Women and Work

An Interesting Topic

By virtue of your college degree, you will/ are likely enter the paid workforce

variety of issues you will face, so be prepared

Today, more than 50% of women hold paying jobs, so she is not an anomaly but the NORM

Outline of Presentation

History of Women and Work

Where are we today

Factors that affect women in the workplace

How the wage gap affects salaries

Effects of work on a woman’s personal life

History of Women and Worksome info from Women Working by Stromberg & Harkness, 1988

Women are not new to concept of work differences we see today were prompted by

industrial age Colonial America-- work roles for men &

women more equitable than today frontier conditions, agrarian duties meant

everyone worked hard

Colonial America Men and women had many shared activities,

worked as part of household economy, gender roles more fluid

but tasks generally assigned by age and sex wives had exclusive responsibility for mgmt.

of household economy women helped with bookeeping, supervised

workers, collected debts, ordered materials men assumed discipline/soc. of children

Colonial America

Women typically had 7-9 children roles were physically demanding- made

soap, candles, fabric, clothes, chopped wood, prepared meals, cared for children

many served as midwives, dispensed herbs all women operated under constraints of

English legal system

English Law in America 3 basic assumptions about women:

– women depended on men, this was necessary & proper

– English law dictated that property mgmt. & public affairs best left to the man

– interests of husband and wife were the same- so whatever husband wanted was naturally what wife wanted as well

Surest way to property was thru widowhood

Industrial Era- early 1800s

People moving Westward agriculture becoming commercialized ** Indust. Rev. dramatically changes

relationship of individuals to their work work and home roles become more separate men increasingly work outside home for

paid wage women’s domestic work still exhausting but

a little better

Industrial Era

Women becoming more involved in socialization of children

women also expected to attend to husband’s emotional as well as physical needs

** gradual but perhaps biggest change: the absence of men from the household also

reduced the social visibility of women’s domestic work

The (de-) value of domestic work

Women at home perceived to be in leisurely role

men associated home with rest, relaxation, place of seclusion from stress

because men didn’t associate home with work, they also failed to associate women with work

Women and work during 1800s

Yes, some women in paid labor force– 1890 estimate to be 5%

most worked in textile factories those who remained in the home often took

on laundry, sewing, piecework for others By end of 19th C. large corporations

beginning to form, govt. expands, increase in immigration, transportation, communication

Expansion of work roles

Late 19th C. changes meant gradual increases in work opportunities for women

greatest expansion 1890-1940 women in clerical & sales jobs:

– 1900 - 8%– 1940 - 29%

women also move into teaching most opportunities only for white women

Early- Mid 1900s

Despite high unemployment rates, men did not displace women employees. WHY?

Despite public ambivalence, women in workforce rose rapidly after 1940s

WWI and WWII - mass media campaigns to get women into traditional male jobs

then 1950s - mass media campaign to urge women back into the home

Mid- late 1900s

1950s and 1960s - social pressure to stay at home, increase in childbirths (also marriages and then divorces)

1964 - Title 7 Equal Pay Act of Civil Rights Act passes and reinforces women in work

since 1940s women increasingly entering the workforce in all age brackets, with fastest increase in 20-34 year-olds

So Where Are We Today?

1st quarter 2002:– 54.1 million men and 42.9 million women (16+

yrs) in the paid workforce 70% men and 57% women in civilian labor

force (US Dept Labor Stats) unemployment rate about 6% overall

– higher for women with children and minorities in general. If interested go to: http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/surveymost?lf

Factors that Affect Women in Workplace Stereotypes

– token employees– queen bees

Access Discrimination Evaluation & Promotion Bias Job Leaves Sexual Harassment Occupational Segregation Salary Differentials

Why do these factors occur?

In large part because of our social construction of gender!!

2 primary causes of Wage Gap

Job Segregation - few jobs are held by 50% men, 50% women. Those held by women usually not valued nor paid as highly

Entitlement - individual’s sense of what s/he is entitled to receive in pay.

Examples of entitlement theory by B. Major

The Wage Gap in 2000http://feminist.com/fairpay/factsheets.htm

Women make 73 cents to man’s dollar, hovered between 70-74 cents thru 1990s

Median earnings:– men: $37,339– women: $27,355

Earnings for others as % of White Men: men women– black 78% 64%– Hispanic 63% 52%– Asian 105% 80%

Insert link to wage gap

More stats on women & work

1993 - women without HS degree earned $14,700, compared to men at $21,402

women with HS diploma earned $19,168, compared to men at $26,820

women-headed households are worst:– married couple $43,129– male head, no wife present $29,849– female head, no husb. Present $18,545

Wage Gap by Education 1997 all FT workers, 25+ yrs. (US DoL,Census Bureau)

HSGrad BA/BS MA/MS DoctorateMen White $31,195 47,220 60,081 71,423Black $25,79035,962 42,125 61,573Hisp. $24,021 37,725 44,702 42,082WomenWhite $21,602 33,896 41,884 52,653Black $19,993 31,010 40,589 40,342Hisp. $19,247 31,993 41,554 55,956

1999 UD College Grads from UD Career Plans Survey

$ Male $ Female RatioAgric. Sci. 33,905 25,667 0.76A&S Human. 32,463 27,984 0.86A&S Soc Sc.29,694 26,538 0.89A&S Life/Hlth. 30,000 27,827 0.93A&S Phys. 35,504 34,331 0.97B&E 36,215 33,049 0.91Engineering 41,211 41,993 1.02Hlth &Nursing 24,458 33,370 1.36CHEP 27,527 28,470 1.03

Average 34,336 30,170 0.88

Have women broken the glass ceiling yet?

What factors affect the glass ceiling?

See Table 7.2 in Hyde women are 6.6% executives, minorities 2.6%

http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/library/e_archive/gov_reports/glassceiling/?page=home

http://glass-ceiling.com/

Global Connections of Poverty(B. Lott in Primis)

Although women are 50% of population, they own only 1% of world’s property and 10% of world’s income

conditions of women’s lives provide markers of poverty and hunger

Women comprise two-thirds of the world’s illiterate

even a little education for women pays dividends in every index of social progress and development.

Effects of Work on Woman’s Personal Life

Marriage

Household Tasks

Children

Personal Adjustment

Marriage

Employment = delayed marriage for many Sure, it’s getting better but still the

predominant ideology is that man’s job comes first - i.e., job transfers

hard for some dual career couples; women more likely to choose job to fit family

3 kinds of marriage:– traditional, modern, egalitarian

Marital Bliss In general, marriage not as satisfying for

women Jesse Bernard- studied mental & physical

hlth of single and married men and women found married men healthier, likelier to get

better-paying jobs & higher pay than unm. Married men commit fewer crimes, get

fewer traffic tickets, live longer than unm m. married women - 2 to 3 x more likely to

report physical & emotional problems

Household Tasks

Household chores generally not fun for most dissatisfaction with inequity in household

tasks perhaps one if not greatest difficulties In 1971 38% men did little/no housework today changing, but after last 25 years still

not equal efforts the double disadvantage women who work outside the home the most

dissatisfied with task division

Household Tasks

Keep in mind--housework generally not a seen, and therefore not a valued task

J. Birnbaum (75) found homemakers to have lowest SE (women who had BA)

social isolation, lack of reward for job well done, financial dependence create feelings of frustration, little control

Children

1980s was 1st time more than 1/2 all mothers with children under 6 yrs in labor force

much stress, guilt, mommy wars big debates about quality of child care 1993 Family & Medical Leave Act time off can be costly for many years

Children in Day Care Early research said separation of mother &

child had negative effects findings from early studies (some argue)

based on poor methods, biased samples, misleading statements

other studies show preschoolers in day care not signif. different from those at home

Belsky & Steinberg (78) day care may intellectually benefit some children

Day Care

Some argued that day care = impersonal trtmnt, aggressive behavior, more illness

others report day care children show better social adjustment, no difference in later school achievement, girls may have advantage seeing mom role model, encourages independence, daughters of working moms less gender stereotyped

Personal Psychological Adjustment 2 hypotheses on women in work:

– scarcity - work makes one feel tired, overwhelmed, unable to do all tasks

– enhancement - work gives one more energy certainly many experience role strain, but

that can be minimized (some good, some bad ways)

Physical Health

Role strain could lead to poor health, but some studies show that employed women are healthier

WHY? Many find work mentally stimulating,

encourages social interaction, meet/work with people with similar interests, increases self-esteem

read A. Hochschild’s The Second Shift

So what’s the right answer?

there is no perfect/right answer; it’s an individual decision

those women who can CHOOSE their role and decision of whether or not to enter the paid workforce are the happiest.

keep these points in mind as you enter or move to next level of your career