Without reference, identify at least four out of six principles about anatomy and

physiology as they relate to laboratory systems

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OBJECTIVE

Function of blood One of the body's connective tissues Transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells and

carbon dioxide waste from the cells to the cells. Protect the body from disease Carries nutrients from the digestive system to the

cells Transports waste from the cells to the kidneys

BLOOD

Composition Blood contains red blood cells, white blood• cells, and fragments of cells called platelets suspended

in a water-based, pale, somewhat yellow fluid known as plasma.

The average human has 5 liters of blood Accounts for 8 percent of the total body

weight Blood is alkaline with a pH between 7.35 and

7.45• Acidosis• alkalosis

BLOOD

Definition: liquid portion of whole blood with the cells removed. fluid portion of the blood blood has not clotted

Components of plasma: 92 percent water 7 percent protien

PLASMA

1 percent ions Sodium (Na+) Potassium (K) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Chloride (Cl-) Bicarbonate (HCO3-)

PLASMA

Definition: plasma minus it‘s clotting factors such as fibrinogen Liquid portion of clotted blood

Blood is allowed to clot and the clear serum is removed (no fibrinogen or other clotting factors)

Most commonly used body fluid for chemical analysis

SERUM

Characteristics also known as erythrocytes Have little internal organization and no nucleus or

organelles organelles are small structures within cells which

perform dedicated functions basically a small organ within a cell

Each blood cell is a flexible, biconcave disk (thinner at the center than at the edge)

RED BLOOD CELLS

Primary purpose of RBC's in the body is to transport oxygen

Number of RBC's in the body average adult male has approximately 5.4 million

RBC's per cubic millimeter (microliter) average adult female has approximately 4.8 million

per cubic millimeter of blood RBC Production

RBC's are produced in the red bone marrow of bones. The process of RBC formation is called erythropoiesis

RED BLOOD CELLS

RED BLOOD CELLS

Contained in the ecytoplasm of red blood cells• Hemoglobin is a protein chemical which has a red

pigment that gives it's color to erythrocytes Hemoglobin contains the element iron, making it an

excellent vehicle for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide

• As blood passes through the lungs, oxygen molecules attach to the hemoglobin

• as the blood passes through the body‘s tissue’s, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen to the cells

• the empty hemoglobin molecules then bond with the tissue's carbon dioxide or other waste gases

HEMOGLOBIN

Red Blood Cells circulate in the bloodstream for approximately 120 days.

Older cells and damaged cells are then engulfed by phagocytes in the spleen, liver, and bone marrow, and the red blood cells are broken down

DESTRUCTION OF RED BLOOD CELLS

The hemoglobin is broken down to release it's amino acids, which can be reused for synthesizing new protein

The iron portion of the hemoglobin is brought to the bone marrow for new hemoglobin formation, and any excess iron is stored in the liver

DESTRUCTION OF RED BLOOD CELLS

WHITE BLOOD CELLS(Leukocytes)

Primary Function: to defend the body‘s tissue against infection and substance foreign to the body A normal adult has approximately 7000 white

blood cells per cubic millimeter of Blood Types of WBC's (5 different types in two

major groups) Granulocytes which have granules in their

cytoplasm and include the following:

WHITE BLOOD CELLS(Leukocytes)

Neutrophils comprise about 60 percent of the white blood cell

count in the body the neutrophil's primary function is phagocytosis

(devours foreign substances) Basophils

least numerous blood cells help initiate inflammation process at the site of an

injury Eosinophils: function during an allergic reaction

WHITE BLOOD CELLS(Leukocytes)

Agranulocytes have no granules in their cytoplasm and include the following:

Lymphocytesaccount for about 30 percent of all white bloodserve as an important part of the body’s immune system

Monocyeslargest of all white blood cellsfunction primarily as phagocytic (engulfing) cells

WHITE BLOOD CELLS(Leukocytes)

Purpose for examination of WBCs White blood cell population of the body can

provide valuable insight into disease An elevated white blood cell count may indicate a

microbial infection Also, noting whether particular WBC’s are high in

number can be valuable. This data is obtained by a differential white blood

cell count

WHITE BLOOD CELLS(Leukocytes)

a general reduction of white blood cells is called leucopenia

an above average population of white blood cells is called leukocytosis

leukocytosis may also indicate cancer of white blood cells called leukemia

WHITE BLOOD CELLS(Leukocytes)

PLATELETS

Characteristics also called thrombocytes, platelets are blood

elements produced in the bone marrow technically, platelets are not cells because they

consist of fragments of cytoplasm enclosed by membranes

PLATELETS

Platelet production platelets form from large cells called

megakaryocytes in the red bone marrow bits of megakaryocyte cytoplasm pinch off within

membranes and are released into circulation approximately 300,000 platelets exist per cubic

millimeter of blood

PLATELETS

Platelet function work along with fibrinogen, calcium, and vitamin K to

form clots a clot begins to form when blood is exposed to air a dried external clot is a scab an internal clot is a bruise

PLATELETS

Homeostasis of the body environment depends on a balance of fluids, electrolytes, acids and bases

In the normal body, the levels of fluids and electrolytes remain constant the input of water and electrolytes is balanced by

selective elimination through the excretory system

if serious depletion occurs immediate replacement is critical

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

Electrolyes• the products of substances that dissociate into

electrically charged components when they dissolve in water

• for example, the compound sodium chloride dissociates into sodium ions and chloride ions, which are electrolytes carrying electrical charges

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

Acid a chemical compound that liberates hydrogen ions

into a solution examples of acids in the body are hydrochloric acid

and lactic acid Base

a chemical compound that takes up hydrogen ions from a solution, leaving the solution with an excess of hydroxyl (-OH) ions

a base in the body is ammonia

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

Body fluids

the fluid content of the body refers to the amount of water in the body

the amount of water can vary, depending upon the weight, sex, age, and fat content of the individual

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

for instance, woman have a relatively lower water content than men because a woman's body contains a higher percentage of , and fat tissue contains very little cellular water

water makes up about 60% of the body weight for an adult male and about 50% of a female's body weight

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

Fluid compartments: The body's total water content can be divided into two fluid compartments Intracellular fluid compartment

refers to the water in all body cells almost two-thirds of the body's water exists in this

compartment

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

Fluid compartments consists of the body area outside the cells extracellular fluid provides a relatively constant

environment for the cells

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

Extracellular fluid compartment continued approximately one-third of the body water exists

in this compartment extracellular fluid contains large amounts of

sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions and small amounts of potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphate, sulfate, and organic ions

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

water enters the body through the digestive tract and as a result of chemical reactions that produce water as end products

water leaves the body by several exits• the kidneys excrete urine• the lungs give of water in expired air• the skin gives off sweat• the intestines eliminate water in feces

in general terms, the amount of water exiting the body equals the amount entering the body

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

Electrolyte balance the quantities of various electrolytes taken into

the body must equal the quantities lost by the body

in the extracellular fluid, two types of ions can be found Cations: which are positively charged (sodium Na+) Anions: which are negatively charged (chloride Cl-)

Sodium Ions sodium ions account for about 90% of the

cations in extracellular fluid

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

when the input of sodium ions exceeds the output, water is also retained in the body, and the volume of plasma and extracellular fluid Increases may cause edema: an abnormal accumulation of

fluid in extracellular body tissues may also cause weight gain when the output exceeds the input a decrease

occurs in the volume of plasma and extracellular fluid, and the blood pressure lowers

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

Regulation of sodium levels

reflects how well the kidney is working and is affected by blood pressure

when the blood pressure drops, the blood flow to the kidney is reduced, and the filtration rate diminishes, resulting in less sodium filtered

as the concentration of salt and water increases, the blood pressure elevates and the sodium excretion increases

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

Potassium Potassium is the primary intracellular cation It functions in regulating the electrical activity of

the muscle and nerve tissue In the extracellular fluid, potassium influences the

balance of acid and base Excessive potassium can cause fibrillations of the

heart Deficits of potassium can cause arrhythmia of the

heart

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

Other ions Other ions balanced in the body are calcium,

magnesium, sulfate, chloride phosphate, and bicarbonate

Calcium ions have roles in blood clot formation, muscle contraction, hormonal activity, nerve conduction, and as structural components of teeth and bones

The most common extracellular anion is chloride, which is almost always linked to sodium

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

Acid/Base balance The balance of acids and bases in the body is

associated with the regulation of the hydrogen ion concentration in the body fluids

This concentration, expressed as ph, influences the activity of cell enzymes as well as maintenance of cell structural and cell membrane permeability

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

A strong acid produces the maximum number of hydrogen ions possible and forms ions more completely than weak acids hydrochloric acid is a strong acid carbonic acid is a weak acid

There are many sources of hydrogen ions in the metabolism of the body during the respiration of glucose, carbon dioxide

reacts with water to form carbonic acid which dissociates to release bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions

the breakdown of fatty acids and amino acids also results in acid compounds

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

The regulation of the concentration of hydrogen ions in the body occurs primarily by acid base buffer systems

Acid/Base buffer system A buffer is a solution that prevents substantial

changes in the pH when either an acid or a base enters the system

Usually a buffer system contains a carbonic acid and a salt of that acid.

an example is the carbonic acid and sodium bicarbonate system

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

A solution containing both carbonic acid and sodium bicarbonate

Should a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid enter the system, it will react with the bicarbonate ions of the sodium bicarbonate producing carbonic acid and sodium chloride

Carbonic acid is a weaker acid than hydrochloric acid, and therefore the increase in hydrogen ions in the solution will be minimal

If a strong base such as sodium hydroxide enters the solution it will react with the carbonic acid to produce sodium bicarbonate a weaker base than sodium hydroxide, and there will be a minimum base shift

FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE

Primary function: regulates the composition and concentration of the extracellular fluids surrounding the body cells extracellular fluids known as interstitial fluids include plasma and fluids surrounding tissue

URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system accomplishes its functions by forming urine from blood plasma in the kidneys and associated ducts and organs

URINARY SYSTEM

Location The kidneys are attached to the posterior

abdominal wall of the body outside the peritoneum

KIDNEYS

They lie lateral to the vertebral column and are held in place by adipose and connective tissue Adipose tissue is fatty tissue that surrounds internal

organs Adipose tissue serves as a cushion and as a nutrient

reserve In an adult each kidney weighs about 4 oz and is

about the size of a fist

KIDNEYS

Microscopic structure More than a million microscopic units called

nephrons make up the interior of each kidney The purpose of these nephrons is the production

of urine A nephron looks like a tiny funnel with a very long

stem

KIDNEYS

Kidney function Regulates the volume of blood plasma and

thereby contributes to blood pressure Controls the concentration of waste products in

the blood Regulates the concentration of the plasma‘s

electrolytes Contributes to the acid/base level of the plasma

KIDNEYS

The kidneys 2 million or more nephrons form urine by a series of 3 processes Filtration of water and other dissolved substances

out of the blood Reabsorption of water and other dissolved

substances needed by the body back into the blood

Secretion of waste molecules and excess ions into the urine

FORMATION OF URINE

Once urine has formed it drains out of each kidney and down the ureter into the urinary bladder

To leave the body, urine passes from the bladder down the urethra and out its external opening

URINARY SYSTEM