wilsonian progressivism in peace and war,...
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter29
WilsonianProgressivisminPeace
andWar,1913–1920
I.Wilson:TheIdealistinPolitics
• (Thomas)WoodrowWilson:– SecondDemocraticpresidentsince1861• FirstpresidentfromoneofsecededsouthernstatessinceZacharyTaylor,64yearsearlier• Wilson'sadmirationforConfederateattemptatindependenceinspiredhisidealofself-determination• Hisidealoffaithinmasses—iftheywereproperlyinformed—camefromJeffersoniandemocracy• HisinspirationalpoliticalsermonsreflectedinfluenceofhisPresbyterianminster-father
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I.Wilson:TheIdealistinPolitics(cont.)
• WilsonconvincedthatCongresscouldnotfunctionproperlyunlesspresidentprovidedleadership• Repeatedreliedonhiseloquencetoappealoverheadsoflegislatorstothesovereignpeople
–Wilsonsufferedfromseriousdefectsofpersonality:• IncapableofshowmanshiplikeRoosevelt,helackedcommontouch
II.WilsonTacklestheTariff
• Wilson'sprograms:– Calledforassaulton“thetriplewallofprivilege”:thetariff,thebanks,andthetrusts
– Hetackledtarifffirst:– SummonedCongressintospecialsessioninearly1913– Inprecedent-shatteringmove,hedidnotsendhismessageovertoCapitoltoberead
– HeappearedinpersonbeforeajointsessionofCongressandpresentedhisappealwithstunningclarityandforce
– HousesoonpassedmajorreductionsinUnderwoodTariff
II.WilsonTacklestheTariff(cont.)
–WhenbillchallengedinSenatebylobbyists:• Wilsonissuedmessagetopublicurgingthemtoholdtheirelectedrepresentativesinline• Publicopinionworked;in1913SenateapprovedbillWilsonwanted• Providedforasubstantialreductionofimportfees• Landmarkintaxlegislation:
– Usingrecent16thAmendment,Congressenactedgraduatedincometaxbeginningwithmoderatelevyonincomesover$3,000(averagewageearner'sannualincomeonly$740)
– By1917,revenuefromincometaxshotaheadofrevenuefromtariffs
III.WilsonBattlestheBankers
• Antiquatedandinadequatebankingandcurrencysystem
• Nation'sfinancialstructurecreakedalongunderCivilWarNationalBankingAct– Mostglaringdefectwasinelasticityofcurrency(1907panic)– SincemostbankslocatedinNewYork,hardtomobilizebankreserveselsewhereintimesofpanic
• CallsforreformsupportedbyLouisD.Brandeisinbook:OtherPeople'sMoneyandHowtheBankersUseIt(1914)
III.WilsonBattlestheBankers(cont.)
• WilsoninJune1913appearedpersonallybeforeCongressagainandcalledforsweepingbankreform:– EndorsedDemocraticproposalfordecentralizedbankingovernmenthands
– OpposedRepublicandemandsforhugeprivatebankwithfifteenbranches
• FederalReserveAct(1913):• Wilsonappealedtothesovereignpeople• MostimportanteconomiclegislationbetweenCivilWarandNewDeal
III.WilsonBattlestheBankers(cont.)
• FederalReserveBoard:AppointedbyPresident•Wouldoverseenationwidesystemoftwelveregionalreservedistricts•Eachwithitsowncentralbank•FinalauthorityofFederalReserveBoardguaranteedasubstantialmeasureofpubliccontrol•Boardwouldbeempoweredtoissuepapermoney
– “FederalReserveNotes”—backedbycommercialpaper– Thusamountofmoneyincirculationcouldbeswiftlyincreasedasneededforlegitimaterequirementsofbusiness
IV.ThePresidentTamestheTrusts
• Wilson'sthirdappearancebeforeCongressledtoFederalTradeCommissionAct(1914):– Presidentiallyappointedcommissioncouldresearchindustriesengagedininterstatecommerce
– Commissioncouldcrushmonopolyatsourcebyrootingoutunfairtradepractices:• Includingunlawfulcompetition,falseadvertising,mislabeling,adulteration,andbribery
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IV.ThePresidentTamestheTrusts(cont.)
– ClaytonAnti-Trust(1914):• Increasedlistofpracticesdeemedobjectionable:
– Pricediscriminationandinterlockingdirectorates(wheresameindividualservedasdirectorofsupposedlycompetingfirms)
– Achievedthroughholdingcompanies(seeFigure29.1)• Conferredlong-overduebenefitsonlabor:
– Exemptedlaborandagriculturalorganizationfromanti-trustprosecution,whileexplicitlylegalizingstrikesandpeacefulpicketing
– SamuelGompers,Unionleader,hailedactasMagnaCartaoflabor
Figure 29-1 p665
V.WilsonatthePeak
• Otherprogressivelegislation:– FederalFarmLoanAct(1916):• Madecreditavailabletofarmersatlowratesofinterest—longdemandedbyPopulists
–WarehouseAct(1916):• Authorizedloansonsecurityofstaplecrops—anotherPopulistidea
– Otherlawsbenefitedruralareasbyprovidingforhighwayconstructionandestablishmentofagriculturalextensionworkinstatecolleges
V.WilsonatthePeak(cont.)
– LaFolletteSeaman'sAct(1915):• RequireddecenttreatmentandlivingwageonAmericanmerchantships
–Workingmen'sCompensationAct(1916):• Grantedassistancetofederalcivil-serviceemployeesduringperiodsofdisability
– 1916:Wilsonsignedlawrestrictingchildlaboronproductsflowingintointerstatecommerce(butSupremeCourtlatervoidedit)
V.WilsonatthePeak(cont.)• AdamsonAct(1916):– Establishedeighthourdayforallemployeesontrainsininterstatecommerce,withextrapayforovertime
• SupremeCourt:–WilsonendearedhimselftoprogressiveswhenhenominatedprominentreformerLouisD.Brandeis—firstJewtohighcourt
• LimitonWilson'sprogressivism:– Stoppedwellshortofbettertreatmentforblacks
VI.NewDirectionsinForeignPolicy
–Wilson'sreactiontoearlierforeignpolicies:• IncontrasttoRooseveltandTaft,herecoiledatfirstfromaggressiveforeignpolicy• Hatingimperialism,hewasrepelledbyTR'sbig-stickism• SuspiciousofWallStreet,hedetestedTaft'sdollardiplomacy• Inofficeonlyaweek,hedeclaredwarondollardiplomacy:– ProclaimedgovernmentwouldnotsupportAmericaninvestorsinLatinAmericaandChina
VI.NewDirectionsinForeignPolicy(cont.)
• PersuadedCongresstorepealPanamaCanalTollsActof1912–– IthadexemptedAmericancoastwideshippingfromtolls– TherebyprovokedsharpprotestsfrominjuredBritain
• JonesAct(1916):– GrantedPhilippinesterritorialstatusandpromisedindependenceassoonasa“stablegovernment”couldbeestablished
– Wilson'sracialprejudicesdidnotexpectthistohappenforalongtime
– OnJuly4,1946—30yearslater—UnitedStatesacceptedPhilippineindependence
VI.NewDirectionsinForeignPolicy(cont.)
• Haiti'schaoticpoliticalsituationcausedWilsontoassumemoreactivestanceabroad• Politicalturmoilclimaxedin1914-1915whenoutragedpopulaceliterallytoretopiecesbrutalHaitianpresident• WilsondispatchedmarinestoprotectAmericanlivesandproperty• MarinesremainedinHaitifornineteenyearsmakingHaitianAmericanprotectorate
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VI.NewDirectionsinForeignPolicy(cont.)
– In1916,WilsonusedRoosevelt'scorollarytoMonroeDoctrineandconcludedtreatywithHaiti:» ProvidedforU.S.supervisionoffinancesandpolice
– In1916,hesentmarinestodebt-cursedDominicanRepublic» CameunderAmericancontrolforeightyears
– In1917,UnitedStatespurchasedtheVirginIslandsfromDenmark
– UncleSamtighteningitsgripinCaribbeanSea,withitsvitalapproachestoPanamaCanal(seeMap29.1)
VII.MoralisticDiplomacyinMexico
• Mexicanrevolution(1913):– Mexicansresentedexploitationbyforeigninvestors– In1913newrevolutionarypresidentmurderedandreplacedbyGeneralVictorianoHuerta:
– CausedmassivemigrationofMexicanstoUnitedStates– MorethanamillionSpanish-speakingnewcomerscameandsettledinTexas,NewMexico,Arizona,California
– Builthighwaysandrailroads,followedfruitharvestsaspickers
– SegregatedinSpanish-speakingenclaves:» HelpedcreateuniqueborderlandculturethatblendedMexicanandAmericanfolkways
Map 29-1 p667
VII.MoralisticDiplomacyinMexico(cont.)
• RevolutionarybloodshedmenacedAmericanlivesandpropertyinMexico:– HearstcalledforinterventioninMexico– Wilsonagainrefusedtopracticediplomacyofhispredecessors:» Deemedit“perilous”todetermineforeignpolicy“intermsofmaterialinterest”
– WilsontriedtosteeramoralcourseinMexico– RefusedtorecognizeHuerta'sbloody-handedregime– In1914heallowedAmericanarmstoflowtoHuerta'sprincipalrivals,VenustianoCarranzaandfirebrandFrancisco(“Pancho”)Villa
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VII.MoralisticDiplomacyinMexico(cont.)
• TampicoIncident:–MexicovolcanoeruptedatAtlanticseaportofTampicoinApril,1914:• SmallpartyofAmericansailorsarrested• Mexicansreleasedcaptivesandapologized• RefuseddemandbyU.S.admiralfor21-gunsalute• DeterminedtoeliminateHuerta,WilsonaskedCongressforauthoritytouseforceagainstMexico• BeforeCongresscouldact,WilsonhadnavyseizeportofVeracruztoblockarrivalofGermanweapons
VII.MoralisticDiplomacyinMexico(cont.)
• ShootingconflictavoidedbyofferofmediationfromABCpowers—Argentina,Brazil,andChile• HuertacollapsedinJuly1914underpressurefromwithinandwithout• Succeededbyhisarchival,VenustianoCarranzawhoresentedWilson'smilitarymeddling• “Pancho”Villa,chiefrivaltoPresidentCarranza,
– Killed16AmericanminingengineerstravelingthroughnorthernMexicoinJanuary1916
– Onemonthlater,VillaandhisfollowerscrossedborderintoColumbus,NewMexicoandmurderedanother19Americans
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VII.MoralisticDiplomacyinMexico(cont.)
– GeneralJohnJ.(“BlackJack”)Pershingorderedtobreakupbanditband• HishastilyorganizedforceofseveralthousandmountedtroopspenetrateddeepintoMexico• ClashedwithCarranza'sforces• MauledVillistasbutmissedcapturingVilla• AstensionswithGermanymounted,WilsonwithdrewPershingfromMexicoinJanuary1917
VIII.ThunderAcrosstheSea
• InEurope,SerbpatriotkilledheirtothroneofAustria-Hungaryinsummer1914:
• Vienna,backedbyGermany,presentedultimatumtoSerbia• Explosivechainreactionfollowed:
– Serbia,backedbyRussia,refusedtobackdown– Russianczarbegantomobilizemilitary,menacingGermanyoneast
– FranceconfrontedGermanyonwest– GermansstrucksuddenlyatFrancethroughunoffendingBelgium
VIII.ThunderAcrosstheSea(cont.)
• GreatBritain,itscoastlinejeopardizedbyassaultonBelgium,pulledintoconflagrationonsideofFrance• NowEuropelockedinfighttothedeath• CentralPowers:Germany,Austria-Hungary,laterTurkeyandBulgaria• Allies:France,Britain,andRussia,laterJapanandItaly• AmericansthankedGodforoceanandcongratulatedthemselvesonhavingancestorswiseenoughtohaveabandonedhellpitsofEurope• Americafeltstrong,snug,smug,andsecure—butnotforlong
VIII.ThunderAcrosstheSea(cont.)
–WilsonissuedneutralityproclamationandcalledonAmericanstobeneutralinthoughtanddeed
– BothsideswooedU.S.A.,greatneutralinWest• Britishenjoyed:
– Cultural,linguistic,andeconomictieswithAmerica– Advantageofcontrollingtransatlanticcables– TheircensorsshearedawaywarstoriesharmfultoAlliesanddrenchedUnitedStateswithtalesofGermanbestiality
• GermansandAustro-Hungarians:– CountedonsympathiesoftransplantedcountrymeninAmerica(some11millionin1914)
VIII.ThunderAcrosstheSea(cont.)
– Someoftheserecentimmigrantsexpressednoisysympathyforfatherland
– Mostsimplygratefultobedistantfromfray(seeTable29.1)• MostAmericans:
– Anti-Germanfromoutset– KaiserWilhelmIIseemedembodimentofarrogantautocracy– ImpressionstrengthenedbyGerman'sruthlessstrikeatneutralBelgium
Table 29-1 p669
VIII.ThunderAcrosstheSea(cont.)
– GermanandAustrianagentsfurthertarnishedimageofCentralPowerswhentheyresortedtoviolenceinAmericanfactoriesandports
– Germanoperativein1915absentmindedlylefthisbriefcaseonNewYorkelevatedcar:» Documentsdetailingplansforindustrialsabotagediscoveredandquicklypublicized
– FurtherinflamedAmericanopinionagainstKaiser– YetgreatmajorityofAmericansearnestlyhopedtostayoutofhorriblewar
IX.AmericaEarnsBloodMoney–WhenwarbrokeoutinEurope,U.S.A.inmidstofrecession:• BritishandFrenchwarorderspulledU.S.industryontopeakofwar-bornprosperity(seeTable29.2)• PartofboonfinancedbyAmericanbankers• NotablyWallStreetfirmofJ.P.MorganandCompanyadvancedtoAlliesenormoussumof$2.3millionduringperiodofAmericanneutrality
Table 29-2 p670
IX.AmericaEarnsBloodMoney(cont.)
» GermanylegallycouldhavehadsameleveloftradewithUnitedStates
» WaspreventedfromdoingsobyBritishnavy» BritishimposedblockadewithminesandshipsacrossNorthSeagatewaytoGermanports
» OverprotestsfromvariousAmericans,BritishforcedAmericanvesselsoffhighseas
» HarassmentofAmericanshippershighlyeffectiveastradebetweenGermanyandUnitedStatesvirtuallyceased
IX.AmericaEarnsBloodMoney(cont.)
– Germanydidnotwanttobestarvedout:• BerlinannouncedsubmarinewarareaaroundBritishIsles(seeMap29.2)• Newsubmarinesnotfitexistinginternationallaws• PosedthreattoUnitedStates—solongasWilsoninsistedonmaintainingAmerica'sneutralrights– Berlinofficialsdeclaredtheywouldtrynottosinkneutralshipping,butwarnedmistakeswouldprobablyoccur
• Wilsondecidedoncalculatedrisk:– Claimedprofitableneutraltradingrightswhilehopingnoincidentswouldcausewar
Map 29-2 p670
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IX.AmericaEarnsBloodMoney(cont.)
– Germansubmarines(U-boats“underseaboat”)begandeadlywork
– Infirstmonthsof1915,sank90shipsinwarzone– BritishpassengerlinerLusitaniatorpedoedandsankoffcoastofIreland,May7,1915:» Withlossof1,198lives,including128Americans
• Lusitaniawascarryingforty-twohundredcasesofsmall-armsammunition– AfactGermanyusedtojustifysinking– Americansshockedandangeredatactof“massmurder”and“piracy”
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IX.AmericaEarnsBloodMoney(cont.)
– TalkofwarfromeasternUnitedStates,butnotfromrestofnation• Wilsondidnotwanttoleaddisunitednationintowar
– Byseriesofstrongnotes,WilsonattemptedtotakeGermanwarlordssharplytotask
– PolicytooriskyforSecretaryofStateBryanwhoresigned– T.RooseveltharshlycriticizedWilson'smeasuredapproach
• Britishliner,Arabic,sunkinAugust,1915:– WithlossoftwoAmericanlives– Berlinreluctantlyagreednottosinkunarmedandunresistingpassengershipswithoutwarning
IX.AmericaEarnsBloodMoney(cont.)
– PledgeappearedtobeviolatedinMarch,1916whenGermanstorpedoedFrenchpassengersteamer,Sussex
– Infuriated,WilsoninformedGermans:» Thatunlesstheyrenouncedinhumanpracticeofsinkingmerchantshipswithoutwarning,hewouldbreakdiplomaticrelations—almostcertainpreludetowar
• GermanyreluctantlyknuckledunderWilson'sSussexultimatum:– Germanyagreedtonotsinkpassengerandmerchantshipswithoutwarning» AttachedlongstringtotheirSussexpledge
IX.AmericaEarnsBloodMoney(cont.)
• GermanSussexpledge:– UnitedStateswouldhavetopersuadeAlliestomodifywhatBerlinregardedasillegalblockade
– Thisobviously,wassomethingthatWashingtoncouldnotdo– Wilsonpromptlyacceptedpledge,withoutaccepting“string”– Wilsonwontemporarybutprecariousdiplomaticvictory–precariousbecause:» Germanycouldpullstringwheneveritchose» Andpresidentmightsuddenlyfindhimselftuggedovercliffofwar
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X.WilsonWinsReelectionin1916
• Presidentialcampaignof1916– BullmooseProgressivesandRepublicansmetinChicago:• ProgressivesnominatedTheodoreRoosevelt:
– TR,wholoathedWilson,hadnointentionofsplittingRepublicansagain
– Withhisrefusal,TRsoundeddeathknellofProgressiveparty• RepublicansdraftedSupremeCourtjusticeCharlesEvansHughes,whohadbeengovernorofNewYork
X.WilsonWinsReelectionin1916(cont.)
• RepublicanplatformcondemnedWilson's:– Tariff– Assaultontrusts– Wishy-washinessindealingwithMexicoandGermany
• Wilsonrealizedhis1912wincausedbyTaft-TRsplit– UsedhisfirsttermtoidentifyhimselfascandidateofprogressivismandtowoobullmoosevotersintoDemocraticfold
–Wilson,nominatedbyacclamationatDemocraticconventioninSt.Louis
– Hiscampaignslogan,“HeKeptUsOutofWar”
X.WilsonWinsReelectionin1916(cont.)
– Onelectionday:• HughessweptEast• Wilsonwenttobedpreparedtoacceptdefeatbutrestofnationturnedtide:– Midwesternandwesterners,attractedbyWilson'sprogressivereformsandantiwarpolicies,flockedtohim
– Finalresult,indoubtforseveraldays,hingedonCaliforniawhichWilsoncarriedwith3,800votesoutofaboutamillion
X.WilsonWinsReelectionin1916(cont.)
– Finalcount:• Wilson:277to254inElectoralCollege• 9,127,695to8,533,507inpopularcolumn(seeMap29.3)• ProlaborWilsonreceivedstrongsupportfromworkingclassandfromrenegadebullmoosers• Wilsondidnotspecificallypromisetokeepcountryoutofwar
XI.WarbyActofGermany
• Wilsontriedtomediatebetweentwowarringsides:– January22,1917:restatedU.S.commitmenttoneutralrightsandcalledfor“peacewithoutvictory”
• Germanyrespondedwithmailedfist:– AnnouncedunrestrictedsubwarfareonJan.31– HopedtodefeatAlliesbeforeU.S.A.enteredwar
• Wilsonbrokediplomaticrelations,butmovednoclosertowarunless“overt”byGermans
Map 29-3 p673
XI.WarbyActofGermany (cont.)
– PresidentaskedCongressforauthoritytoarmmerchantships,butblockedbySenatefilibuster
– Zimmermannnote:• InterceptedandpublishedonMarch1,1917• GermanforeignsecretaryArthurZimmermansecretlyproposedGerman-Mexicanalliance• Temptedanti-YankeeMexicowithpromisesofrecoveringTexas,NewMexico,Arizona
– Long-dreaded“overt”actinAtlantic:• GermanU-boatssankfourunarmedAmericanmerchantvesselsinfirsttwoweeksofMarch,1917
XI.WarbyActofGermany(cont.)
• RevolutioninRussiatoppledcruelregimeoftsars:– AmericacouldnowfightfordemocracyonAllies'side,withoutRussiandespotisminAlliedfold
• Wilson,beforejointsessionofCongressonApril2,1917,askedfordeclarationofwar:– BritishharassmentofU.S.commercehadbeengallingbutendurable
– Germanyhadresortedtomasskillingofcivilians– Wilsonhaddrawnclearlineagainstdepredationsofsubmarine
• Infigurativesense,wardeclarationonApril6,1917boreunambiguoustrademark“MadeinGermany”
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XII.WilsonianIdealismEnthroned
• Formorethanacentury,AmericanspridedthemselvesonisolationfromOldWorld
• Since1914thatpridereinforcedbybountifulprofitsgainedthroughneutrality– Sixsenatorsand50representatives(includingfirstcongresswomanJeannetteRankin,ofMontana)votedagainstwarresolution
–Wilsoncouldincitenoenthusiasmbycallingonnationtofighttomakeworldsafefromsubmarineattacks
XII.WilsonianIdealismEnthroned (cont.)
–Wilsonneededtoproclaimmoreglorifiedaims:• Supremelyambitiousgoalofcrusade“tomaketheworldsafefordemocracy”• Wilsonvirtuallyhypnotizednationwithloftyideals:
– ContrastedselfishwaraimsofotherbelligerentswithAmerica'sshiningaltruism
– PreachedAmericadidnotfightforsakeofrichesorterritorialconquest
– Republicsoughttoshapeinternationalorderinwhichdemocracycouldflourishwithoutfearofpower-crazedautocratsandmilitarists
XII.WilsonianIdealismEnthroned (cont.)
• Wilsonianidealism:– Personalityofpresidentandnecessitiesofhistoryperfectlymatched
– Hebelievedmodernworldcouldnotaffordhyper-destructivewarusedbyindustrialstates
– ProbablynootherargumentcouldhaveworkedtoarouseAmericanstounprecedentedburden:• Americanscouldbeeitherisolationistsorcrusaders,nothinginbetween
XII.WilsonianIdealismEnthroned (cont.)
• Wilson'sappealworked—perhapstoowell• Holdingtorchofidealism,presidentfireduppublicmindtofeverpitch• LostwasWilson'searlierpleafor“peacewithoutvictory”
XIII.Wilson'sFourteenPotentPoints
• WilsonsoonrecognizedasmoralleaderofAlliedcause– OnJanuary8,1918,hedeliveredtoCongressfamedFourteenPoints:• (1)proposaltoabolishsecrettreatiespleasedliberalsofallcountries• (2)freedomofseasappealedtoGermansandAmericanswhodistrustedBritishseapower• (3)removalofeconomicbarriersamongnationshadbeengoalofliberalinternationalistseverywhere
XIII.Wilson'sFourteenPotentPoints(cont.)
• (4)reductionofarmamentburdensgratifyingtotaxpayersinallcountries• (5)adjustmentofcolonialclaimsininterestsofbothnativepeoplesandcolonizersreassuredanti-imperialists
–Wilson'spronouncementaboutcoloniespotentiallyrevolutionary:• Helpedtodelegitimizeoldempires• Openedroadtoeventualindependenceformillionsof“subjectpeople”
XIII.Wilson'sFourteenPotentPoints(cont.)
– Otherpointsprovedtobenolessseductive:• Hopeofindependence(“self-determination”)tooppressedminoritygroups(e.g.,Poles)
– Capstonepoint(numberfourteen):• ForeshadowedLeagueofNations:
– Internationalorganizationthatwouldprovidesystemofcollectivesecurity
–Wilson'spointsnotapplaudedeverywhere:• SomeAlliedleaderswantedterritorialgains• RepublicansmockedfourteenPoints
XIV.ManipulatingMindsandStiflingDissent
– CommitteeonPublicInformation:• Purpose—mobilizepeople'smindforwar• Headedbyyoungjournalist,GeorgeCreel• HisjobtosellAmericaonwarandsellworldonWilsonianwaraims• Employed150,000workersathomeandabroad
– Sentout75,000“four-minutemen”whodeliveredcountlessspeechescontainingmuch“patrioticpep”
• Creel'spropagandatookvariedforms:– Posterssplashedonbillboards:
» “BattleoftheFences”
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XIV.ManipulatingMindsandStiflingDissent(cont.)
– MillionsofleafletsandpamphletscontainedmostpungentWilson-isms
– Hang-the-Kaisermovies– Songspouredscornonenemyandglorified“boys”inuniform
– Extensiveuseofsongs,esp.GeorgeCohan's“OverThere”– CreeltypifiedAmericanwarmobilization:
» Reliedmoreonarousedpassionandvoluntarycompliancethanonformallaws
» OversoldidealsofWilsonandledworldtoexpecttoomuch» Resultwaseventualdisillusionmentathomeandabroad
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XIV.ManipulatingMindsandStiflingDissent(cont.)
– GermanAmericans—overeightmillion:• MostprovedtobedependablyloyaltoUnitedStates• Afewtarred,feathered,andbeaten• HystericalhatredofGermansandthingsGermanicsweptnation:– OrchestrasfounditunsafetopresentGerman-composedmusic
– Germanbooksremovedfromlibraryshelves– Germanclassescanceled– Sauerkrautbecame“libertycabbage”– Hamburger,“libertysteak”
XIV.ManipulatingMindsandStiflingDissent(cont.)
• EspionageActof1917andSeditionActof1918:– ReflectedfearsaboutGermansandantiwarAmericans– 1,900prosecutionsofantiwarSocialistsandmembersofradicalIndustrialWorkersoftheWorld(IWW):• SocialistEugeneDebssentencedtotenyearsinfederalpenitentiary• IWWleaderWilliamD.(“BigBill”)Haywoodand99associatesalsoconvicted
– Virtuallyanycriticismofgovernmentcouldbecensoredandpunished
XIV.ManipulatingMindsandStiflingDissent(cont.)
• InSchenkv.UnitedStates(1919):– SupremeCourtaffirmedlegalityofrestrictions• Freedomofspeechcouldberevokedwhensuchspeechposed“clearandpresentdanger”tonation
– ProsecutionsformeduglychapterinhistoryofAmericancivilliberty:• Withpeace—presidentialpardonsgranted,includingPresidentHarding'stoDebsin1921• Afewvictimsremainedinjailinto1930s
XV.ForgingaWarEconomy
–Wilsonbelatedlybackedpreparednessmeasures– Bigobstaclesconfrontedeconomicmobilizers:• Sheerignoranceamongbiggestroadblocks
– Nooneknewpreciselyhowmuchsteelorexplosivepowdercountrycapableofproducing
• Oldideasprovedtobeliabilities:– TraditionalfearofbiggovernmenthamstrungefforttoorchestrateeconomyfromWashington
– Largelyvoluntarycharacterofeconomicwarorganization
–Wilsoneventuallysucceededinimposingsomeorderoneconomicconfusion:
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XV.ForgingaWarEconomy(cont.)–WarIndustriesBoard:• March1918;BernardBaruchthehead• Setprecedentforfederalgovernmenttotakecentralroleineconomicplanninginacrisis
• HerbertHooverheadedFoodAdministration:– Reliedonvoluntarycompliancewithpropaganda,notcompulsoryedicts(i.e.,rationcards)
– Thankstowartimespirit,Hoover'svoluntaryapproachworkedasfarmproductionincreased
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XV.ForgingaWarEconomy(cont.)
• Wartimerestrictionsonfoodstuffsforalcoholacceleratedwaveofprohibition
• 1919:EighteenAmendmentbannedalcohol• Wilsonexpandedfederalgovernmentinsizeandpowertomeetneedsofwar:–WIBsetproductionquotas– Allocatedrawmaterials– Setpricesforgovernmentpurchases
XVI.WorkersinWartime
• “LaborWillWintheWar:”– Americanworkerssweatedwaytovictory:• DrivenbyWarDepartment's“workorfight”rule:
– Threatenedanyunemployedmalewithimmediatedraft;powerfuldiscouragementtostrike
– Governmenttriedtotreatlaborfairly
– SamuelGompersandAmericanFederationofLabor(AFofL)loyallysupportedwar:• Loyaltyrewardedasmembershipdoubledandrealwagesformanyunionizedworkersrosemorethan20%
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XVI.WorkersinWartime(cont.)
• Recognitionofrighttoorganizenotwonandworkershitbywartimeinflation:– 6,000strikesbrokeoutinwaryears– IndustrialWorkersoftheWorld(“Wobblies”)engineereddamagingindustrialsabotagebecause• Victimsofshabbiestworkingconditions
– 1919greateststrikeinU.S.historyrockedsteelindustryasmorethan250,000struck:• Wantedrighttobargaincollectively,butmanagementrefusedtonegotiate
XVI.WorkersinWartime(cont.)
– Eventuallysteelstrikecollapsedaftermorethanadozenstrikerskilled
– Setbackcrippledunionmovementformorethanadecade• Blackworkersenteredsteelmillsin1919• TensofthousandsofsouthernblacksdrawntoNorthtowar-industryemployment• Interracialviolenceresulted,esp.inChicagoinJuly1919
– 15whitesand23blackskilledduringtwoweeksofterror
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XVII.SufferingUntilSuffrage
• Womenheededcallofpatriotismandopportunity:– Thousandsenteredfactoriesandfieldsleftbymengoingtofrontline
–Warsplitwomen'smovementdeeply:• Manyprogressive-erafeministswerepacifists
– FoundavoiceinNationalWoman'sparty– LedbyQuakeractivistAlicePaul– Demonstratedagainst“KaiserWilson”withmarchesandhungerstrikes
XVII.SufferingUntilSuffrage(cont.)
• Largerpartofsuffragemovement:– RepresentedbyNationalAmericanWomanSuffrageAssociation– SupportedWilson'swar– Arguedwomenmusttakepartinwarefforttoearnroleinshapingpeace
– Fightfordemocracyabroadwaswomen'sbesthopeforwinningtruedemocracyathome
• Warmobilizationgavenewmomentumtosuffragefight:– Wilsonendorsedsuffrageas“vitallynecessarywarmeasure”– In1917NewYorkvotedforsuffrageatstatelevel– FollowedbyMichigan,Oklahoma,andSouthDakota– WholeU.S.A.followedwithNineteenthAmendment(1920)
XVII.SufferingUntilSuffrage(cont.)
• Ratified70yearsafterfirstcallforsuffrageatSenecaFalls• GaveallAmericanwomenrighttovote(seeAppendixandTable29.3)
–Women'swartimeeconomicgainsfleeting:• PermanentWomen'sBureauinDepartmentofLaborcreatedtoprotectwomeninworkplace• Mostwomenworkersgaveupwartimejobs
XVII.SufferingUntilSuffrage(cont.)
• Congresssupportedtraditionalroleasmothers:– PassedSheppard-TownerMaternityAct1921:
» Providedfederallyfinancedinstructioninmaternalandinfanthealthcare
» Expandedresponsibilityoffederalgovernmentforfamilywelfare
• WWIforeshadowedfuturewhenwomen'swage-laborandpoliticalpowerwouldreshapeAmericanwayoflife
Table 29-3 p680
XVIII.MakingPlowboysintoDoughboys
• America'searlyroleinwar:– DidnotdreamofsendinglargeforcetoFrance– Assumednavalpowerandmaterialsupportwouldsuffice
– ByApril/May1917,Europeansrunningoutofmoneyandmanpower
• HugeAmericanarmyneededtoberaised,trained,andtransportedquicklyorwholewesternfrontwouldcollapse
XVIII.MakingPlowboysintoDoughboys(cont.)
– Conscriptiononlyanswertourgentneed:• Wilsondislikeddraft,buteventuallyacceptedconscriptionasdisagreeableandtemporarynecessity• ImmediatelyranintoproblemswithCongress
– Latergrudginglypassedconscription• Draftworkedeffectivelyoverall• Armygrewtooverfourmillionmen• Womenforfirsttimeadmittedtoarmedforces:
– 11,000tonavyand269tomarines– Armyrefusedtoenlistwomen
XVIII.MakingPlowboysintoDoughboys(cont.)
• AfricansAmericansservedinstrictlysegregatedunits,usuallyunderwhiteofficers• Militaryauthoritieshesitatedtotrainblacksforcombat:– Thusmajorityassignedto“constructionbattalions”orputtoworkunloadingships
• RecruitssupposetoreceivesixmonthsoftraininginAmericaandtwomoreoverseas• becauseofurgency,manydoughboysputmoreswiftlyintobattle
XIX.AmericaHelpsHammerthe“Hun”
• Russia:• Bolsheviksseizedpowerin1917• Withdrewfrom“capitalisticwar”1918• ThisreleasedmanyGermansfromeasternfrontinRussiaforwesternfrontinFrance
• France:– GraduallybegantobustlewithU.S.doughboys(seeMap29.4):• Firstonesusedforreplacementsordeployedinquietsectors
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XIX.AmericaHelpsHammerthe“Hun”(cont.)
• Americansoldierssufferedhighratesofvenerealdisease
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Map 29-4 p682
XIX.AmericaHelpsHammerthe“Hun”(cont.)
–MassiveGermandriveofspring1918:• AlliesunitedunderFrenchmarshalFoch
– Germanssmashedtowithin40milesofParis,May1918– ThreatenedtoknockFranceoutofwar– 30,000AmericanssenttoChateau-Thierry,rightinteethofGermanadvance
– FirstsignificantengagementofAmericantroopsinaEuropeanwar
– Americaputdecisiveweightonscales(seeFigure29.2)tobluntGermandrive
– AmericansjoinedinSecondBattleoftheMarine(July)– MarkedbeginningofGermanwithdrawal
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XIX.AmericaHelpsHammerthe“Hun”(cont.)
• Americansnowdemandedandgotseparatearmy• GeneralJohnJ.Pershingassignedafrontof85milesnorthwestwardfromSwissbordertoFrenchline:– Pershing'sarmyundertookMeuse-Argonneoffensive:
» FromSeptember26toNovember11,1918» Battlelasted47days» Engaged1.2millionAmericantroops» 120,000Americanskilledorwounded» Victoryinsight
XIX.AmericaHelpsHammerthe“Hun”(cont.)
• Berlinreadytohoistwhiteflag:– LookedtoWilsoninOctober1918forpeacebasedonFourteenPoints:• WilsondemandedKaiserberemovedbeforeanyarmisticecouldbenegotiated– War-wearyGermanstookhint– KaiserfledtoHolland,livedforhisremaining23years“unwept,unhonored,andunhung”
– ExhaustedGermanslaiddownarmsat11:00on11thdayof11thmonth,1918
XIX.AmericaHelpsHammerthe“Hun”(cont.)
• Costsexceededcomprehension:– 9millionsoldiersdied– 20millionsufferedgrievouswounds– 30millionpeoplediedininfluenzapandemicof1918-1919– morethan550,000Americans—morethantentimesnumberofU.S.combatcasualties—diedfromflu
• U.S.'smaincontributionstovictory:– Foodstuffs,munitions,credits– Oilforfirstmechanizedwar– Andmanpower,butnotbattlefieldvictories– Yanksfoughtonlytwomajorbattles—St.MihielandMeuse-Argonne,bothinlasttwomonthsoffour-yearwar,andwerestillfightinginlatterwhenwarended
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Figure 29-2 p684
XIX.AmericaHelpsHammerthe“Hun”(cont.)
• ItwasprospectofendlessU.S.troopreserves,ratherthanAmerica'sactualmilitaryperformances,thateventuallydemoralizedGermans
• GeneralPershing'sarmy:– PurchasedmoresuppliesinEuropethanitshippedfrom
UnitedStates– Mostofitsartilleryandvirtuallyallitsaircraftprovidedby
BritainandFrance– UnitedStatesnoarsenalofdemocracyinthiswar
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XX.WilsonStepsDownfromOlympus• Wilson'sroleinshapingpeace?
• Presidenttoweredatsummitofpopularityandpower:– Noothermanhadeveroccupiedsodizzyapinnacleasmoralleaderofworld
– Atthismoment,hissurenessoftouchdesertedhim,andhebegantomakeseriesoftragicfumbles
– HecalledforDemocraticcongressionalvictoryinelectionofNovember,1918:» Backfired,votersreturnednarrowRepublicanmajoritytoCongress
» WilsonwenttoParisasdiminishedleader
XX.WilsonStepsDownfromOlympus(cont.)
–Wilson'stripinfuriatedRepublicans:• Tothattime,nopresidenthadtraveledtoEurope
– Lookedtocriticslikegrandstanding• SnubbedSenateinassemblingpeacedelegation
– NeglectedtoincludeasingleRepublicansenatorindelegation
• LogicalchoicewouldhavebeennewchairmanofSenateCommitteeonForeignRelations:– HenryCabotLodgeofMassachusetts– WilsonloathedLodge,andfeelingwasreciprocated
XXI.AnIdealistAmidtheImperialists
• Wilsonreceivedtumultuouswelcomes:– FrommassesofFrance,England,Italy– ParisConference(January18,1919):• BigFour:Wilson,PremierOrlando(Italy),PrimeMinisterGeorge(Britain),PremierClemenceau(France)• Wilsonwantedtopreventvengefulparcelingofcoloniesandprotectoratesofvanquishedpowers• LessattentivetofateofcoloniesbelongingtovictoriousFrenchandEnglish
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XXI.AnIdealistAmidtheImperialists(cont.)
• Victorsreceivedconqueredterritory(SyriatoFrance,IraqtoEngland)astrusteesofLeagueofNations– Basicallyprewarcolonialism– Infuture,anticolonialnationalistswouldwieldWilsonianidealofself-determinationagainstimperialoccupiers
• WilsonenvisionedLeagueasaworldparliament:– Anassemblyseatforallnations– Councilcontrolledbygreatpowers
• Signalvictory—whendiplomatsmadeLeagueintegralpartoffinalpeacetreaty
XXI.AnIdealistAmidtheImperialists(cont.)
– ClemenceaupressedWilsonwithFrenchdemandsforrichcoalareaofSaarValley• Francefinallysettledforcompromise:• SaarValleywouldremainunderLeaguefor15years• Thenpopularvotewoulddetermineitsfate
–Wilson'snextbattlewithItalyoverFiume,avaluableseaporttoItalyandYugoslavia:• WilsonwantedFiumetogotoYugoslaviaandappealedoverheadsofItalianleaders• Maneuverfellflat
XXI.AnIdealistAmidtheImperialists(cont.)
• Wilson'snextbattlewithJapan:– Duringwar,JapanseizedChina'sShandong(Shantung)PeninsulaandGermanislandsinPacific
– JapanreceivedPacificIslandsunderLeaguemandate– WilsonstronglyopposedJapanesecontrolofShandongasviolationofself-determinationforits30millionChinese
– Wilsonreluctantlyacceptedcompromise:» JapankeptGermany'seconomicholdingsinShandong» PledgedtoreturnpeninsulatoChinaatlaterdate» Chineseoutragedbyimperialisticsolution
XXI.AnIdealistAmidtheImperialists(cont.)
• TreatyofVersailleshandedtoGermansinJune1919:
• HadbeenexcludedfromnegotiationsinParis• HopedforpeacebasedonFourteenPoints• Vengeance,notreconciliation,wastreaty'sdominanttone• LoudandbittercriesofbetrayalburstfromGermans
– ChargesAdolfHitlerwouldlateruse
XXI.AnIdealistAmidtheImperialists(cont.)
• Wilsonguiltyofnoconsciousbetrayal:– Alliestornbyconflictingaims–WilsonhadtocompromisetogetanyagreementandespeciallytosalvageLeagueofNations
– Treatyhadmuchtocommendit:• Liberationofmillionsofminoritypeoples,e.g.Poles
XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification
• ReturningtoAmerica,Wilsonsailedstraightintopoliticaltyphoon– Isolationistsprotestedtreaty:• EspeciallyWilson'scommitmenttousherU.S.intonewLeagueofNations• SenatorsWilliamsBorah(Idaho),HiramJohnson(California)andotherswereirreconcilables– Rejectedany“entangling”alliance
XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification(cont.)
– CriticsshoweredTreatyofVersailleswithabuse• ForHun-haters,pactnotharshenough• Liberalsthoughtittooharsh—agrossbetrayal• “HyphenatedAmericans”arousedbecausepeacesettlementnotsufficientlyfavorabletonativelands– IrishAmericansfearedLeaguewouldempowerEnglandtocrushanymoveforIrishindependence
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XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification(cont.)
• StrongmajorityofpeoplefavoredTreaty– July1919,Lodgehadnorealhopeofdefeatingit• Hewantedonlytoamendit• To“Americanize,”“Republicanize,”or“senatorialize”it• Todividepublicopinion,Lodgereadentire264-pagetreatyaloudinSenateForeignRelationsCommitteeandheldprotractedhearingstoairgrievances
XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification(cont.)
• Facedwithsuchdelayingtactics,Wilsondecidedtotakecasetonation:
• Spectacularspeechmakingtourundertakendespiteprotestsofphysiciansandfriends• Wilson'sfrailbodybegantosagunderstrainsof:
– Deathoffirstwifein1914– Partisanstrife– Globalwar– Stressfulpeaceconference
XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification(cont.)
– TourbeganSeptember1919withlamestartinisolationiststrongholdsofMidwest
– RockyMountainregionandPacificCoastwelcomedhim:• Highpoint—andbreakingpoint—ofreturntripatPueblo,Colorado,Sept.25,1919• Withtearscoursingdown,WilsonpleadedforLeagueasonlyhopeofpreventingfuturewars• Thatnighthecollapsedfromphysicalandnervousexhaustion
XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification(cont.)
• WhiskedbacktoWashington,whereseveraldayslaterhesufferedstroke– LaidindarkenedroominWhiteHouseforseveralweeks– Formorethan7months,hedidnotmeetcabinet
• SenatorLodgenowathelm:– Cameupwithfourteenformalreservations:• ReservedrightsofUnitedStatesunderMonroeDoctrineandConstitutiontoprotectU.S.sovereignty
XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification(cont.)
–Wilsonstillstrongenoughtoobstruct:• SentwordtoalltrueDemocratstovoteagainsttreatywithLodgereservationsattached• Wilsonhopedthatwhenthesewereclearedaway,pathwouldbeopenedforratification• LoyalDemocratsinSenateonNovember19,1919didWilson'sbidding• Combiningwith“irreconcilables”,theyrejectedtreaty55to39
– Nationdeeplyshockedbyverdict
XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification(cont.)
• InMarch1920treatybroughtupagainwithLodgereservationstackedon• WilsonagainsentwordtoloyalDemocratstovotedowntreatywithobnoxiousreservations• HethussigneddeathwarrantoftreatyasfarasAmericanswereconcerned• OnMarch19,1920,treatynettedsimplemajoritybutfailedtogetnecessarytwo-thirdsmajoritybycountof49yeasto35nays
XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification(cont.)
• Whodefeatedtreaty?:– Lodge-Wilsonpersonalfeud,traditionalism,isolationism,disillusionment,andpartisanshipallcontributed
–Wilsonmustbearsubstantialshareofresponsibility• Heaskedforallornothing—andgotnothing
XXIII.The“SolemnReferendum”of1920
• “SolemnReferendum”—Wilson'ssolutiontodeadlockTreatywastodecideissueinpresidentialcampaignof1920
• RepublicansgatheredinChicago,June:– SenatebossesdecidedonSenatorWarrenG.Harding,Ohioascandidate
– Forvice-presidentnominatedCalvin(“SilentCal”)CoolidgeofMassachusetts
XXIII.The“SolemnReferendum”of1920(cont.)
– DemocratsmeetinSanFrancisco:• NominatedGovernorJamesM.CoxofOhio:
– StrongsupporterofLeague– RunningmateAssistantNavySecretaryFranklinD.Roosevelt
• DemocratsattemptedtomakeelectionareferendumonLeague• EffortmuddledbycontradictorystatementsbyHarding
XXIII.The“SolemnReferendum”of1920(cont.)
– Electionreturns:• Newlyenfranchisedwomenswelledvotetotals• Hardinghadprodigiouspluralityofoversevenmillionvotes—16,143,407to9,130,328forCox• Largestvictorymargintodateinpresidentialelection• Electoralcountwas404to127• Debs,federalprisoner#9653atAtlantaPenitentiaryrolleduplargestSocialistvoteeverwith919,799
XXIII.The“SolemnReferendum”of1912(cont.)
• Publicdesireforchangeresultedinrepudiationof“high-and-mighty”Wilsonism– Peopleeagertogobackto“normalcy”:• Willingtoacceptsecond-ratepresident—
– Gotthird-rateone• Harding'svictorydeathsentenceforLeague• PoliticiansincreasinglyshunnedLeagueasaleper
–WhenWilsondiedin1924—his“greatvision”ofleagueforpeacehadperishedlongbefore
XXIV.TheBetrayalofGreatExpectations
– America'sspurningofLeagueshort-sighted:• Republichadhelpedtowinwar,butfoolishlykickedfruitsofvictoryundertable• Leagueundercutbyrefusalofmightiestpoweronglobetojoinit• UltimatefailurelayatAmerica'sdoor-step• Leaguedesigned,alongwithfourotherpeacetreaties,torestuponUnitedStates
XXIV.TheBetrayalofGreatExpectations(cont.)
– SenatespurnedSecurityTreatywithFrance:• Francethenundertooktobuildpowerfulmilitary• ThusGermanybegantorearmillegally
– UnitedStateshurtitsowncausewhenitburieditsheadinsand• U.S.shouldhaveassumedwar-bornresponsibilitiesandembracedroleofgloballeader• Shouldhaveuseditsstrengthtoshapeworldevents
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