wocn presents biophysical agents in wound care - cleveland clinic€¦ · plastic reconstructive...
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BIOPHYSICAL AGENTSIN WOUND CARE
Pamela ScarboroughPT, DPT, MS, CDE, CWS, CEEAA
Director of Public Relations & Education
American Medical Technologies
Irvine, CA
Director of Education
PARKS Institute
Wimberley, TX
2014 WOCN MIDEAST REGIONAL CONFERENCEPRESENTS
Considerations For Adding Alternative/Adjunctive Modalities
to Facilitate Wound Healing
• Reduction in wound area 10‐15%/week represents normal healing
• This rate of healing does not mandate a change in current wound healing strategy
• Consider alternative/adjunctive modalities if this level not met “consistently” on weekly basis
Plastic Reconstructive Surg.;Attinger CE, et al, 2006 June:117 (7 suppl):72S-109SPlastic Reconstructive Surg;Attinger CE, et al, 2006 June:117 (7 suppl):72S-109S
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Indications for
Exogenous Energies
Debridement
Decrease Bioburden
BiofilmDisruption
Edema
Reduction
Increased Blood Flow
Facilitate Stalled Healing Processes
Electro magnetic Spectrum
Electrical Stimulation
Diathermy
Ultraviolet
Infrared
LightEmitting Diodes
Positive
Pressure
Intermittent Pneumatic Compression
Positive & Negative Pressure
Pulsed Lavage w
Suction
NPWT
Topical
Hyperbaric Oxygen
Hyperbaric
Oxygen
Mechanical
& Acoustic
Whirlpool(Rare
Indications)
MHz Ultrasound
kHz Ultrasound
Kloth LC. Chapters 26,27,28 in Wound Healing : Evidence‐Based Management 4th Edition pp 450‐545. F.A. Davis, 2010.Conner‐Kerr T. Chapter 29 in Wound Healing: Evidence‐Based Management 4th Edition, pp 576‐593. F.A. Davis, 2010.McCulloch JM. Chapter 30 in Wound Healing: Evidence‐Based Management 4th Edition, pp 594‐601. F.A. Davis, 2010.McCallon S. Chapter 31 in Wound Healing: Evidence‐Based Management 4th Edition, pp 602‐620.. F.A. Davis, 2010.Niezgoda JA. Chapter 32 in Wound Healing: Evidence‐Based Management 4th Edition, pp 621‐632. F.A. Davis, 2010.
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Electrical Stimulation (ES)
• One of the most cost effective, therapeutically efficacious modalities
• Used for more than 3 decades to accelerate the rate of chronic wound healing
• Strength of evidence rating for this modality was increased from Level B to Level A in 1999
• Reimbursement from CMS when documentation reflects wounds meets “chronic” definition
– Ovington, LG. Dressing and adjunctive therapies: AHCPR guidelines revisited. Ostomy/Wound Management. 1999:45 (suppl. 1a):94S‐106S
Pressure Ulcer Prevention and Treatment Following Spinal Cord Injury
• Published by the Paralyzed Veterans of America
• States electrical stimulation qualifies as a stand‐alone intervention and no longer classifies it as an adjunctive therapy
(Clinical Practice Guideline: Pressure Ulcer Prevention and Treatment Following Spinal Cord Injury. Paralyzed Veterans of America, Washington, DC)
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NPUAP Statement
• Consider the use of direct contact electrical stimulation (ES) in the management of recalcitrant Stage II as well as Stage III and IV pressure ulcers to facilitate wound healing
• Strength of Evidence (A)
Electrical Stimulation in Wound Healing• Electrical current transfers energy to wound via electrodes to
skin
• Evidence supports delivery of electrical current into wound tissueenhances wound healing
• Theory: How ES works• Related to “current of injury”
• ES mimics this “current of injury” to accelerate/ “jump start” wound healing cascade
Courtesy Luther Kloth, PT, MS, CWS
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Cellular Processes & Physiological Responses
• blood perfusion (FDA main label indication for treating wounds)
– Cutaneous (microcirculatory)
– Periwound
– Arterial
• Stimulation of fibroblasts to enhance collagen & DNA synthesis
• number of receptor sites for growth factor interface
•migration and proliferation of cells at wound site
– Neutrophils
– Macrophage
– Fibroblasts
Cellular Processes & Physiological Responses‐Con’t.
• collage deposition
• edema
• wound pain
• peripheral neuropathy pain
•Bactericidal effects
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E‐Stim Currents
• Electrical current may be delivered as:– Low‐intensity direct current (LIDC)
– High‐voltage pulsed current (HVPC)
– Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)
• High voltage pulsed current (HVPG) ‐ current used most often for wound treatments in last decade
Applications for Tissue Repair
• Exogenous (externally applied) electric currents that are delivered to the wound tissues via at least 2 electrodes which are placed:– Directly into the wound
– Around the wound (periwound tissue)
– By using a stocking or glove electrode garment to the affected limb.
Courtesy: Luther Kloth
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BioelectricAntimicrobial Wound Dressing
• Sustained electrical micro current
• Stimulates physiologic current of injury
• Induce, enhance, accelerate wound healing
ApplicationUnder NPWT
Indications for ES
• Pressure ulcers
• Venous insufficiency ulcers
• Arterial ulcers
• Diabetic neuropathic ulcers
• Burns
• Dehisced surgical wounds
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67 y/o with pressure ulcer, DM & PADAmputation L toes
ABI=.51
69y/o male with h/o type 2 diabetes, previous fem/pop bypass to foot; developed pressure ulcer on heel while in hospital for amputation of toes.
Treatment• Debridement•ES delivered stocking electrodes
• PDGF• Infrared light
NOTE
• Electrical stimulation can be a first line or adjunct treatment and should be used in combination with other moist wound therapy interventions
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What is Diathermy?
• Use of electromagnetic energy to produce heat within tissues
• Heats tissue 3‐5 cm below surface of skin without overheating skin or subcutaneous tissues
• Treatment applied with specialized machine using coils that direct electromagnetic energy into tissue
Indications for Use of Diathermy
• Decreased joint ROM
• Accelerating healing
• Pain control
• Edema control
• Bone and nerve healing
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Rationale for Use of Diathermy
Thermal Effects
– Current flows through treatment area
– Able to produce deep heat to tissues
Non‐thermal Effects
– Results from same electrical current as thermal effects
– Low intensity and pulsed duration
• Does not allow heating of tissue
• Does increase blood flow to area
• Increased oxygen and nutrient availability
• Increases cell growth & division
Non‐Thermal Effects for Wound Healing(Pulsed Short Wave Diathermy)
• Increased cutaneous circulation
• Decreased inflammation
• Edema reduction
• Lymphedema reduction
• Accelerated wound healing
• Treatment wound related pain
• Decreased hematoma formation
Drum with cover off
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Electrode Variations
Air Space Electrodes Pad Electrodes
• Drum Electrode
Photo‐
therapy
Infrared
Laser
UV
Light
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Infrared Light
Ultraviolet A, B, C Light
Photobiomodulation‐ Light Therapy
• A term that describes the regulating effects of light energy upon cellular components
• Photo energy is converted to chemical energy for a biological effect
photosynthesis
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Low Level Laser Therapy
• Low level laser therapy or, low intensity laser therapy (LLLT or LILT)
• AKA:
– Cold laser therapy
– Photobiomodulation
– Monochromatic infrared light therapy
Light Emitting Diodes
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Outcomes of LLLT
• A summary of research and case studies revealed that irradiation with LLLT:
1. Reduces pain and inflammation
2. Turns on synthesis and repair of
DNA & RNA
3. Expands collagen production
4. Proliferates nerve growth and sprouting
• Continued
Outcomes (Continued)
5. Facilitates neo‐vascularization – granulation tissue formation
6. Releases/discharges lymphatic congestion
7. Induces a host of enzymatic reactions
8. Enhances the immune system
9. Diminishes scar tissue and adhesions formation
10. Increases ATP productions and more
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Ultraviolet (UV) Light Therapy
UV Light Properties• Component to sunlight that encompasses wavelengths between 180 & 400 nanometers
• 3 spectral bands
–UVA – produces most of the tanning effects
–UVB – produces skin erythema, blistering and considered more carcinogenic
–UVC – ionizing, bactericidal, virucidal
• UVC
–bactericidal effects
–Wound healing stimulation due to an aseptic inflammatory response in tissues
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Ultraviolet Light
• UV light studies began for positive effects on wound healing in 1940s
• Pressure and venous ulcers treated with UV had enhanced healing rates
• Beneficial effects for producing a mild inflammatory response to help accelerate wound healing
• Stein I, Shorey MM: Ultraviolet radiation in the treatment of indolent, soft‐tissue ulcerations. Physiother Review 1945;25(6):272‐274.• Willis, EE, Anderson, TW, Beattie, BL, et al: A randomized placebo controlled trial of ultraviolet light in the treatment of superficial
pressure sores. J AM Geriatr Soc 1983;31:131.• Morykwas, MJ, Mark, MW: Effects of ultraviolet light on fibroblast fibronectin production and lattice contraction. Wounds
1998;10:111‐117
UVC• Adjunctive therapy for reducing and eliminating bacterial bioburden
• Consider as method for treating surface bioburden where conventional methods have failed
• Effective and safe for:
– Combating a developing surface infection
– Use with infected wounds where poor circulation reduces effectiveness of systemic antibiotics
– Replacement for topical antibiotics
– Treating antibiotic resistant species such as MRSA
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UVC
• Beneficial effects for producing a mild inflammatory response to help accelerate wound healing
• UVC light therapy compatible with any concurrently administered systemic antibiotics
• Treatment is consistent with wound care best practice guidelines
Bactericidal Effects of UVC LightBacteria Exposure time
to kill 99.9%Exposure time to kill 100%
S. Aureus 5 seconds 45 seconds
MRSA 5 seconds 90 seconds
S. Pyogenes
(group A strep)
4 seconds Not eradicated with 180 second exposure
VRE 5 seconds 45 seconds
Conner‐Kerr, TA, Sullivan, PK, Gaillard, J et al: The effects of ultraviolet radiation on antibiotic‐resistant bacterial in vitro. Ostomy Wound Manag 1998; 44:50‐56.
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Mechanical & Acoustic
• Whirlpool
• Ultrasound
– High frequency ultrasound=1‐4 MHz
– Low frequency ultrasound=20‐120 kHz
Ultrasound in Wound Healing
• Ultrasound is a mechanical vibration of sound waves above the upper limit of human hearing
• Causes tissue molecules to oscillate or vibrate
• US has been used in wound care for over 50 years
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Traditional USHigh‐frequency
Low FrequencyNon‐contact
Low Frequency Contact
Frequency 1 or 3 MHz, pulsed 20% duty
cycle
40 kHz, continuous 22.5‐35 kHzContinuous or
pulsed
a
Traditional Ultrasound
• The physiological effects include:
‐ ↑ mast cell degranulation
‐ ↑ vascular permeability
‐ ↑ release of mitogenic growth factors
‐ ↑ migra on of macrophages and fibroblasts
‐ ↑ capillary density
‐ ↑ calcium up‐take in fibroblasts
‐ ↑ collagen synthesis
‐ ↑ tensile strength and elas city of collagen
• Treatment is provided 3‐5x/week, 1 minute for each cm2 of treatment area, not to exceed 15 minutes.
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Indications for LFU
• Locally infected wounds
• Wounds with impaired circulation
• Wounds with the need for debridement, irrigation, and topical treatment
• Pressure, diabetic, arterial and venous ulcers, post traumatic and surgical
Bacterial Killingby Low‐Frequency Ultrasound
E.coli controls E.coli insonified 60s at 100%
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Staph. aureus ‐ NLFU Treatment
After 2.5 minutes – 40k Magnification
Kavros SJ, Wagner SA, Wennberg PW, et al. Presented at SAWC 2002
SonicOne™
Misonix, Inc.
Sonoca 180™
Soring, Inc.
Qoustic Wound Therapy System™
Arobella Medical
MIST™
Celleration® Inc.
Wound
Debridement
Surgical fragmentation
and aspiration
of soft and
hard tissues.
22.5 kHz
Selective
dissection and fragmentation
of tissue at
the operation
site
25.0 kHz
Selective dissection & fragmentation of tissues, wound debridement & cleansing of the site for removal of debris, exudates, fragments and other matter through the use of ultrasonic energy and/or fluid irrigation.
35.0 kHz
Promotes wound
healing through:
cleansing and
maintenance
debridement by
removal of slough,
fibrin, tissue
exudates &
bacteria
40.0 kHz
Low Frequency (kHz) UltrasoundFDA 510k Indications / Labels
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Intermittent Pneumatic Compression
Sequential Compression Pumps Uses in Wound Care
• Compression mainstay of management for CVI and ulceration
• May also be used in lymphedema
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Initially used by surgeons in OR
Irrigation in surgical procedures
Cleanse wounds of debris
Adopted physical therapists using low PSI in late 1980’s
Irrigation and debridement to cleanse and enhance healing of soft tissue wounds
Pulsed Lavage With Suction (PLWS)
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Theory and Science of Therapy
Cleansing via gentle pulsatile lavage to stronger irrigation and debridement
Reduces bacteria and infection
Promotes angiogenesis ‐ granulation and epithelialization
Theory: negative pressure of suction stimulates cells and granulation
PLWS
• Haynes, LF, Brown, MH, Handley, BC, et al: Comparison of Pulsavac and sterile whirlpool regarding the promotion of tissue granulation (abstr). Phys Ther 1994; 74(suppl):S4
• Bahrs C, Schnabel M, Frank T et al: Lavage of contaminated surfaces: An in vitro evaluation of the effectiveness of different systems. J Surg Res 2003; 112:126‐30
• Morykwas MJ, Argenta LC: Use of negative pressure to increase the rate of granulation tissue formation in chronic open wounds. Abstract presented at: Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, March, 1993..
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BURN – OUT PATIENT
Courtesy: Dr. Harriett Loehne
Pulsatile Lavage with Suction
• Eliminated need for whirlpools except in limited circumstances
• NOTE: WP contraindicatedfor CVI and DFUs
Courtesy Dr. Harriett Loehne
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Negative Pressure Wound Therapy
Negative Pressure Wound Therapy (NPWT)
• Common Definition:
The controlled application of subatmospheric pressure to a wound to intermittently or continuously convey pressure through connecting tubing to a specialized wound dressing to promote healing1
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Proposed Mechanism of Action• Provide moist wound environment
• Edema reduction
• Increase in perfusion
• Decreased bioburden
• Microdeformations : stimulation of granulation tissue formation
• Removal of wound exudate
– Decrease in bacterial colonization
• Enhanced epithelial migration
• McCallon, Stanley K, “Negative Pressure Wound Therapy”, in Wound Healing: Evidence Based Management, ed. J.M. McCulloch, L.C. Kloth (Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis, 2010)
• Joseph, E, Hamori, CA, Bergman, S, et al: A prospective randomized trial of vacuum‐assisted closure versus standard therapy of chronic nonhealing wounds. Wounds 2000; 12:60‐67.
Negative Pressure Devices
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What Do You Need the Energy to Do?
Debride
ContactLFU
Non‐contact
LFU
Decrease Bioburden
& Chronic Inflammation
ES
PLWS
LFU
Photo
Therapy
NPWT
Decrease Edema
Compression
NPWT
Facilitate Stalled Wound Healing
Processes
ES
LFU
Diathermy
PhotoTherapy
NPWT
PLWS
Who Should Apply These Energies
• Should be directed by and under the supervision/management of a skilled licensed professional educated and trained in safe and effective selection, application, and monitoring methods
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E‐Stim References1.Junger M, Zuder D, Steins A, et al. Treatment of venous ulcers with low frequency pulsed current (Dermapulse): effects on cutaneous microcirculation. Der Hautartz 1997;18:879‐903
2.Gagnier, KA et al: The effects of electrical stimulation on cutaneous oxygen supply in paraplegics. Phys Ther 68:835, 1988.
3.Dodgen, PW et al: The effects of electrical stimulation on cutaneous oxygen supply in paraplegics. Phys Ther 67:793, 1987
4.Greenberg, J, et al: The effect of electrical stimulation (RPES) on wound healing and angiogenesis in second degree burns. Abstract # 44 in Program and abstracts of the 13th Annual Symposium on Advanced Wound Care, Dallas, TX, April 1–4, 2000
5.Kloth LC. Chapters 26,27,28 In Wound Healing : Evidence‐Based Management 4th Edition pp 450‐545. F.A. Davis, 2010.
6.Kloth, LC: 5 questions and answers about electrical stimulation. Advances in Skin & Wound Care, May/June, 2001
7.Houghton PE, Campbell KE. Therapeutic modalities in the treatment of chronic recalcitrant wounds. In Krasner, D, Rodeheaver G, Sibbald G (Chronic Wound Care: A Clinical Source Book for Healthcare Professionals. Third Edition. Wayne, PA: HMP Communications. 2001:455‐468
8.Kumar, D, and Marshall, HJ: Diabetic peripheral neuropathy: Amelioration of pain with transcutaneous electro‐stimulation. Diabetes Care 20:1702, 1997
9.Clinical Practice Guideline: Pressure Ulcer Prevention and Treatment Following Spinal Cord Injury. Paralyzed Veterans of America, Washington, DC
10.Kloth LC. Zhao M. endogenous and Exogenous Electrical Fields for Wound Healing in Wound Healing: Evidence‐Based Management. Pg 450‐513. FA Davis, Philadelphia, 2010.11.Sivamani, R, Garcia MS, Isseroff RR: Wound re‐epithelialization: Modulating keratinocyte migration in wound healing. Front Biosci 2007; 12:2849‐2868
Electromagnetic Fields References• Feedar JA, Kloth LC, Gentzkow GD. Chronic dermal ulcer healing
enhanced with monophasic pulsed electrical stimulation. Phys Ther. 1991; 71(9):639‐49.
• Goldman RJ, Brewley BI, Golden MA, et al. Electrotherapy reoxygenates inframalleolar ischemic wounds on diabetic patients. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2002; 15:112‐120.
• Houghton PE, Kincaid CB, Lovell M, et al. Effect of electrical stimulation on chronic leg ulcer size and appearance. Phys Ther. 2003; 83(1):17‐28.
• Kenkre JE, Hobbs FD, Carter YH, et al. A randomized controlled trial of electromagnetic therapy in the primary care management of venous leg ulcerations. Fam Pract. 1996; 13(3):236‐241.
• Blue Cross Blue Shield Association. Electrostimulation and Electromagnetic Therapy for the Treatment of Chronic Wound. TEC Assessment, 2005; 20(2).
• Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. National Coverage Determination for Electrical Stimulation (ES) and Electromagnetic Therapy for the Treatment of Wounds. NCD #270.1. Effective July 1, 2004. http://www.cms.hhs.gov.
• Sussman, Bates‐Jensen; Wound Care: A Collaborative Practice Manual for Health Professionals, Third Edition, 2007
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References – Light Effects on Human Body Vascular and Wound Healing
Light and Vascular Effects• Maegawa Y, Itoh T, Hosokawa T, et al. Effects of Near‐Infrared Low‐level Laser
Irradiation on Microcirculation – Lasers Surg Med ‐ 27: 427, 2000• Furchgott RF and Jothianandan; Endothelium‐dependent and independent
vasodilation involving cyclic GMP: relaxation induced by nitric oxide, carbon monoxide and light; Blood Vessels; 1991, 28(1‐3): 52‐61
• Schindl A, Schindl M, Schon H, et al, Low‐intensity Laser Irradiation Improves Skin Circulation in Patients with Diabetic Microangiopathy–Diabetes Care–1998; 21: 580‐4
• Montsunaga K, Furchgott RF, Interactions of Light and Sodium Nitrite in Producing Relaxation of Rabbit Aorta – J Pharmacol Exp Ther ‐ 248: 687, 1989
• Lovren F and Triggle, C, Involvement of nitrosothiols, nitric oxide and voltage‐gated K+ channels in photorelaxation of vascular smooth muscle, European Journal of Pharmacology 347 (1998) 215‐221
• Lewis R, Does Blood See Light? ‐ Biophotonics – Mar/Apr 1998, 38‐39
Light and Wound Healing Effects• Abergel RP, Meeker CA, Lam TS, Dwyer RM, Lesavoy MA, Uitto J; Control of
connective tissue metabolism by lasers: recent developments and future prospects; J Am Acad Dermatol; 1984 Dec; 11(6): 1142‐50
Photo Therapy References •Schindl M, Kerschan K, Schindl A, Schon H, Heinzel H, Schindl; Induction of complete wound healing in recalcitrant ulcers by low‐intensity laser irradiation depends on ulcer cause and size; Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed; 1999 Feb; 15(1):18‐21•Campbell SS, Murphy PJ, Extraocular Circadian Phototransduction in Humans –Science 1998 January 16; 279: 396‐399•Morison J, Ovington L, Wilkie K. Chronic Wound Care: A Problem‐Based Learning Approach; pp. 143‐147, Mosby 2004•Huseyin D, Balay H, Kirnap M: A comparative study of the effects of electrical stimulation and laser treatment on experimental wound healing in rats. JRRD Vol 41, Number 2, pp 147‐154Conner‐Kerr T, et al. The effects of ultraviolet radiation on antibiotic resistance bacteria in living tissue. (abstract) Ostomy/Wound Manag. 45:84, 1999•Sullivan PK, et al. The effects of UVC irradiation on group A streptococcus in vitro. Ostomy/Wound Manag. 45:50; 1999 •Sheffield, P, Smith A, Fife, C. Wound Care Practice, Chapter 32, Physical Therapeutic Modalities in Wound Healing, pp 607‐630
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Ultraviolet Light Therapy References
• Conner‐Kerr T, et al. The effects of ultraviolet radiation on antibiotic resistance bacteria in living tissue. (abstract) Ostomy/Wound Manag. 45:84, 1999
• Sullivan PK, et al. The effects of UVC irradiation on group A streptococcus in vitro. Ostomy/Wound Manag. 45:50; 1999
• Sheffield, P, Smith A, Fife, C. Wound Care Practice, Chapter 32, Physical Therapeutic Modalities in Wound Healing, pp 607‐630
Ultrasound References
• Doan N, Reher P, Meghji S, Harris M, In Vitro Effects of Therapeutic Ultrasound on Cell Proliferation, Protein Synthesis and Cytokine Production by Human Fibroblasts, Osteoblasts, and Monocytes, J Oral Maxillofac Surg 57: 409‐419, 1999
• Increase epithelialization and blood vessel size. Conner‐Kerr T et al. Presented at SAWC 2003.
• Morison MJ, Ovington LG, Wilkie K; Chronic Wound Care: A Problem‐Based Learning Approach; By Mary Dyson, pp 129‐141, Mosby, 2004
• Francis CW et al. Circulation 1998
• Ennis WJ, Formann P, et al. Ultrasound therapy for recalcitrant diabetic
foot ulcers: Results of a randomized, double‐blind, controlled, multicenter
study. Ostomy Wound Management 2005; 51(8): 24‐39.
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NPWT References • McCallon, Stanley K, “Negative Pressure Wound Therapy”, in Wound Healing: Evidence Based
Management, ed. J.M. McCulloch, L.C. Kloth (Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis, 2010)• Armstrong, DG, Lavery, LA: Negative Pressure Wound Therapy after Partial Diabetic Foot Amputation:
A Multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005; 366:1704‐1710.• Greene, AK, Puder, M, Roy, R, et al: Microdeformation Wound Therapy: Effects on Angiogenesis and
Matrix Metalloproteinases in Chronic Wounds of 3 Debilitated Patients. Ann Plast Surg 2006; 56:418‐422.
• Venturi, ML, Attinger, CE, Mesbahi, AN, et al: Mechanisms and clinical applications of the vacuum‐assisted closure (VAC) device. Am J Clin Dermatol 2005; 6:185‐194.
• Morris, GS, Brueilly, KE, Hanzelka, H: Negative Pressure Wound Therapy achieved by Vacuum‐assisted Closure: Evaluating the assumptions. Ostomy Wound Manage 2007;53:52‐57.
• Kamolz, LP, Andel, H, Haslik, W, et al: Use of Subatmospheric Pressure Therapy to Prevent Burn Wound Progression in humans: First Experiences. Burns 2004; 30:253‐258.
• Iwaski, H, Eguchi, S, Ueno, H, et al. Mechanical Stretch Stimulates growth of vascular smooth muscle cells via epidermal growth factor receptor. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2000;278:H521‐H529.
• Saxena, V, Hwang, CW, Huang, S, et al. Vacuum Assisted Closure: Microdeformation of wounds and cell proliferation. Plast Reconstr Surg 2004;114:1086‐1096.
• Saxena, V, Hwang, CW, Huang, S, et al. Vacuum Assisted Closure: Microdeformation of wounds and cell proliferation. Plast Reconstr Surg 2004;114:1086‐1096.
• Bowler PG: Wound Pathophysiology, Infection, and Therapeutic Options. Ann Med 2002;34:419.
• Moues, CM, Vos, MC, Van Den Bernd, GM, et al: Bacterial Load in relation to Vacuum‐assisted Closure Wound Therapy: A Prospective Randomized Trial. Wound Repair Regen 2004; 12:11‐17.
Thank You