C C O S
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3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Labour market
Self-employment
Self-employment may be seen either as a survival strategy forthose who cannot find any other means of earning an incomeor as evidence of entrepreneurship and a desire to be ones own
boss.Percentage of self-employed as a percentage of
employed men and womenExcluding self-employed in agriculture, 2004 or latest years available
Did you know?According to the standard ILO definition any person who worksfor more than one hour per week is counted as being employed.As a result, self-employment rates are very high in countrieswhere there are many small farms because virtually all family
members will do at least an hours work on the farm.Ignoring self-employment in agriculture, Greece, Korea, Italy andMexico have the highest rates of self-employment while Norway,France and the United States have the lowest.
The self-employment rate for men is more than twice that ofwomen in most OECD countries.
Excluding the agricultural sector, more men than women areself-employed in all OECD countries except Mexico. The gendergaps are particularly large in Turkey, Greece, Italy and Ireland andare smallest in Mexico, France and Canada.
In most OECD countries, self-employment rates have been falling
since 1990: rates for women have declined somewhat faster thanthose for men.
Female self-employment outside of agriculture is negativelycorrelated with levels of economic development as measuredby per capita GDP; the richer the country the lower the share ofwomen in self-employment. The same result is also found formen.
Female self-employment and per capita GDP2004 or latest year available
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Women Men
Norw
ay
France
Unite
dStates
Cana
da
Denm
ark
AustriaJapan
Sweden
Finlan
d
Germ
any
Polan
d
Austr
alia
Slovak
Rep
ublic
Hung
ary
OECD
ave
rage
Unite
dKing
dom
Icela
ndSp
ain
Irelan
d
Portu
gal
NewZe
land
CzechR
epublic
Turkey
MexicoIta
lyKo
rea
Greece
Source: OECD (2005), Labour Force Statistics, OECD, Paris.
Further reading:OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.OECD (2001), Women Entrepreneurs in SMEs: Realising the Benefits ofGlobalisation and the Knowledge-based Economy, OECD, Paris.
0
5 000
10 000
15 000
20 000
25 000
30 000
35 000
40 000
45 000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Self-employed women (excluding agriculture) as a percentage of all employed women
Per capita GDP
OECD average GRC
ITA
TUR
CZENZL
PRT
IRL
ESP
ISL GBR
HUN
AUS
POL
DEU
FIN
SWE
JPN
AUT
DNK
CAN
USA
FRA
NOR
y = -1206.8x + 36943
R2 = 0.2499
3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S L b k t
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3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Labour market
Working hours
People who work for less than 30 hours per week in their main jobare considered as part-time workers, although not all countries usethis definition. Part-time work is particularly favoured by womenin the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Germany,
Belgium and Ireland but is rare in central Europe, Turkey, Mexicoand the United States. The only country in which part-timeemployment of men significantly exceeds 10% is the Netherlands.
Percentage of employed persons who work lessthan 20 hours per week (2002)
Did you know?More than one in four women work part-time and nearly threeout of four part-time jobs are held by women. Part-time work bywomen increases when they live with a partner and increasesstill further if they have dependent children.
Men tend to work longer hours than women in paid employment,but women work more hours in unpaid activities housework andcaring for children and elderly parents. Most OECD countries carryout time-use surveys to measure this unpaid employment, butthese are not done regularly or on a comparable basis.
In most OECD countries the standard working week is around 40hours but many people work longer. Working paid or unpaid longworkweeks is a mans thing in all OECD countries. In Iceland,Mexico and Turkey 60% or more of men report that they work morethan 45 hours per week. High percentages of women also workmore than 45 hours in Turkey and Mexico. On the other hand,workaholics of either gender are rare in Netherlands, Norway,Luxembourg, Austria and Sweden.
Percentage of employees who work more than 45 hours per weekYears around 2002
Source: OECD Employment and Labour Market Statistics.
Further reading:OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth 2006 Edition,OECD, Paris.OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and SocialStatistics, OECD, Paris.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Men Women
SlovakRep.
Turkey
Hungary
Poland
CzechR
ep.
Mexico
UnitedStates
Portugal
Japan
Greece
Canada
FinlandSpain
NewZealand
OECD
ave
rage
Sweden
Denmark
France
AustraliaItaly
Austria
Luxembourg
Norway
Iceland
Ireland
Belgium
Germany
UnitedKingdom
Switzerland
Netherlands
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Men Women
Neth
erlan
ds
Norw
ay
Luxe
mbo
urg
Austria
Switz
erlan
d
Germ
any
Cana
da
Belgi
um
Sweden
Finlan
d
Hung
ary
Fran
ce
Irelan
d
Slov
akRepublic
CzechR
epublic
Denm
arkSp
ain
Portu
gal
Unite
dStates
OECD
ave
rage
Polan
d
Unite
dKing
domIta
ly
Austr
alia
NewZe
alandJapan
Icelan
d
Greece
Mexico
Turkey
3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Labour market
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3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Labour market
Occupations of men and women
Comparable information on occupations is available only forthe European members of the OECD and the United States. Inthese countries, at least half of all working women are in elevenof the 110 occupations while half of the men work in more thantwenty of them. This suggests that women tend to enter a morerestricted range of professions than men. But it could also bepartly a statistical illusion. It is possible that a gender bias may
have inadvertently appeared due to a more detailed breakdownof the occupations that are typically chosen by men. Gendergaps whether real or statistical are particularly marked in theUnited States, Italy, Ireland, Greece and the United Kingdom.
Number of occupations that account for half of total employment2004 or latest year available
Did you know?Women tend to work in a much narrower range of occupationsthan men.
The International Labour Organisation lists 110 major occupationgroups in their classification of occupations (ISCO). In OECDcountries for which information is available, half of all womenwork in eleven or fewer of these occupations.
The table below shows the top ten gender-biased occupationson average in Europe and the United States. In the first column,the numbers in brackets are the ratios of women to men in theseoccupations. For example, 14.5 times more women than men workas pre-primary teaching associate professionals. In the secondcolumn the genders are reversed so that, for example, there are
just over 80 men working as miners, shot-firers, stone cuttersand carvers for each woman in this occupation.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Women Men
Denm
ark
Spain
Portu
gal
Unite
dKi
ngdo
m
Finlan
d
Poland
Slov
akRepublic
Switz
erlan
d
Germ
any
Greece
Ireland
OECD
ave
rage
Fran
ce
Hung
ary
Neth
erland
s
Norw
ay
Swed
en
Belgium
Italy
CzechRe
public
Unite
dSt
ates
Concentration of employment in 20 OECD countries
Many more women than men work as: Many more men than women work as:
Pre-primary education teaching associateprofessionals (14.5 )
Miners, shot firers, stone cutters andcarvers (80.2)
Nursing and midwifery professionals(10.1)
Building frame and related trades workers(64.8)
Secretaries and keyboard-operating clerks
(9.8 )
Ships deck crews and related workers
(52.9)Nursing and midwifery associateprofessionals (9.5)
Building finishers and related tradesworkers (35.4)
Personal care and related workers (9.3) Mining and construction labourers (35.3)
Primary education teaching associateprofessionals (6.2)
Agricultural and other mobile plantoperators (30.5)
Shop, stall and market salespersons anddemonstrators (5.8)
Mining and mineral-processing-plantoperators (24.5)
Special education teaching professionals(5.6)
Metal moulders, welders, sheet-metalworkers, structural-metal preparers, andrelated trades workers (23.1)
Domestic and related helpers, cleanersand launderers (5.4) Machinery mechanics and fitters (21.7)
Primary and pre-primary educationteaching (5.3)
Power-production and related plantoperators (15.9)
Source: European Labour Force Survey and March Current PopulationSurvey for the United States.
Further reading:OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris.
3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Labour market
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3W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Labour market
Immigrants and employment
In most OECD countries, finding a job is harder for immigrantwomen than for immigrant men and is harder for immigrantwomen than for native-born women.
The chart below shows the gender gaps for employment of
foreign-born versus native born people. It shows, for example, thatnative-born Finnish women are almost as likely to be employedas native-born Finnish men, but foreign-born Finnish women arefar less likely to work than foreign-born Finnish men.
Gender gap in employment of native-born and foreign-born adultsEmployment rates for men less employment rates for women (2004)
Did you know?Statisticians define employment as work for pay or profit of atleast one hour in the last week.
Like native-born women, immigrant women are less oftenemployed than their male counterparts. But the differencebetween men and women is larger for immigrants. Immigrantwomen can be said to have a double handicap in the labourmarket: as immigrants, they have lower employment ratescompared to non-immigrants and as women, lower employmentrates compared to men.
This is a common pattern in all except two countriesunemployment among the foreign-born is higher than that ofnative-born people. The two exceptions are Spain and the CzechRepublic.
Although immigrant women are not employed as often as
immigrant men, differences in unemployment rates betweenimmigrant men and women are small. Indeed, when the barsin the chart below fall below the zero-line, immigrant womenare less likely to be unemployed than immigrant men. Ireland,Sweden, Germany and Norway are countries where this is thecase. Overall, if native-born women find it harder than native-born men to find work, then it is generally also the case forforeign-born women compared to foreign-born men.
Gender gap in unemployment rates, native-born and foreign-bornUnemployment rate for women minus unemployment rate for men in 2004
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Native-born Foreign-born
Swed
en
Finlan
d
Norw
ay
Denm
ark
Cana
da
Unite
dSt
ates
Germ
any
Fran
ce
Unite
dKi
ngdo
m
Austria
Slov
akRep
ublic
Hung
ary
Portu
gal
Switz
erla
nd
OECD
ave
rage
Neth
erlan
ds
Belgiu
m
Australia
CzechRe
public
Irela
nd
Luxe
mbo
urg
Italy
Spain
Gree
ce
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Native-born Foreign-born
Unite
dSt
atesIre
land
Swed
en
Unite
dKi
ngdom
Germ
any
Cana
da
Norw
ay
Hung
ary
Austria
Australia
Finland
Switz
erland
Denm
ark
Neth
erla
nds
OECD
ave
rage
Slov
akRep
ublic
Portu
gal
Belgium
Fran
ce
Luxe
mbo
urg
CzechRe
publicItalySp
ainGr
eece
Source: OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook, OECD, Paris.
Further reading:OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook 2006 Edition, OECD, Paris.
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4W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Political and economic power
Women in parliament
In nine OECD countries at least one-third of parliamentary seatsare held by women. The Nordic countries and the Netherlandsstand out with more than 35% of parliamentary seats held bywomen. In most OECD countries though, women hold under aquarter and the shares are 15% or less in Japan, Italy, France andthe United States.
Percentage of parliamentary seats held by women2005 or latest year available
Did you know?Women are outnumbered by men in all the worlds parliaments.
Women hold close to half the parliamentary seats in Rwanda andSweden and about a third in the Nordic countries, in Cuba, CostaRica and Argentina.
There is no reliable relationship between how rich a country is,and how many women are in parliament.
On the other hand, there does seem to be a link between thepercentage of women in employment and the percentage ofparliamentary seats held by women. The chart below plots thepercentage of women in parliament against the percentage of thetotal female population of working age (15-64) in employment.Womens participation in political life appears to reflect, at leastto some extent, their participation in economic life. Percentages ofwomen in parliament are high in Nordic countries where womenmake up a large part of the labour market and low in Turkey,Greece, Italy and Hungary.
Percentage of women in parliament and percentageof women in employment
2004
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
TurkeyJapan
Hung
aryItalyFr
ance
Greece
Irelan
dKo
rea
Unite
dStat
es
Slov
akRepublic
CzechR
epublic
Unite
dKing
dom
Polan
d
Cana
da
Portu
gal
Luxe
mbou
rg
OECD
ave
rage
Mexic
o
Austr
alia
Switz
erlan
d
Germ
any
NewZe
aland
Icelan
d
Austria
Belgi
umSp
ain
Neth
erlan
ds
Denm
ark
Finlan
d
Norw
ay
Swed
en
Do women participate more in political life in richer countries? Notnecessarily. Percentages are low in rich countries like the UnitedStates, Ireland, France and Japan and are high in countries withlower per capita incomes such as New Zealand, Spain and Austria.
Source: Many countries have both a lower and upper house (bi-cameralparliaments) with different election rules for each one. For countries withbilateral parliaments the percentages shown here refer to the total of bothhouses. Inter-Parliamentary Union ( IPU): www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm.
Further reading:Jtting, J. P., C. Morrisson; J. Dayton-Johnson; D. Drechsler (2006) ,Measuring Gender (In)equality: Introducing the Gender, Institutionsand Development Data Base (GID), OECD Development Centre WorkingPapers, No. 247, OECD, Paris.
0
10
20
30
40
50
6070
80
90
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
y = 0.6336x + 43.028
R2 = 0.3573
Percentage of women in parliament
Percentage of women in employment
OECDaverage
TUR
JPN
HUN
ITA
FRA
GRC
IRL
KOR
USA
SVK
CZEGBR
POL
CAN
PRT
LUX
MEX
AUS
CHE
DEU
NZL
ISL
AUT
BEL
ESP
NLD
DNK
FIN
NOR
SWE
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W O M E N A N D M E N I N O E C D C O U N T R I E S Political and economic power
23
Managerial and professional posts
There are huge differences in the percentage of employeeswho are managers across countries, reflecting differences inhow different workers see themselves in different countries.Nevertheless, there is a gender gap in managerial posts in allcountries. The gender gap is particularly high in the United
Kingdom, Norway, Finland, the Netherlands and Denmark. Gapsare much smaller in eastern Europe.
Percentage of employees in managerial posts2004 or latest year available
Did you know?In all OECD countries for which data are available, higherpercentages of men work as managers or directors compared towomen.
On the other hand, a greater percentage of women who work do soin occupations for which a professional qualification is requiredthan men. However, because more men work than women, thisdoes not mean that there are more professional women thanmen.
Professional posts are those for which a formal qualification isusually required. They include most occupations in the health careand education sectors and in services such as accountancy andthe law. In about two-thirds of the countries shown in the chartbelow, the percentages of the female labour force in professionalposts exceed the percentages for males, with the gender gap infavour of women particularly high in Belgium, Ireland, Greece andPoland. Part of the explanation is the preference among women towork in the health and education sectors.
Percentage of employees in professional posts2004 or latest year available
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Women Men
Spain
Gree
ceIta
ly
Luxe
mbo
urg
Portu
gal
Germ
any
Denm
ark
Swed
en
Czec
hRe
publ
ic
Slov
akRep
ublic
Polan
d
Neth
erlan
ds
Finl
and
OECD
ave
rage
Fran
ce
Norw
ay
Belg
ium
Hung
ary
Icela
nd
Irelan
d
Unite
dKi
ngdo
m
Unite
dSt
ates
Source: European Labour Force Survey and March Current PopulationSurvey for the United States.
Further reading:OECD (2002-2004), Babies and Bosses Reconciling Work and Family Life,series, OECD, Paris.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Women Men
Norw
ayIta
ly
Germ
any
CzechRe
public
Fran
ce
Unite
dKi
ngdo
m
Portu
gal
Denm
ark
Slov
akRep
.
Icelan
d
OECD
ave
rage
Hung
ary
Spain
Luxe
mbo
urg
Finlan
d
Neth
erlan
ds
Swed
en
Polan
d
Unite
dSt
ates
Gree
ce
Irela
nd
Belgiu
m
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Life satisfaction
In over half of OECD countries, more than three-quarters of bothmen and women reported above average scores (7 to 10) for lifesatisfaction. However, the percentages were 50% or less in the
four eastern European countries and in Korea and Japan.Percentage of people who feel an above average level
of satisfaction with their livesYears between 1999 and 2002
Did you know?The World Value Surveys ask respondents to rank their feelings ofsatisfaction with their lives on a scale from 1 to 10. The surveysnow cover 80 countries and use standardised questionnaires.The latest wave of surveys took place between 1999 and 2002.
Test your prejudices. In two of these countries UnitedKingdom, Turkey, Norway and Korea women are significantlymore satisfied with their lives than men. Which were they?
Answer. In Turkey and Korea, women report greater lifesatisfaction than men. Women report lower life satisfaction thanmen in the United Kingdom and Norway.
There is some correlation between life satisfaction and per capitaincome, though some people argue that the correlation becomesweaker when comparisons are limited to the richest countries.Over time, societies which get richer do not report greater lifesatisfaction.
In most countries more men than women reported feelingsatisfied above average with their lives. The chart below showsthe percentage of satisfied men minus the percentage of satisfiedwomen. The satisfaction gap favours men in twenty countries.Do women tend to apply higher standards than men in assessingtheir life satisfaction? Or do cultural and economic factorsconspire to create less satisfying lives for women in most OECDcountries?
The satisfaction gapPercentage of satisfied men minus percentage of satisfied women
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Men Women
Hung
ary
Turkey
Slov
akRepublicKo
rea
Polan
dJapa
n
Greece
Portu
gal
Fran
ceSp
ain
CzechR
epublic
Italy
Unite
dKing
dom
OECD
ave
rage
Norw
ay
NewZe
aland
Unite
dStates
Swed
en
Mexico
Austr
alia
Belgi
um
Germ
any
Luxe
mbou
rg
Cana
da
Austria
Switz
erlan
d
Irelan
d
Denm
ark
Finlan
d
Icelan
d
Neth
erlan
ds
Source:OECD (2005), Society at a Glance, OECD, Paris; EFILWIC (2003), Quality ofLife in Europe: an illustrative report, European Foundation for the Improvementof Living and Working Conditions, Dublin; World Value Surveys.
Further reading:OECD (2005), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, OECD, Paris.OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth 2006 Edition,OECD, Paris.
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
Turkey
Austr
aliaKo
rea
Japan
Finlan
d
Icelan
d
Germ
any
Belgi
umSp
ain
Cana
da
NewZeala
nd
Czech
Republi
c
Hung
ary
Polan
d
Slovak
Republi
c
OECD
ave
rage
UnitedS
tates
Mexico
Greece
Nethe
rland
s
Luxem
bourg
Swed
en
Denm
ark
Irelan
d
Austria
Portu
gal
Fran
ceIta
ly
Norw
ay
Switz
erlan
d
United
King
dom
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Social isolation
Among the 21 OECD countries for which data are available,percentages of respondents (all adults regardless of gender) in the
never or rarely categories exceeded 10% in Mexico (where womenfeel particularly isolated) and Japan (where it is a male problem).
Percentage of persons who rarely or never spend time with friends,colleagues or others in social groups
Did you know?The World Value Surveys ask respondents about their contactwith other people in their normal daily lives. In the latest waveof surveys (1999 to 2002) 56 countries supplied information onwhether respondents rarely or never had contact with friends,
work colleagues and other acquaintances in places of worship,and in sports and cultural associations.
In 12 out of the 21 OECD countries for which data are available,men reported greater social isolation than women.
Very low percentages for all respondents were reported by theAfrican countries in the surveys. The highest percentages werereported in Russia, China and Chile.
Total rates under 4% were reported in Sweden, the Netherlands, theUnited States, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Germany and Ireland.
The chart below show the gender differences in social isolation:positive values above the line mean that more men than womenanswered rarely or never while negative values show more
social isolation among women. The chart suggests that socialisolation is more often a man than woman problem, although thegender gaps are not large except in Iceland, Japan and Finland(social isolation among men) and in Mexico, Spain and Austria(social isolation among women).
Gender gap in social isolation
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Men Women
Swed
en
Neth
erlan
ds
Unite
dStat
es
Denm
ark
Irelan
d
Gree
ce
Germ
any
Icela
nd
Unite
dKing
dom
Belgi
um
Cana
da
Finlan
d
OECD
ave
rage
Fran
ceKo
reaSp
ain
Austr
iaIta
ly
CzechR
epublic
Portu
gal
Japa
n
Mexico
Source:OECD (2005), Society at a Glance, OECD, Paris; EFILWIC (2003), Quality ofLife in Europe: an illustrative report, European Foundation for the Improvementof Living and Working Conditions, Dublin; World Value Surveys.
Further reading:OECD (2005), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, OECD, Paris.
-8
-10
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
Mexico
Spain
Austr
iaIta
ly
Portu
gal
Korea
CzechR
epublic
OECD
ave
rage
Irelan
d
Swed
en
Germ
any
Belgi
umFr
ance
Unite
dKing
dom
Gree
ce
Neth
erlan
ds
Cana
da
Denm
ark
Unite
dStat
es
Finlan
dJa
pan
Icelan
d
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Prison population
In all OECD countries except Portugal, Spain, the Netherlandsand the United States less than 7% of prison populations arewomen. The commonest crimes for which women are convictedinclude prostitution, drug abuse and fraud. These offences are notpunished by prison sentences in most countries although the highpercentage of women in American prisons is partly explained byprison sentences for economic crimes such as cheque and creditcard fraud.
Female prisoners as a percentage of total prison populationIncluding pre-trial and remand prisoners 2004 or latest year available
Did you know?The Prison Population Rate is the number of people (adults as wellas those under 18) in prison per 100 000 population.
In every country far more men are in prison than women butthere are large differences between countries. For instance, there
are the same number of female prisoners per 100 000 populationin the United States as female and male prisoners combined inJapan.
Half of the OECD countries have less than 100 people in prisonper 100 000 inhabitants. Thirteen have between 100 and 200. Twocountries exceed this Poland with 230 and the United States withmore than 700. The US rate is the highest in the world followedby Russia with about 600 per 100 000 inhabitants. Except in theUnited States imprisonment rates for women are negligible.
Prisoners per 100 000 inhabitantsIncluding pre-trial detainees and remand prisoners
2004 or latest year available
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Polan
d
Turke
y
Irelan
d
Franc
e
Belgi
um
Slova
kia
Denm
ark
CzechR
epublic
Italy
Luxe
mbou
rg
Cana
da
Mexic
o
Germ
any
Norw
ay
Swed
enKo
rea
Austr
ia
Switz
erlan
d
OECD
ave
rage
Engla
nd&
Wale
s
Hung
ary
Gree
ceJa
pan
Icelan
d
New
Zeala
nd
Finlan
d
Austr
alia
Portu
galSp
ain
Nethe
rland
s
Unite
dStat
es
Source: International Centre for Prison Studies, Kings College, London,website: www.prisonstudies.org and then select World Prison Brief.
Further reading:OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and SocialStatistics, OECD, Paris.OECD (2005), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, OECD, Paris.
0
50
100
150
200
250
Women Men
Icelan
d
Turke
y
Irelan
dJa
pan
Franc
e
Denm
ark
Portu
gal
Belgi
um
Swed
en
Norw
ay
Switz
erlan
d
Finlan
d
Germ
anyIta
ly
Gree
ce
Cana
da
Austr
ia
Nethe
rland
sKo
rea
Slova
kRep
ublic
OECD
ave
rage
Engla
nd&
Wale
s
Mexic
o
Luxe
mbou
rg
Austr
alia
CzechR
epublic
Hung
arySp
ain
Polan
d
New
Zeala
nd
Unite
dStat
es
724 total
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Life expectancy at birth
For the OECD total, the life expectancy gender gap in favour ofwomen is now just under six years; it is eight years or more inHungary, the Slovak Republic and Poland and is lowest in theUnited Kingdom, Iceland and Sweden.
Why do women live longer than men? Differences in longevity
can in part be explained by their different behavioural, lifestyleand working patterns. Women are also thought to have a possiblegenetic advantage which makes them more resistant to a rangeof conditions.
Life expectancy at birth (2004)
Did you know?Japan, Iceland, Spain and Switzerland have the highest lifeexpectancies in the World just over 80 years. Botswana, Malawi,Zimbabwe and Zambia have the lowest all under 40 years. Thelowest regions are all Sub-Sahara Africa at 47 years and the
Indian sub-continent at 64 years.In virtually all countries life expectancies at birth are higherfor women than for men. For the world as a whole female lifeexpectancy is currently about 6% higher than for men.
Since 1960 life expectancies at birth have been rising in allcountries. The chart below shows that the increase has been mostmarked in Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Japan and Portugal where lifeexpectancies were low at the beginning of the period. In recentyears men have been raising their life expectancies faster thanwomen in most countries. This seems to be due to a reduction
in risk factor behaviour by men notably smoking and alcoholconsumption and an increase in these risk factors for women.
Average annual percentage growth in life expectancy1960-2004 or nearest years available
65
70
75
80
85
90
Men Women
Turkey
Hung
ary
Mexico
Slov
akRepublic
CzechR
epublic
Polan
d
Denm
ark
Unite
dStates
Portu
gal
Irelan
d
Unite
dKing
domKo
rea
Luxe
mbo
urg
OECD
ave
rage
NewZe
aland
Germ
any
Greece
Neth
erlan
ds
Belgi
um
Austria
Finlan
d
Norw
ay
CanadaIta
ly
Icelan
d
Sweden
Austr
alia
Switz
erlan
d
Fran
ceSp
ainJapan
Source: OECD (2005), Health at a Glance OECD Indicators 2005, OECD, Paris;OECD (2006), OECD Health Data 2006, OECD, Paris; OECD Development
Centre, Gender, Institutions, and Development database (GID),www.oecd.org/dev/institutions/GIDdatabase; Measures of Australias progress2004, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2004, p. 32.
Further reading:OECD (2004), The OECD Health Project: Towards High-Performing HealthSystems, OECD, Paris.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Men Women
SlovakRep.
Denmark
CzechR
ep.
Netherlands
Canada
Norway
UnitedKingdom
UnitedStates
Hungary
NewZealand
Iceland
Sweden
Belgium
Poland
Luxembourg
Ireland
Australia
SwitzerlandItaly
Germany
Greece
Finland
France
Austria
OECD
ave
rage
Spain
Portugal
Japan
Mexico
TurkeyKorea
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Causes of death
Men are more prone to die from circulatory diseases than womenin all OECD countries, once adjustments are made to reflect thedifferences in age structures. Mortality rates from circulatorydiseases are particularly high in the Slovak Republic, Hungary,the Czech Republic and Poland and are lowest in Japan and France.
Clearly, diet explains at least part of these differences.Deaths from circulatory diseases
Number of deaths, standardised for differences in age structures,per 100 000 population (2003 or latest year available)
Did you know?For the population as a whole, the four main causes of deathare circulatory diseases such as strokes and heart attacks, cancers,respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and emphysema, andexternal causes such as suicide, homicide and traffic accidents.
At any given age, men are more likely to die from one of theseconditions than are women. However, eventually these samesources of mortality are the reason why most women die as well they are just more likely to strike women at an older age.
Cancer is the second leading cause of death in most OECD countries,accounting for between 25% and 30% of deaths among men andwomen. In all countries, mortality rates from cancer are higheramong men than among women. The gender ga