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English Literature

Portfolio

Gavril Loreta, Faculty of Letters Alexandru Ioan

Cuza Iaşi,

Group L!,"o#anian$English,%ear I,&e#ester II'

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English Literature Bibliography.

By William Shakespeare(

')"o#eo and *uliet)

!')+a#let)

')-ing Lear)

.')/ac0eth)

1')2thello)

3')Anthony and Cleopatra)

$2ld English Literature

$/etaphysical Poetry and Poets

!

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William Shakespeare

  William Shakespeare 4as the son

of *ohn &ha5espeare, a successful glover  and alder#an originally fro# &nitterfield, and

/ary Arden, the daughter of an affluent lando4ning far#er'+e 4as 0orn in &tratford$

upon$Avon and 0aptised on !3 April 13.' +is actual 0irthdate is un5no4n, 0ut istraditionally o0served on ! April, &t George6s 7ay'8his date, 4hich can 0e traced 0ac5

to an eighteenth$century scholar6s #ista5e, has proved appealing 0ecause &ha5espeare

died on ! April 33' +e 4as the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son'

  Although no attendance records for the period survive, #ost 0iographers agree that

Shakespeare #ay have 0een educated at the -ing6s 9e4 &chool in &tratford, a free

school chartered in 11, a0out a :uarter of a #ile fro# his ho#e' Gra##ar schools 

varied in :uality during the Eliza0ethan era, 0ut the curriculu# 4as dictated 0y la4throughout England, and the school 4ould have provided an intensive education in Latin

gra##ar and the classics'

  At the age of ;, Shakespeare #arried the !3$year$old Anne +atha4ay' 8he

consistory court of the 7iocese of <orcester  issued a #arriage licence on != 9ove#0er1;!' 84o of +atha4ay6s neigh0ours posted 0onds the next day as surety that there 4ere

no i#pedi#ents to the #arriage'8he couple #ay have arranged the cere#ony in so#e

haste, since the <orcester chancellor allo4ed the #arriage 0anns to 0e read once insteadof the usual three ti#es' Anne6s pregnancy could have 0een the reason for this' &ix

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#onths after the #arriage, she gave 0irth to a daughter, &usanna, 4ho 4as 0aptised on !3

/ay 1;' 84ins, son +a#net and daughter *udith, follo4ed al#ost t4o years later and

4ere 0aptised on ! Fe0ruary 1;1' +a#net died of un5no4n causes at the age of and4as 0uried on August 1>3'

  After the 0irth of the t4ins, there are fe4 historical traces of &ha5espeare until heis #entioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1>!' ?ecause of this gap, scholars

refer to the years 0et4een 1;1 and 1>! as &ha5espeare6s @lost years@' ?iographersatte#pting to account for this period have reported #any apocryphal stories' 9icholas

"o4e, &ha5espeares first 0iographer, recounted a &tratford legend that &ha5espeare fled

the to4n for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching' Another eighteenth$centurystory has &ha5espeare starting his theatrical career #inding the horses of theatre patrons

in London' *ohn Au0rey reported that &ha5espeare had 0een a country

school#aster'&o#e t4entieth$century scholars have suggested that &ha5espeare #ayhave 0een e#ployed as a school#aster 0y Alexander +oghton of Lancashire, a Catholic

lando4ner 4ho na#ed a certain @<illia# &ha5eshafte@ in his 4ill' 9o evidence

su0stantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death and the na#e&ha5eshafte 4as co##on in the Lancashire area'

  "o4e 4as the first 0iographer to pass do4n the tradition that &ha5espeare retired

to &tratford so#e years 0efore his deathB 0ut retire#ent fro# all 4or5 4as unco##on at

that ti#e, and &ha5espeare continued to visit London' In 3! he 4as called as a 4itnessin a court case concerning the #arriage settle#ent of /ountoy6s daughter, /ary'In

/arch 3 he 0ought a gatehouse in the for#er ?lac5friars prioryB and fro# 9ove#0er

3. he 4as in London for several 4ee5s 4ith his son$in$la4, *ohn +all'

  After 3D33D=, &ha5espeare 4rote fe4er plays, and none are attri0uted to hi#

after 3' +is last three plays 4ere colla0orations, pro0a0ly 4ith *ohn Fletcher , 4hosucceeded hi# as the house play4right for the -ings /en'

  &ha5espeare died on ! April 33 and 4as survived 0y his 4ife and t4o

daughters' &usanna had #arried a physician, *ohn +all, in 3D=,and *udith had #arried8ho#as uiney, a vintner , t4o #onths 0efore &ha5espeares death'

  In his 4ill, &ha5espeare left the 0ul5 of his large estate to his elder daughter

&usanna'8he ter#s instructed that she pass it do4n intact to @the first son of her 0ody@'

8he uineys had three children, all of 4ho# died 4ithout #arrying' 8he +alls had onechild, Eliza0eth, 4ho #arried t4ice 0ut died 4ithout children in 3=D, ending

&ha5espeares direct line' &ha5espeare6s 4ill scarcely #entions his 4ife, Anne, 4ho 4as

 pro0a0ly entitled to one third of his estate auto#atically' &ha5espeare 4as 0uried in thechancel of the +oly 8rinity Church t4o days after his death' 8he epitaph carved into the

stone sla0 covering his grave includes a curse against #oving his 0ones, 4hich 4as

carefully avoided during restoration of the church in !DD;'

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Romeo and Juliet

8he play 0egins 4ith a large fight 0et4eenthe Capulets and the /ontagues, t4o prestigious fa#ilies in erona, Italy' 8hese fa#ilies

have 0een fighting for :uite so#e ti#e, and the Prince declares that their next pu0lic

 0ra4l 4ill 0e punished 0y death' <hen the fight is over, "o#eos cousin ?envolio triesto cheer hi# of his #elancholy' "o#eo reveals that he is in love 4ith a 4o#an na#ed

"osaline, 0ut she has chosen to live a life of chastity' "o#eo and ?envolio are

accidentally invited to their ene#ys partyB ?envolio convinces "o#eo to go'

At the party, "o#eo loc5s eyes 4ith a young 4o#an na#ed *uliet' 8heyinstantly fall in love, 0ut they do not realize that their fa#ilies are #ortal ene#ies' <hen

they realize each others identities, they are devastated, 0ut they cannot help the 4ay that

they feel' "o#eo snea5s into *uliets yard after the party and proclai#s his love for her'&he returns his senti#ents and the t4o decide to #arry' 8he next day, "o#eo and *ulietare #arried 0y Friar La4renceB an event 4itnessed 0y *uliets 9urse and "o#eos loyal

servant, ?althasar' 8hey plan to #eet in *uliets cha#0ers that night'

"o#eo visits his 0est friend /ercutio and his cousin ?envolio 0ut his good#ood is cutailed' *uliets cousin, 8y0alt, starts a ver0al :uarrel 4ith "o#eo, 4hich soon

turns into a duel 4ith /ercutio' "o#eo tries to stop the fight 0ut it is too late( 8y0alt 5ills

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/ercutio' "o#eo, enraged, retaliates 0y 5illing 8y0alt' 2nce "o#eo realizes the

conse:uences of his actions, he hides at Friar La4rences cell'

Friar La4rence infor#s "o#eo that he has 0een 0anished fro# erona and4ill 0e 5illed if he stays' 8he Friar suggests "o#eo spend the night 4ith *uliet, then leave

for /antua in the #orning' +e tells "o#eo that he 4ill atte#pt to settle the Capulet and/ontague dispute so "o#eo can later return to a united fa#ily' "o#eo ta5es his advice,

spending one night 4ith *uliet 0efore fleeing erona'

*uliets #other, co#pletely una4are of her daughter6s secret #arriage to

"o#eo, infor#s *uliet that she 4ill #arry a #an na#ed Paris in a fe4 days' *uliet,

outraged, refuses to co#ply' +er parents tell her that she #ust #arry Paris and the 9urseagrees 4ith the#' *uliet as5s Friar La4rence for advice, insisting she 4ould rather die

than #arry Paris' Fr' La4rence gives *uliet a potion 4hich 4ill #a5e her appear dead and

tells her to ta5e it the night 0efore the 4edding' +e pro#ises to send 4ord to "o#eo $

intending the t4o lovers 0e reunited in the Capulet vault'

*uliet drin5s the potion and every0ody assu#es that she is dead H including

?althasar, 4ho i##ediately tells "o#eo' Friar La4rences letter fails to reach "o#eo, so

he assu#es that his 4ife is dead' +e rushes to *uliets to#0 and, in deep grief, drin5s a

vial of poison' /o#ents later, *uliet 4a5es to find "o#eo dead and 5ills herself due togrief' 2nce the fa#ilies discover 4hat happened, they finally end their 0itter feud' 8hus

the youngsters6 deaths 0ring the fa#ilies together' "o#eo And *uliet is a true tragedy in

the literary sense 0ecause the fa#ilies gather sufficient self$5no4ledge to correct their 0ehaviour 0ut not until it is too late to save the situation'

Romeo and Juliet quotes

8y0alt( @<hat, dra4n and tal5 of peace I hate the 4ord'

As I hate hell, all /ontagues, and thee'@

?envolio( 6Alas, that love so gentle in his vie4,&hould 0e so tyrannous and rough in proof'6

 9urse( 6<hy, he6s a #an of 4ax'6

Lady Capulet( 6erona6s su##er hath not such a flo4er'6

"o#eo( 62 she doth teach the torches to 0urn 0rightJIt see#s she hangs upon the chee5 of night'6

/ercutio( 6"o#eoJ +u#orsJ /ad#anJ PassionJ LoverJ

Appear thou in the li5eness of a sigh'

&pea5 0ut one rhy#e and I a# satisfied'Cry 0ut @Ay #e,@ pronounce 0ut @love@ and @dove@'6

3

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"o#eo( 6+e ests at scars that never felt a 4ound'6

*uliet( 62 "o#eo, "o#eo, <herefore art thou "o#eo6

*uliet( 6<hat6s in a na#e 8hat 4hich 4e call a rose

 0y any other na#e 4ould s#ell as s4eet'6

*uliet( 6/y 0ounty is as 0oundless as the sea'

/y love as deep' 8he #ore I give to thee,

8he #ore I have, for 0oth are infinite'6

"o#eo( 68hen I defy you starsJ6

Friar La4rence( 6And here I stand, 0oth to i#peach and purge/yself conde#ned and #yself excused'6

Prince( 6For never 4as a story of #ore 4oe8han this of *uliet and her "o#eo'6

Romeo Montague

"o#eo is the only son of Lord and Lady /ontague' +e is young, i#pulsive, and a0ove

all else, passionate' 2nce "o#eo sets his heart on so#ethingHor so#eoneHhe is

convinced that there are no other alternatives' At the 0eginning of the play, "o#eo is soheart0ro5en over "osaline that he can 0arely function' +e devotes every 4a5ing 0reath

and thought to the 4o#an he cannot have, 0ut he forgets a0out her as soon as he lays hiseyes upon *uliet' 2nce he #eets her, his ideas of love #ature 4ith hi#' <hile he canfinally grasp the true #eaning of love, he is still una0le to control his i#pulsive

 0ehaviors' As a result, "o#eo acts 0efore he thin5s, and he often suffers conse:uences

that could have other4ise 0een avoided' 8he #ost o0vious case of this type of 0ehavior is

4hen "o#eo drin5s poison 0ecause he 0elieves his 4ife is dead' If he had thought a0outthe ra#ifications of his plans 0efore he acted upon the#, "o#eo could have potentially

lived a long life 4ith his *uliet'

Juliet Capulet

8hough she is not yet . years old, *uliets #aturity far exceeds that of "o#eo' At first,she see#s to 0e #erely o0edient and her actions strive to please those she cares a0out' Asthe play progresses and *uliet falls in love 4ith "o#eo, she 0eco#es rational, strong, and

#ature' &he chooses her 4ords 4isely and rarely acts on i#pulse' <hen "o#eo 4as

 0anished fro# erona, *uliet could have easily pac5ed her 0ags and left 4ith hi#'Instead, she chose to do the logical thing and 4ait for a ti#e 4hen they could 0e

 peacefully reunited' Knfortunately, there 4ould never 0e a ti#e for the# to reunite'

<hen *uliet realizes this, she chooses death over life 4ithout her hus0and' +o4ever, it is

=

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i#portant to note that she 5ills herself over her pure grief, not 0ecause she needs a #an to

survive'

Friar Lawrene

8hough he is a 5ind and religious #an 4ho often gives good advice, Friar La4rence isalso responsi0le for a great deal of conflict in this play' +e fre:uently co#es up 4ithgood$intentioned sche#es that #a5e situations 4orse than they need to 0e' It is :uite

 possi0le that if he didnt secretly #arry "o#eo and *uliet, the Capulets and /ontagues

could have ended their :uarrel' If he did not allo4 "o#eo to snea5 into *uliets roo# 0efore fleeing for /antua, there is a good chance that the lovers 4ould have felt less

 passionate a0out each other' If he did not concoct a #ystical potion to #a5e *uliet appear

dead, t4o lives could have 0een saved' 2f course, Friar La4rence cannot 0e 0la#ed forall that happened' "o#eo and *uliets largest do4nfall 4as fateHFather La4rence

si#ply lent fate a helping hand'

!he "urse

*uliets 9urse is a 5ind, funny 4o#an 4ho loves *uliet as if she 4ere her o4n child' &he

has nursed *uliet since infancy and the t4o of the# are extre#ely close to one another'

&he goes out of her 4ay to #a5e *uliet happy, and she only 4ants 4hat is 0est for her'8he 9urse is *uliets only friend and confidante until she gives *uliet advice that she

doesnt 4ant to hear'

Merutio

/ercutio is "o#eos 0est friend and the Princes 5ins#an' +e is a clever, 4itty character

4ho loves to #a5e puns' +is cold logic is the foil to "o#eos love$crazed personality'/ercutio is a good friend to "o#eo, ?envolio, and nearly every0ody he #eetsHso longas they are not Capulets' /ercutio strongly 0elieves in honor and self$respect, 4hich is

4hy he 0eco#es so enraged 4hen "o#eo allo4s 8y0alt to ver0ally attac5 hi#'

!ybalt

8y0alt is *uliets cousin and he is deeply loved 0y his fa#ily' +e typically thin5s 4ith his

s4ord, not 4ith his head' +e is easily angered and it does not ta5e #uch persuasion for

hi# to dra4 his s4ord' +e ta5es great oy in fighting, especially 4hen he fights 4ith thehated /ontagues and of course "o#eo'

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#amlet

  !he !ragedy o$ #amlet% &rine

o$ 'enmark , or #ore si#ply #amlet, is a tragedy 0y <illia# &ha5espeare, 0elieved tohave 0een 4ritten 0et4een 1>> and 3D' 8he play, set in 7en#ar5 , recounts ho4

Prince +a#let exacts revenge on his uncle Claudius for #urdering the old -ing +a#let,Claudius6s o4n 0rother and Prince +a#let6s father, and then succeeding to the throne and

#arrying Gertrude, the -ing +a#let6s 4ido4 and #other of Prince +a#let' 8he play

vividly charts the course of real and feigned #adnessHfro# over4hel#ing grief toseething rageHand explores the#es of treachery, revenge, incest, and #oral corruption'

  7espite #uch research, the exact year +a#let 4as 4ritten re#ains in dispute'

8hree different early versions of the play have survived( these are 5no4n as the First

uarto M, the &econd uarto !M and the First Folio FM' Each has lines, and even

scenes, that are #issing fro# the others' &ha5espeare 0ased Hamlet  on the legend ofA#leth, preserved 0y th$century chronicler  &axo Gra##aticus in his Gesta 7anoru# 

as su0se:uently retold 0y 3th$century scholar  FranNois de ?elleforest' +e #ay have also

dra4n on, or perhaps 4ritten, an earlier hypotheticalM Eliza0ethan  play 5no4n today asthe Ur-Hamlet '

  8he play6s structure and depth of characterization have inspired #uch critical

scrutiny, of 4hich one exa#ple is the centuries$old de0ate a0out +a#let6s hesitancy to

>

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5ill his uncle' &o#e see it as a  plot device to prolong the action, and others see it as the

result of pressure exerted 0y the co#plex philosophical and ethical issues that surround

cold$0looded #urder, calculated revenge and th4arted desire' /ore recently, psychoanalytic critics have exa#ined +a#let6s unconscious desires, and fe#inist critics 

have re$evaluated and reha0ilitated the often #aligned characters of 2phelia and

Gertrude'

  #amlet is &ha5espeare6s longest play and a#ong the #ost po4erful andinfluential tragedies in the English language' It provides a storyline capa0le of

@see#ingly endless retelling and adaptation 0y others@' 7uring &ha5espeare6s lifeti#e, the

 play 4as one of his #ost popular 4or5s, and it still ran5s high a#ong his #ost$ perfor#ed, topping, for exa#ple, the "oyal &ha5espeare Co#pany6s list since ;=>' It

has inspired 4riters fro# Goethe and 7ic5ens to *oyce and /urdoch and has 0een

descri0ed as @the 4orld6s #ost fil#ed story after Cinderella@'8he title role 4as al#ostcertainly created for  "ichard ?ur0age, the leading tragedian of &ha5espeare6s ti#e' In the

four hundred years since, it has 0een perfor#ed 0y highly acclai#ed actors and actresses

fro# each successive age'

  #amlet$li5e legends are so 4idely found for exa#ple in Italy, &pain,&candinavia, ?yzantiu#, and Ara0iaM that the core @hero$as$fool@ the#e is possi0ly Indo$

European in origin' &everal ancient 4ritten precursors to Hamlet  can 0e identified' 8he

first is the anony#ous &candinavian Saga of Hrolf Kraki' In this, the #urdered 5ing hast4o sonsH +roar  and +elgi H4ho spend #ost of the story in disguise, under false na#es,

rather than feigning #adness, in a se:uence of events that differs fro# &ha5espeare6s'8he

second is the "o#an legend of  ?rutus, recorded in t4o separate Latin 4or5s' Its hero,

Lucius @shining, light@M, changes his na#e and persona to ?rutus @dull, stupid@M, playing the role of a fool to avoid the fate of his father and 0rothers, and eventually

slaying his fa#ily6s 5iller, -ing 8ar:uinius' A =th$century 9ordic scholar, 8orfaeus,co#pared the Icelandic hero A#lodi and the &panish hero Prince A#0ales fro# the Ambales SagaM to &ha5espeare6s Hamlet ' &i#ilarities include the prince6s feigned

#adness, his accidental 5illing of the 5ing6s counsellor in his #other6s 0edroo#, and the

eventual slaying of his uncle'

  /any of the earlier legendary ele#ents are inter4oven in the th$century Vita Amlethi @8he Life of A#leth@M 0y &axo Gra##aticus, part of Gesta Danorum' <ritten

in Latin, it reflects classical "o#an concepts of virtue and herois#, and 4as 4idely

availa0le in &ha5espeare6s day' &ignificant parallels include the prince feigning #adness,his #other6s hasty #arriage to the usurper, the prince 5illing a hidden spy, and the prince

su0stituting the execution of t4o retainers for his o4n' A reasona0ly faithful version of

&axo6s story 4as translated into French in 1=D 0y FranNois de ?elleforest, in his Histoires tragiques' ?elleforest e#0ellished &axo6s text su0stantially, al#ost dou0ling its

length, and introduced the hero6s #elancholy'

D

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  2phelia is distracted 0y grief' Fe#inist critics have explored her descent into

#adness' Artist( +enrietta "ae ;>DM'

  In the !Dth century fe#inist critics opened up ne4 approaches to Gertrude and

2phelia' 9e4 +istoricist and cultural #aterialist critics exa#ined the play in its historical

context, atte#pting to piece together its original cultural environ#ent' 8hey focused onthe gender syste# of early #odern England, pointing to the co##on trinity of maid,

wife, or widow, 4ith whores alone outside of the stereotype' In this analysis, the essenceof Hamlet  is the central character6s changed perception of his #other as a 4hore 0ecause

of her failure to re#ain faithful to 2ld +a#let' In conse:uence, +a#let loses his faith inall 4o#en, treating 2phelia as if she too 4ere a 4hore and dishonest 4ith +a#let'

2phelia, 0y so#e critics, can 0e honest and fairB ho4ever, it is virtually i#possi0le to lin5

these t4o traits, since 6fairness6 is an out4ard trait, 4hile 6honesty6 is an in4ard trait'

  +a#let tries to sho4 his #other Gertrude his father6s ghost artist( 9icolai A'

A0ildgaard ca' ==;M'

  Carolyn +eil0run6s >1= essay @+a#let6s /other@ defends Gertrude, arguing that

the text never hints that Gertrude 5ne4 of Claudius poisoning -ing +a#let' 8his analysis

has 0een cha#pioned 0y #any fe#inist critics' +eil0run argued that #en have forcenturies co#pletely #isinterpreted Gertrude, accepting at face value +a#let6s vie4 of

her instead of follo4ing the actual text of the play' ?y this account, no clear evidence

suggests that Gertrude is an adulteress( she is #erely adapting to the circu#stances of her

hus0and6s death for the good of the 5ingdo#'

  2phelia has also 0een defended 0y fe#inist critics, #ost nota0ly Elaine

&ho4alter '2phelia is surrounded 0y po4erful #en( her father, 0rother, and +a#let' All

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three disappear( Laertes leaves, +a#let a0andons her, and Polonius dies' Conventional

theories had argued that 4ithout these three po4erful #en #a5ing decisions for her,

2phelia is driven into #adness'Fe#inist theorists argue that she goes #ad 4ith guilt 0ecause, 4hen +a#let 5ills her father, he has fulfilled her sexual desire to have +a#let

5ill her father so they can 0e together' &ho4alter points out that 2phelia has 0eco#e the

sy#0ol of the distraught and hysterical 4o#an in #odern culture'

  In !DD;, &cottish actor 7avid 8ennant starred in a "oyal &ha5espeare Co#pany  production, 4hich then transferred to London6s 9ovello 8heatre' 8he production 4as so

great a success that a ??C television adaption 4as fil#ed 4ith the cast and released on

77'

In /ay !DD>, Hamlet  opened 4ith *ude La4 in the title role at the 7on#ar <arehouse 

<est End season at <yndha#6s 8heatre' 8he production officially opened on *une and

ran through !! August !DD>'A further production of the play ran at Elsinore Castle in

7en#ar5  fro# !1D August !DD>' 8he *ude La4 Hamlet  then #oved to ?road4ay, and

ran for ! 4ee5s at the ?roadhurst 8heatre in 9e4 %or5 '/ost of the original cast #oved4ith the production to 9e4 %or5' 8he religious allegories in +a#let had their first

 production in /ay !DD, at an invitation only perfo#ance 0y 8he 7ar5 Lady Players at/anhattan 8heater &ource in Green4ich illage in 9e4 %or5 City'

!

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(ing Lear

  (ing Lear is 4idely regarded as

&ha5espeare6s cro4ning artistic achieve#ent' 8he scenes in 4hich a #ad Lear ragesna5ed on a stor#y heath against his deceitful daughters and nature itself are considered

 0y #any scholars to 0e the finest exa#ple of tragic lyricis# in the English language'

&ha5espeare too5 his #ain plot line of an aged #onarch a0used 0y his children fro# a

fol5 tale that appeared first in 4ritten for# in the !th century and 4as 0ased on spo5enstories that originated #uch further into the /iddle Ages' In several 4ritten versions of

@Lear,@ the 5ing does not go #ad, his @good@ daughter does not die, and the tale has a

happy ending'

  8his is not the case 4ith &ha5espeare6s ear , a tragedy of such consu#ing forcethat audiences and readers are left to 4onder 4hether there is any #eaning to the physical

and #oral carnage 4ith 4hich King ear  concludes' Li5e the no0le -ent, seeing a #ad,

 pathetic Lear 4ith the #urdered Cordelia in his ar#s, the profound 0rutality of the taleco#pels us to 4onder, @Is this the pro#ised end@ 'iii'!3.M' 8hat very :uestion stands

at the divide 0et4een traditional critics of King ear  4ho find a heroic pattern in the

story and #odern readers 4ho see no redee#ing or purgative di#ension to the play at all,the #essage 0eing the 0are futility of the hu#an condition 4ith Lear as Every#an'

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  L ear, the aging 5ing of ?ritain, decides to step do4n fro# the throne and divide

his 5ingdo# evenly a#ong his three daughters' First, ho4ever, he puts his daughters

through a test, as5ing each to tell hi# ho4 #uch she loves hi#' Goneril and "egan,Lears older daughters, give their father flattering ans4ers' ?ut Cordelia, Lears youngest

and favorite daughter, re#ains silent, saying that she has no 4ords to descri0e ho4 #uch

she loves her father' Lear flies into a rage and diso4ns Cordelia' 8he 5ing of France, 4hohas courted Cordelia, says that he still 4ants to #arry her even 4ithout her land, and she

acco#panies hi# to France 4ithout her fathers 0lessing'

  Lear :uic5ly learns that he #ade a 0ad decision' Goneril and "egan s4iftly 0egin

to under#ine the little authority that Lear still holds' Kna0le to 0elieve that his 0eloveddaughters are 0etraying hi#, Lear slo4ly goes insane' +e flees his daughters houses to

4ander on a heath during a great thunderstor#, acco#panied 0y his Fool and 0y -ent, a

loyal no0le#an in disguise'

  /ean4hile, an elderly no0le#an na#ed Gloucester also experiences fa#ily

 pro0le#s' +is illegiti#ate son, Ed#und, tric5s hi# into 0elieving that his legiti#ate son,Edgar, is trying to 5ill hi#' Fleeing the #anhunt that his father has set for hi#, Edgar

disguises hi#self as a crazy 0eggar and calls hi#self OPoor 8o#') Li5e Lear, he headsout onto the heath'

  <hen the loyal Gloucester realizes that Lears daughters have turned against their

father, he decides to help Lear in spite of the danger' "egan and her hus0and, Corn4all,

discover hi# helping Lear, accuse hi# of treason, 0lind hi#, and turn hi# out to 4anderthe countryside' +e ends up 0eing led 0y his disguised son, Edgar, to4ard the city of

7over, 4here Lear has also 0een 0rought'

  In 7over, a French ar#y lands as part of an invasion led 0y Cordelia in an effortto save her father' Ed#und apparently 0eco#es ro#antically entangled 4ith 0oth "eganand Goneril, 4hose hus0and, Al0any, is increasingly sy#pathetic to Lears cause'

Goneril and Ed#und conspire to 5ill Al0any'

  8he despairing Gloucester tries to co##it suicide, 0ut Edgar saves hi# 0y

 pulling the strange tric5 of leading hi# off an i#aginary cliff' /ean4hile, the Englishtroops reach 7over, and the English, led 0y Ed#und, defeat the Cordelia$led French'

Lear and Cordelia are captured' In the cli#actic scene, Edgar duels 4ith and 5ills

Ed#undB 4e learn of the death of GloucesterB Goneril poisons "egan out of ealousy overEd#und and then 5ills herself 4hen her treachery is revealed to Al0anyB Ed#unds

 0etrayal of Cordelia leads to her needless execution in prisonB and Lear finally dies out of

grief at Cordelias passing' Al0any, Edgar, and the elderly -ent are left to ta5e care of thecountry under a cloud of sorro4 and regret'

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Mabeth

  &ha5espeares shortest and

 0loodiest tragedy, Mabeth tells the story of a 0rave &cottish general /ac0ethM 4ho

receives a prophecy fro# a trio of sinister 4itches that one day he 4ill 0eco#e -ing of&cotland' Consu#ed 4ith a#0itious thoughts and spurred to action 0y his 4ife, /ac0eth

#urders -ing 7uncan and seizes the throne for hi#self' +e 0egins his reign rac5ed 4ith

guilt and fear and soon 0eco#es a tyrannical ruler, as he is forced to co##it #ore and#ore #urders to protect hi#self fro# en#ity and suspicion' 8he 0lood0ath s4iftly

 propels /ac0eth and Lady /ac0eth to arrogance, #adness, and death'

  Mabeth 4as #ost li5ely 4ritten in 3D3, early in the reign of *a#es I, 4ho had

 0een *a#es I of &cotland 0efore he succeeded to the English throne in 3D' *a#es 4asa patron of &ha5espeares acting co#pany, and of all the plays &ha5espeare 4rote under

*a#ess reign, !a"beth #ost clearly reflects the play4rights close relationship 4ith the

sovereign' In focusing on /ac0eth, a figure fro# &cottish history, &ha5espeare paidho#age to his 5ings &cottish lineage' Additionally, the 4itches prophecy that ?an:uo

4ill found a line of 5ings is a clear nod to *a#ess fa#ilys clai# to have descended fro#

the historical ?an:uo' In a larger sense, the the#e of 0ad versus good 5ingship, e#0odied 0y /ac0eth and 7uncan, respectively, 4ould have resonated at the royal court, 4here

*a#es 4as 0usy developing his English version of the theory of divine right'

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  Mabeth is not &ha5espeares #ost co#plex play, 0ut it is certainly one of his

#ost po4erful and e#otionally intense' <hereas &ha5espeares other #aor tragedies,

such as Hamlet  and #thello, fastidiously explore the intellectual predica#ents faced 0ytheir su0ects and the fine nuances of their su0ects characters, !a"beth tu#0les #adly

fro# its opening to its conclusion' It is a sharp, agged s5etch of the#e and characterB as

such, it has shoc5ed and fascinated audiences for nearly four hundred years'

  8he play 0egins 4ith the 0rief appearance of a trio of 4itches and then #oves toa #ilitary ca#p, 4here the &cottish -ing 7uncan hears the ne4s that his generals,

/ac0eth and ?an:uo, have defeated t4o separate invading ar#iesHone fro# Ireland, led

 0y the re0el /acdonald, and one fro# 9or4ay' Follo4ing their pitched 0attle 4ith theseene#y forces, /ac0eth and ?an:uo encounter the 4itches as they cross a #oor' 8he

4itches prophesy that /ac0eth 4ill 0e #ade thane a ran5 of &cottish no0ilityM of

Ca4dor and eventually -ing of &cotland' 8hey also prophesy that /ac0eths co#panion,?an:uo, 4ill 0eget a line of &cottish 5ings, although ?an:uo 4ill never 0e 5ing hi#self'

8he 4itches vanish, and /ac0eth and ?an:uo treat their prophecies s5eptically until

so#e of -ing 7uncans #en co#e to than5 the t4o generals for their victories in 0attleand to tell /ac0eth that he has indeed 0een na#ed thane of Ca4dor' 8he previous thane

 0etrayed &cotland 0y fighting for the 9or4egians and 7uncan has conde#ned hi# to

death' /ac0eth is intrigued 0y the possi0ility that the re#ainder of the 4itches prophecy

 Hthat he 4ill 0e cro4ned 5ingH#ight 0e true, 0ut he is uncertain 4hat to expect' +evisits 4ith -ing 7uncan, and they plan to dine together at Inverness, /ac0eths castle,

that night' /ac0eth 4rites ahead to his 4ife, Lady /ac0eth, telling her all that has

happened'

  Lady /ac0eth suffers none of her hus0ands uncertainty' &he desires the5ingship for hi# and 4ants hi# to #urder 7uncan in order to o0tain it' <hen /ac0eth

arrives at Inverness, she overrides all of her hus0ands o0ections and persuades hi# to5ill the 5ing that very night' +e and Lady /ac0eth plan to get 7uncans t4ocha#0erlains drun5 so they 4ill 0lac5 outB the next #orning they 4ill 0la#e the #urder

on the cha#0erlains, 4ho 4ill 0e defenseless, as they 4ill re#e#0er nothing' <hile

7uncan is asleep, /ac0eth sta0s hi#, despite his dou0ts and a nu#0er of supernatural portents, including a vision of a 0loody dagger' <hen 7uncans death is discovered the

next #orning, /ac0eth 5ills the cha#0erlainsHostensi0ly out of rage at their cri#eH 

and easily assu#es the 5ingship' 7uncans sons /alcol# and 7onal0ain flee to Englandand Ireland, respectively, fearing that 4hoever 5illed 7uncan desires their de#ise as

4ell'

  Fearful of the 4itches prophecy that ?an:uos heirs 4ill seize the throne,

/ac0eth hires a group of #urderers to 5ill ?an:uo and his son Fleance' 8hey a#0ush?an:uo on his 4ay to a royal feast, 0ut they fail to 5ill Fleance, 4ho escapes into the

night' /ac0eth 0eco#es furious( as long as Fleance is alive, he fears that his po4er

re#ains insecure' At the feast that night, ?an:uos ghost visits /ac0eth' <hen he sees

the ghost, /ac0eth raves fearfully, startling his guests, 4ho include #ost of the great&cottish no0ility' Lady /ac0eth tries to neutralize the da#age, 0ut /ac0eths 5ingship

incites increasing resistance fro# his no0les and su0ects' Frightened, /ac0eth goes to

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visit the 4itches in their cavern' 8here, they sho4 hi# a se:uence of de#ons and spirits

4ho present hi# 4ith further prophecies( he #ust 0e4are of /acduff, a &cottish

no0le#an 4ho opposed /ac0eths accession to the throneB he is incapa0le of 0einghar#ed 0y any #an 0orn of 4o#anB and he 4ill 0e safe until ?irna# <ood co#es to

7unsinane Castle' /ac0eth is relieved and feels secure, 0ecause he 5no4s that all #en

are 0orn of 4o#en and that forests cannot #ove' <hen he learns that /acduff has fled toEngland to oin /alcol#, /ac0eth orders that /acduffs castle 0e seized and, #ost

cruelly, that Lady /acduff and her children 0e #urdered'

  <hen ne4s of his fa#ilys execution reaches /acduff in England, he is stric5en

4ith grief and vo4s revenge' Prince /alcol#, 7uncans son, has succeeded in raising anar#y in England, and /acduff oins hi# as he rides to &cotland to challenge /ac0eths

forces' 8he invasion has the support of the &cottish no0les, 4ho are appalled and

frightened 0y /ac0eths tyrannical and #urderous 0ehavior' Lady /ac0eth, #ean4hile, 0eco#es plagued 4ith fits of sleep4al5ing in 4hich she 0e#oans 4hat she 0elieves to 0e

 0loodstains on her hands' ?efore /ac0eths opponents arrive, /ac0eth receives ne4s

that she has 5illed herself, causing hi# to sin5 into a deep and pessi#istic despair' 9evertheless, he a4aits the English and fortifies 7unsinane, to 4hich he see#s to have

4ithdra4n in order to defend hi#self, certain that the 4itches prophecies guarantee his

invinci0ility' +e is struc5 nu#0 4ith fear, ho4ever, 4hen he learns that the English ar#y

is advancing on 7unsinane shielded 4ith 0oughs cut fro# ?irna# <ood' ?irna# <oodis indeed co#ing to 7unsinane, fulfilling half of the 4itches prophecy'

  In the 0attle, /ac0eth he4s violently, 0ut the English forces gradually

over4hel# his ar#y and castle' 2n the 0attlefield, /ac0eth encounters the vengeful

/acduff, 4ho declares that he 4as not Oof 4o#an 0orn) 0ut 4as instead Ounti#elyripped) fro# his #others 4o#0 4hat 4e no4 call 0irth 0y cesarean sectionM' 8hough

he realizes that he is doo#ed, /ac0eth continues to fight until /acduff 5ills and 0eheadshi#' /alcol#, no4 the -ing of &cotland, declares his 0enevolent intentions for thecountry and invites all to see hi# cro4ned at &cone'

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)thello

In the a0sence of credi0le evidence to the

contrary, &ha5espeare #ust 0e vie4ed as the author of the thirty$seven plays and 1.sonnets that 0ear his na#e' 8he legacy of this 0ody of 4or5 is i##ense' A nu#0er of

&ha5espeares plays see# to have transcended even the category of 0rilliance, 0eco#ingso influential as to affect profoundly the course of <estern literature and culture everafter'

  )thello 4as first perfor#ed 0y the -ings /en at the court of -ing *a#es I

on 9ove#0er , 3D.' <ritten during &ha5espeares great tragic period, 4hich also

included the co#position of Hamlet  3DDM, King ear  3D.1M, !a"beth 3D3M, and Anton$ and Cleo%atra 3D3=M, #thello is set against the 0ac5drop of the 4ars 0et4een

enice and 8ur5ey that raged in the latter part of the sixteenth century' Cyprus, 4hich is

the setting for #ost of the action, 4as a enetian outpost attac5ed 0y the 8ur5s in 1=Dand con:uered the follo4ing year' &ha5espeares infor#ation on the enetian$8ur5ish

conflict pro0a0ly derives fro# &he Histor$ of the &urks 0y "ichard -nolles, 4hich 4as pu0lished in England in the autu#n of 3D' 8he story of #thello is also derived fro#another sourceHan Italian prose tale 4ritten in 131 0y Giovanni ?attista Giraldi Cinzio

usually referred to as CinthioM' 8he original story contains the 0are 0ones of

&ha5espeares plot( a /oorish general is deceived 0y his ensign into 0elieving his 4ife is

unfaithful' 8o Cinthios story &ha5espeare added supporting characters such as the richyoung dupe "oderigo and the outraged and grief$stric5en ?ra0anzio, 7esde#onas

father' &ha5espeare co#pressed the action into the space of a fe4 days and set it against

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the 0ac5drop of #ilitary conflict' And, #ost #e#ora0ly, he turned the ensign, a #inor

villain, into the arch$villain Iago'

  8he :uestion of 2thellos exact race is open to so#e de0ate' 8he 4ord /oorno4 refers to the Isla#ic Ara0ic inha0itants of 9orth Africa 4ho con:uered &pain in the

eighth century, 0ut the ter# 4as used rather 0roadly in the period and 4as so#eti#esapplied to Africans fro# other regions' George A00ott, for exa#ple, in his  A 'rief

 Des"ri%tion of the (hole (orld  of 1>>, #ade distinctions 0et4een O0lac5ish /oors)and O0lac5 9egroes)B a 3DD translation of *ohn Leos &he Histor$ and Des"ri%tion of

 Afri"a distinguishes O4hite or ta4ny /oors) of the /editerranean coast of Africa fro#

the O9egroes or 0lac5 /oors) of the south' 2thellos dar5ness or 0lac5ness is alluded to#any ti#es in the play, 0ut &ha5espeare and other Eliza0ethans fre:uently descri0ed

 0runette or dar5er than average Europeans as 0lac5' 8he opposition of 0lac5 and 4hite

i#agery that runs throughout #thello is certainly a #ar5er of difference 0et4een 2thelloand his European peers, 0ut the difference is never :uite so racially specific as a #odern

reader #ight i#agine it to 0e'

  <hile /oor characters a0ound on the Eliza0ethan and *aco0ean stage, none

are given so #aor or heroic a role as 2thello' Perhaps the #ost vividly stereotypical 0lac5 character of the period is Aaron, the villain of &ha5espeares early play &itus

 Androni"us) 8he antithesis of 2thello, Aaron is lecherous, cunning, and viciousB his final

4ords are( OIf one good deed in all #y life I did I do repent it to #y very soul) &itus Androni"us, 'iii';;;>M' 2thello, 0y contrast, is a no0le figure of great authority,

respected and ad#ired 0y the du5e and senate of enice as 4ell as 0y those 4ho serve

hi#, such as Cassio, /ontano, and Lodovico' 2nly Iago voices an explicitly stereotypical

vie4 of 2thello, depicting hi# fro# the 0eginning as an ani#alistic, 0ar0arous, foolishoutsider'

  2thello 0egins on a street in enice, in the #idst of an argu#ent 0et4een

"oderigo, a rich #an, and Iago' "oderigo has 0een paying Iago to help hi# in his suit to7esde#ona' ?ut "oderigo has ust learned that 7esde#ona has #arried 2thello, a

general 4ho# Iago 0egrudgingly serves as ensign' Iago says he hates 2thello, 4ho

recently passed hi# over for the position of lieutenant in favor of the inexperienced

soldier /ichael Cassio'

  Knseen, Iago and "oderigo cry out to ?ra0anzio that his daughter

7esde#ona has 0een stolen 0y and #arried to 2thello, the /oor' ?ra0anzio finds that his

daughter is indeed #issing, and he gathers so#e officers to find 2thello' 9ot 4anting his

hatred of 2thello to 0e 5no4n, Iago leaves "oderigo and hurries 0ac5 to 2thello 0efore?ra0anzio sees hi#' At 2thellos lodgings, Cassio arrives 4ith an urgent #essage fro#

the du5e( 2thellos help is needed in the #atter of the i##inent 8ur5ish invasion of

Cyprus' 9ot long after4ard, ?ra0anzio arrives 4ith "oderigo and others, and accuses2thello of stealing his daughter 0y 4itchcraft' <hen he finds out that 2thello is on his

4ay to spea5 4ith the du5e, $?ra0anzio decides to go along and accuse 2thello 0efore the

asse#0led senate'

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  In Cyprus the follo4ing day, t4o gentle#en stand on the shore 4ith

/ontano, the governor of Cyprus' A third gentle#an arrives and reports that the 8ur5ish

fleet has 0een 4rec5ed in a stor# at sea' Cassio, 4hose ship did not suffer the sa#e fate,arrives soon after, follo4ed 0y a second ship carrying Iago, "oderigo, 7esde#ona, and

E#ilia, Iagos 4ife' 2nce they have landed, 2thellos ship is sighted, and the group goes

to the har0or' As they 4ait for 2thello, Cassio greets 7esde#ona 0y clasping her hand'<atching the#, Iago tells the audience that he 4ill use Oas little a 4e0 as this) hand$

holding to ensnare Cassio II'i'3>M'

  2thello arrives, greets his 4ife, and announces that there 4ill 0e reveling that

evening to cele0rate Cypruss safety fro# the 8ur5s' 2nce everyone has left, "oderigoco#plains to Iago that he has no chance of 0rea5ing up 2thellos #arriage' Iago assures

"oderigo that as soon as 7esde#onas O0lood is #ade dull 4ith the act of sport,) she 4ill

lose interest in 2thello and see5 sexual satisfaction else4here II'i'!!!M' +o4ever, Iago4arns that Oelse4here) 4ill li5ely 0e 4ith Cassio' Iago counsels "oderigo that he should

cast Cassio into disgrace 0y starting a fight 4ith Cassio at the evenings revels' In a

solilo:uy, Iago explains to the audience that eli#inating Cassio is the first crucial step inhis plan to ruin 2thello' 8hat night, Iago gets Cassio drun5 and then sends "oderigo to

start a fight 4ith hi#' Apparently provo5ed 0y "oderigo, Cassio chases "oderigo across

the stage' Governor /ontano atte#pts to hold Cassio do4n, and Cassio sta0s hi#' Iago

sends "oderigo to raise alar# in the to4n'

  8he alar# is rung, and 2thello, 4ho had left earlier 4ith plans to

consu##ate his #arriage, soon arrives to still the co##otion' <hen 2thello de#ands to

5no4 4ho 0egan the fight, Iago feigns reluctance to i#plicate his Ofriend) Cassio, 0ut he

ulti#ately tells the 4hole story' 2thello then strips Cassio of his ran5 of lieutenant'Cassio is extre#ely upset, and he la#ents to Iago, once everyone else has gone, that his

reputation has 0een ruined forever' Iago assures Cassio that he can get 0ac5 into2thellos good graces 0y using 7esde#ona as an inter#ediary' In a solilo:uy, Iago tellsus that he 4ill fra#e Cassio and 7esde#ona as lovers to #a5e $2thello ealous'

  In an atte#pt at reconciliation, Cassio sends so#e #usicians to play 0eneath

2thellos 4indo4' 2thello, ho4ever, sends his clo4n to tell the #usicians to go a4ay'

+oping to arrange a #eeting 4ith 7esde#ona, Cassio as5s the clo4n, a peasant 4hoserves 2thello, to send E#ilia to hi#' After the clo4n departs, Iago passes 0y and tells

Cassio that he 4ill get 2thello out of the 4ay so that Cassio can spea5 privately 4ith

7esde#ona' 2thello, Iago, and a gentle#an go to exa#ine so#e of the to4nsfortifications'

  7esde#ona is :uite sy#pathetic to Cassios re:uest and pro#ises that she 4ill

do everything she can to #a5e 2thello forgive his for#er lieutenant' As Cassio is a0out

to leave, 2thello and Iago return' Feeling uneasy, Cassio leaves 4ithout tal5ing to2thello' 2thello in:uires 4hether it 4as Cassio 4ho ust parted fro# his 4ife, and Iago,

 0eginning to 5indle 2thellos fire of ealousy, replies, O9o, sure, I cannot thin5 it, 8hat

he 4ould steal a4ay so guilty$li5e, &eeing your co#ing) III'iii'=>M'

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  2thello 0eco#es upset and #oody, and Iago furthers his goal of re#oving

 0oth Cassio and 2thello 0y suggesting that Cassio and 7esde#ona are involved in an

affair' 7esde#onas entreaties to 2thello to reinstate Cassio as lieutenant add to2thellos al#ost i##ediate conviction that his 4ife is unfaithful' After 2thellos

conversation 4ith Iago, 7esde#ona co#es to call 2thello to supper and finds hi# feeling

un4ell' &he offers hi# her hand5erchief to 4rap around his head, 0ut he finds it to 0eOQtRoo little) and lets it drop to the floor III'iii'!>M' 7esde#ona and 2thello go to

dinner, and E#ilia pic5s up the hand5erchief, #entioning to the audience that Iago has

al4ays 4anted her to steal it for hi#'

  Iago is ecstatic 4hen E#ilia gives hi# the hand5erchief, 4hich he plants inCassios roo# as Oevidence) of his affair 4ith 7esde#ona' <hen 2thello de#ands

Oocular proof) III'iii'31M that his 4ife is unfaithful, Iago says that he has seen Cassio

O4ipe his 0eard) III'iii'...M 4ith 7esde#onas hand5erchiefHthe first gift 2thello evergave her' 2thello vo4s to ta5e vengeance on his 4ife and on Cassio, and Iago vo4s that

he 4ill help hi#' <hen 2thello sees 7esde#ona later that evening, he de#ands the

hand5erchief of her, 0ut she tells hi# that she does not have it 4ith her and atte#pts tochange the su0ect 0y continuing her suit on Cassios 0ehalf' 8his drives 2thello into a

further rage, and he stor#s out' Later, Cassio co#es onstage, 4ondering a0out the

hand5erchief he has ust found in his cha#0er' +e is greeted 0y ?ianca, a prostitute,

4ho# he as5s to ta5e the hand5erchief and copy its e#0roidery for hi#'

  8hrough Iagos #achinations, 2thello 0eco#es so consu#ed 0y ealousy that

he falls into a trance and has a fit of epilepsy' As he 4rithes on the ground, Cassio co#es

 0y, and Iago tells hi# to co#e 0ac5 in a fe4 #inutes to tal5' 2nce 2thello recovers, Iago

tells hi# of the #eeting he has planned 4ith Cassio' +e instructs 2thello to hide near0yand 4atch as Iago extracts fro# Cassio the story of his affair 4ith 7esde#ona' <hile

2thello stands out of earshot, Iago pu#ps Cassio for infor#ation a0out ?ianca, causingCassio to laugh and confir# 2thellos suspicions' ?ianca herself then enters 4ith7esde#onas hand5erchief, repri#anding Cassio for #a5ing her copy out the e#0roidery

of a love to5en given to hi# 0y another 4o#an' <hen 7esde#ona enters 4ith Lodovico

and Lodovico su0se:uently gives 2thello a letter fro# enice calling hi# ho#e andinstating Cassio as his replace#ent, 2thello goes over the edge, stri5ing 7esde#ona and

then stor#ing out'

  /ontano, Graziano, and Iago co#e into the roo#' Iago atte#pts to silence

E#ilia, 4ho realizes 4hat Iago has done' At first, 2thello insists that Iago has told thetruth, citing the hand5erchief as evidence' 2nce E#ilia tells hi# ho4 she found the

hand5erchief and gave it to Iago, 2thello is crushed and 0egins to 4eep' +e tries to 5ill

Iago 0ut is disar#ed' Iago 5ills E#ilia and flees, 0ut he is caught 0y Lodovico and/ontano, 4ho return holding Iago captive' 8hey also 0ring Cassio, 4ho is no4 in a chair

 0ecause of his 4ound' 2thello 4ounds Iago and is disar#ed' Lodovico tells 2thello that

he #ust co#e 4ith the# 0ac5 to enice to 0e tried' 2thello #a5es a speech a0out ho4 he

4ould li5e to 0e re#e#0ered, then 5ills hi#self 4ith a s4ord he had hidden on his person' 8he play closes 4ith a speech 0y Lodovico' +e gives 2thellos house and goods

to Graziano and orders that Iago 0e executed'

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*nthony and Cleopatra

8he great #ilitary co##ander

/ar5 Antony is one of the three 4ho rule "o#e after the assassination of *ulius Caesar atthe hands of conspirators' +is co$rulers are 2ctavius Caesar, called 2ctavian to 0e

5no4n in later history as Augustus CaesarM, and /arcus Ae#ilius Lepidus' ?ecause

Antony is a seasoned leadera leader 4ith charis#a, experience and resolvehe enoys

the ad#iration of his soldiers and the "o#an citizens' ?ut Antonys popularity isshortlived, as &ha5espeares audience discovers 4hen Act I opens in Alexandria, Egypt,

4here Antony languishes under the spell of Cleopatras inco#para0le 0eauty and char#'&he spends her every 4ile and 4itchery on 0inding his heart to hersand the 4orld and

"o#e 0e da#ned' In a roo# in Cleopatras palace, one of Antonys friends, Philo,

o0serves that Antonys love affair 4ith Cleopatra has turned hi# into Othe 0ello4s and

the fan to cool a gipsys lust) ' ' $!M'

  'Although Antonys passion for Cleopatra see#s all$consu#ing, there

re#ains in hi# a spar5 of propriety, responsi0ility, duty' Cleopatra has not yet capturedthe 4hole of his soul' 8hus, 4hile 4ith Cleopatra later, he suddenly gets up and leaves

4hen his sense of duty seizes hi#' <hen she goes loo5ing for hi#, she tells Eno0ar0us,

O+e 4as disposd to #irthB 0ut on the sudden A "o#an thought hath struc5 hi#) ' !'1;$1>M' At that #o#ent, Antony is #eeting 4ith the #essenger fro# "o#e, 4ho 0ears

 0ad ne4s( Antonys 4ife has died' <hat is #ore, civil 4ar is a0out to erupt' Antony tells

his right$hand #an, Eno0ar0us, to #a5e ready to depart for "o#e' Eno0ar0us o0servesthat ne4s of his departure 4ill devastate the :ueen( OCleopatra, catching 0ut the least

noise of this, dies instantlyB I have seen her die t4enty ti#es upon far poorer #o#ent' I

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do thin5 there is #ettle in death 4hich co##its so#e loving act upon her, she hath such a

celerity in dying ' !' !DM' Antony replies, O&he is cunning past #ans thought) !M'

'''''' 'uic5$te#pered Cleopatra does protest at first, 0ut then yields to his plan'

After all, Fulvia is deadB she cannot vie against Cleopatra for Antonys affections' <hile

Antony returns to "o#e, 2ctavian and Lepidus plan their defense against their ene#y,&extus Po#peius the son of the late Po#pey the GreatM, 4ho is #assing troops in &icily'

Kpon Antonys arrival in "o#e, 2ctavian :uarrels 4ith hi# over his inattention to duty'

In the end, though, cal# prevails 4hen Antony agrees to #arry 2ctavians sister,2ctavia, to fir# up political ties 0et4een the t4o #en'

'''''' 'In Alexandria, ti#e passes slo4ly for Cleopatra as she a4aits ne4s of Antony'

<hen a #essenger finally arrives and tells her Antony has #arried 2ctavia, she flies intoa paroxys# of rage' Perhaps, if 0ro40eaten, the #essenger 4ill change his storyB perhaps

he 4ill tell her 4hat she 4ants to hearthat Antony is co#ing 0ac5' ?ut, of course, the

#essenger cannot and does not, for Antony is in "o#e on govern#ent 0usiness' +e and

the other t4o triu#virs are concluding an agree#ent 4ith Po#peius 4ho, li5e his father,is usually addressed as Po#peyM that 4ill avert 4ar and 0ring peace'

''''''' 8he agree#ent grants Po#pey control of &icily and &ardinia in exchange for his

 pledge to rid the sea of pirates and to send cargoes of 4heat to "o#e' In cele0ration of

the treaty, Po#pey thro4s a lavish party on one of his ships' 7rin5s flo4' Ene#ies arereconciled'+o4ever, one of Po#peys #en, /enas, tells Po#pey that he 5no4s ho4 to

#a5e his #aster Olord of the 4hole 4orld) !' =' 1!M' <hen Po#pey in:uires further,

/enas suggests a plot to #urder the triu#virs' ?ut Po#pey says such a path to glory

4ould dishonor hi#, and he orders /enas to repent his sinful thoughts' Little doesPo#pey 5no4 that one of the triu#virs, 2ctavius, has plans of his o4n to 0eco#e lord of

the 4orld'

''''''' In the days that follo4, Antony and his ne4 4ife go to Athens' 8here, Antony

ta5es co##and of the eastern ar#ies in a ca#paign against the Parthians' ?ut 4hile

Antony is gone, 2ctavius 0egins to act li5e a dictator' First 2ctavius #a5es 4ar ane4 onPo#pey 0ut refuses to share the glory and spoils after defeating hi#' 8hen he 5ic5s

Lepidus out of po4er, clai#ing OLepidus 4as gro4n too cruelB that he his high authority

a0used) ' 3' >M' Lepidus is i#prisoned, and his property is confiscated' <hen 4ord of

2ctaviuss actions reaches Antony, he tells his 4ife 2ctavia that he is greatly displeased'2ctavia then goes to "o#e to patch things up 0et4een her 0rother and her hus0and'

8he cli#ax of a play or another narrative 4or5, such as a short story or a novel,can 0e defined as the turning point at 4hich the conflict 0egins to resolve itself for 0etter

or 4orse, or as the final and #ost exciting event in a series of events' 8he cli#ax of

 Anton$ and Cleo%atra occurs, according to the first definition, in Act III, &cene II,4hen Antony decides to 4age naval 4arfare against 2ctavius, a grave #ista5e that

signals the 0eginning of Antony6s #ilitary do4nfall' According to the second definition,

the cli#ax occurs over an extended period in 4hich Antony and Cleopatra die'

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8he action ta5es place in Africa, Europe, and the /iddle East 0et4een .D and D ?'C'

8he grand, far$flung, #acrocos#ic scope of the settings helps to underscore the

i##ensity of the political and e#otional drives and i#pulses at 4or5 in the play'8hesettings also serve to de#onstrate the pronounced differences 0et4een so0er, straitlaced

"o#e and hedonistic, decadent Egypt' 8he settings include the follo4ing( Cleopatra6s

 palace in Alexandria, EgyptB the house of 2ctavius Caesar in "o#e, ItalyB the house of&extus Po#peius in /essina, ItalyB the house of Lepidus in "o#eB a street in "o#eB a

#eeting place near /isenu#, ItalyB the galley of &extus Po#peius off /isenu#B a plain

in &yriaB /ar5 Antony6s residence in Athens, GreeceB /ar5 Antony6s ca#p near Actiu#,GreeceB a plain near Actiu#B 2ctavius Caesar6s ca#p in EgyptB /ar5 Antony6s ca#p at

AlexandriaB Egyptian field of 0attleB the 4alls at AlexandriaB a #onu#ent at Alexandria'

  *ntony and Cleopatra contains .! scenes in far$flung settings' &o#e scenes 

such &cene I of Act II, in 4hich &extus Po#peius, /enecrates, and /enas convene at the

house of Po#peius in /essina, Italylast only a fe4 #inutes' 8hen the action shifts to

another part of the 4orld' 8herefore, staging the play can pose great difficulties fortheater co#panies' 2ne 4ay to overco#e these difficulties is to have spare sets 4ith

 props that can 0e easily #ovedor to rely pri#arily on lighting to suggest scene changes'?lind passion #utes the voice of reason and leads to the death of t4o #ighty leaders'

Antony and Cleopatra 0oth pay 4ith their lives for their scandalous, all$consu#ing love

affair' Antony, once a 4ise leader, allo4s his e#otions to gain s4ay over his reason'Conse:uently, he #a5es 0ad decisions, including his foolhardy decision to fight the

forces of 2ctavius at sea' Cleopatra li5e4ise allo4s her e#otionsincluding ealousy and

angerto rule her'

?e4are of young #en of a#0ition' 2ctavius Caesar is :uic5 to depose Lepidus

and turn against &extus Po#peius and Antony for the prize of po4er' 9or#ally,

excessive a#0ition is a fla4 that destroys the people that it infects' ?ut 2ctaviusa 4elldisciplined, highly intelligent, politically astute leader5no4s the secret to achieving and

holding supre#e authority( Control your e#otions' And he is a #aster at that

tas5'8hough !D years younger than Antony, he defeats hi# through the sang$froid of 0rutal dispassion, logic, and a:uiline predation'

+eadstrong, selfish acts can alienate and victi#ize even the 0est of friends'

Antony6s 0ehavior ruptures his friendship 4ith Eno0ar0us, his #ost devoted friend, 4ho

dies of a 0ro5en heart'2nly the fittest survive' 8his is a /achiavellian, as 4ell as a 7ar4inian, la4' In

 Anton$ and Cleo%atra, Lepidus is unfit 0ecause he is 4ea5, tending to pacify his rivals

and see5 co#pro#ise rather than sally forth 4ith a closed fist' Conse:uently, thea#0itious 2ctavius easily pushes hi# aside'

7eception ends in disaster' 8o 4in Antony6s sy#pathy, Cleopatra sends 4ord to

hi# that she has died' Antony then falls on his s4ord, #ortally 4ounding hi#self''

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)ld english literature

2ld English poetry

In 2ld English literature poetry 4as cultivated,as al#ost every4here,0efore prose'erseis#ore effective for oral delivery and #ore easily co##itted to #e#ory'Life 4as Oa sea$

travel), the 4orld 4as O#oonlight), the sea 4as Othe s4an$trac5), the ship 4as Othe sea$

steed)'

Anony#ous Poetry

?eo4ulf Soiety,on the 4hole is healthy(people,the 4o#an included,are not things,0ut persons'In

full possession of every uridical right(the -ings are never tyrants,their #ain

 preoccupation is the 4elfare of their su0ects'Freedom is the e#0le# of the young

state,the principal refrains are loyalty,0ravery and strength'+lory is actually the #ostcherished drea# of every 4orrior'Fame,4hich is 0ut an earlier hypostasis of glory$an

Oearthly) glory one #ight any$is the #ost precious of all treasures'?attle is a 4ay oflife,s4ords have a na#e and a personality of their o4n'/ans value is ulti#ately

esti#ated in ter#s of 4arfare'ision is sure to 0e #isleading,dra4ing the attention a4ay

fro# the #ain events of the story 0ut, on the other hand,4e get useful,infor#ation a0outan age 4hich 4e 5no4 little a0out fro# other sources'

8he <anderer Fortuna labilis' Fate4eirdM is changea0le'<hat is good and 0eautiful is doo#ed to fade

a4ay'A fall fro# dignity 4e cannot 0ut ad#it that the i#pression of all$s4eeping sorro4

is really #oving'8he #ost desperate love is certain to 0e the loftiest one'

2ld English prose*nglo,Sa-ons 4as not a highly literary language,that is prose,except for so#echronicles'8hen 4e should not forget that in literature prose too5 a longer ti#e to

develop'Anglo$&axon produced a fairly co#plex poetry,#ore than a rudi#entary prose'

8he Anglo$&axon Chronicle'8he historical i#portance of the Chronicle need hardly 0e

de#onstrated'

/iddle English poetry

8he ro#ances<e are often ready to en:uate #edieval literature 4ith Count literature,4hose rightful

representative is allegedly the ro#ance,4hose one and only hero is the 5night 4hosesingular ideal do#inated the age'8he definition of the species re:uires,therefore,the

definition of this ideal'Love is properly 4orshipped,it offers #oral perfection and not in

the least,so#ething li5e religious 5no4ledge'

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Popular poetry8he lyric is a poe# set to #usic, a conventional exercise on a the#e en vogue or,#oreoften than not,the translation os a religious concept into the language of the co##on

 people'A great difference 0et4een 2ld English poetry and /iddle English poetry is the

fact that there is #uch #ore lesting and nonsense in the latter'

<illia# Langland8he author ,clad as a her#it,goes to sleep a#oung the /alvern hills on the 0an5 of a

 0roo5'In O!he ision o$ William Conerning &iers the &lowman O 4e are the real#of allegory and,give or ta5e so#e ser#on,the characters are never #ore puppets playing

to the strings that a s5ilful sho4#an happens to pull'8hey are ulti#ately the authors

#outhpieces ,0ut they have a life of their o4n and are #oved 0y i#pulses of their o4n4ill'

Geoffrey Chaucer /!roitus and Criseyde0 is the first of his t4o #asterpieces'8he pshychic clash can 0e

easily seen'8his #asterpiece is a courtly ro#ance, true to the courtly code of love 4hichstipulates so#e strangeto usM(principles'+ere they are(the lover su0#its

totally,evoluntarily and irrevoca0ly to the lady he has chosen'*ealousy is the result ofunfaithfulness ,0ut it is no sign of love 0y all #eans'Criseyde says,is that Othe first of

virtues is to hold your tongue') <orship, service, fidelity and secrecy for# the courtly

ideal of 8ruth, a #ans virtue, to 0e sure, the ladys is +onour'+onour is nor e:ual tochastifyB loss of chastify does not #ean loss of honour,provided it is 5ept secretBloss of

secret,on the other hand,#eans loss of honour'2ur #ost sacred #ission is to o0ey this

God,4hich 8roilus does and 4ill conse:uently 0e re4arded 4ith a vision of the Paradise'

/iddle English Prose

John Wyli$$e is first and fore#ost a teacher, one 4ho ta5es it to 0e his #ission in life to

instruct the others'+is teaching is of a particular 5ind'+e 0oth starts fro# and ni#s at

religion'It is actually preaching that he has in #ind,#a5ing the <ord of God,the #atter

of the ser#on'&o far so conventional'<hat #a5es all the difference in the 4orld is that herather insists on the 4ay of teaching 4hich should 0e set forth,to his #ind,in a spirit of

hu#ility'8he teacher hi#self should 0e #ore #indful of Gods glory than of his o4n$

only under such conditions 4ill the <ord have po4er'

/iddle English 7ra#a<hen +enry II ascended the throne he #aintained a co#pany of four actors,5no4n asOlusores regis O or O8he -ings players)'8hey 4ere professionals and as such a repertoire

of scripted plays #ust have existed at the ti#e'In all events, the Oplayer) 4as a step

for4ard in co#parison 4ith the ancient O#i#us), or Oongleur)'<e already have theincipient stage in the develop#ent of the English dra#a'

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Metaphysial &oetry and &oets

  Metaphysial poetry, in the full sense of the ter#, is a poetry 4hich has

 0een inspired 0y a philosophical conception of the universe and the rSle assigned to thehu#an spirit in the great dra#a of existence' 8hese poe#s 4ere 4ritten 0ecause a

definite interpretation of the riddle, the ato#s rushing through infinite e#pty space, the

theology of the school#en as ela0orated in the catechetical dis:uisitions of &t' 8ho#as,&pinoza6s vision of life , 0eyond good and evil, laid hold on the #ind and the i#agination

of a great poet, unified and illu#ined his co#prehension of life, intensified and

heightened his personal consciousness of oy and sorro4, of hope and fear, 0y 0roadening

their significance, revealing to hi# in the history of his o4n soul a 0rief a0stract of thedra#a of hu#an destiny' 6Poetry is the first and last of all 5no4ledgeHit is as i##ortal

as the heart of #an'6 Its the#es are the si#plest experiences of the surface of life, sorro4

and oy, love and 0attle, the peace of the country, the 0ustle and stir of to4ns, 0ut e:ually

the 0oldest conceptions, the profoundest intuitions, the su0tlest and #ost co#plexclassifications and 6discourse of reason6, if into these too the poet can 6carry sensation6,

#a5e of the# passionate experiences co##unica0le in vivid and #oving i#agery, in richand varied har#onies'  It is no such great #etaphysical poetry as that of Lucretius and

7ante that the present essay deals 4ith, 4hich this volu#e see5s to illustrate' 2f the poets

fro# 4ho# it culls, 7onne is fa#iliar 4ith the definitions and distinctions of /ediaeval&cholasticis#B Co4ley6s 0right and alert, if not profound #ind, is attracted 0y the

achieve#ents of science and the syste#atic #aterialis# of +o00es' 7onne, #oreover, is

#etaphysical not only in virtue of his scholasticis#, 0ut 0y his deep reflective interest in

the experiences of 4hich his poetry is the expression, the ne4 psychological curiosity4ith 4hich he 4rites of love and religion' 8he divine poets 4ho follo4 7onne have each

the inherited #etaphysic, if one #ay so call it, of the Church to 4hich he is attached,

Catholic or Anglican'  A #ore serious defect of taste he shares 4ith the poets 4ho# *ohnson styled

O#etaphysical') 8he fantastic conceits 4hich fashion approved in secular poetry are

dra4n into the service of Christian pietyB as Chudleigh 4rote of 7onnes use of 4it in his Di*ine +oems) 8here is #ore regard for the :uaintness and unexpectedness of a si#ile

than for its 0eauty or fitness' *ohnsons criticis# is at least so#eti#es ustified in

+er0erts case, that Othe #ost heterogeneous ideas are yo5ed 0y violence together')

8hings great and s#all are grouped in incongruous, and even unpleasant, association' It4as an article of +er0erts creed that Onothing can 0e so #ean) 0ut that it can 0e

enno0led to 0right and clean uses, and he 4as ustified in his use of illustrations fro#

co##on life, fol5$lore and the #edicinal and che#ical 5no4ledge 4hich had greatfascination for seventeenth century 4riters' 8he candles snuff, the 0ias of the 0o4ls, the

tuning of an instru#ent, a 0lunted 5nife and cold hands that Oare angrie 4ith the fire,) are

successful and popular elucidations of his thought' ?ut the perils of falling into prosinessor 0athos 0eset his path' 8he fine the#e in  +ro*iden"e that O#an is the 4orlds high

 priest) cannot recover its dignity after such a playful extravagance as this(

8he Psal#ist is responsi0le for the saying, OPut 8hou #y tears into 8hy 0ottle,) 0ut

+er0ert #ust add, OAs 4e have 0oxes for the poor') Far 4orse than #ere a0surdity or

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 prosiness is the intolera0le conceit 4hich ends &he Dawning, 4here the Osad heart) is

 0idden to dry his tears in Christs 0urial$linen' &uch instances, though they are rare in

+er0ert, co#pare 4ith Crasha4s excesses in &he (ee%er) ?oth poets, too, dra4 fro#the senses of s#ell and taste i#ages 4hich #a5e a #odern reader, rightly or 4rongly, ill

at ease'

  ?ut, despite these te#ptations to over$daring and tasteless conceits, +er0ertgot #ore good than har# fro# the #etaphysical fashion' +is interest in thought and in

recondite illustration saves hi# fro# 0eing thin or facile' +e far #ore often errs 0y trying

to pac5 too #uch into s#all co#pass, or 0y 0eing too ingenious, than 0y 4or5ing a singlethought thread0are, as his successors and i#itators often do' A fine instance of his po4er

of concentrated thought is his poe# !an) And if he is so#eti#es too artificial, there is no

lac5 of e#otional :uality in +er0ert at his 0est' 8here are poe#s in #any different 5eys

li5e &hrow awa$ th$ rod, Anti%hon and &he Collar, 4hich are all tre#ulous 4ith feeling'  It re#ains to notice &he Chur"h +or"h, in 4hich +er0ert #eets the young

gallant on his o4n ground, and avoids the higher argu#ents that 0elong to &he Chur"h) 

8he 4ell$0red, 4ell$infor#ed #an of the 4orld, 4ho 5no4s Othe 4ays of learning,

honour, pleasure,) gives his good$te#pered counsels 4ith #any a shre4d hit, 0ut 4ithout#alice' 8he collector of #utlandish +ro*erbs is the right #an to coin these terse #axi#s

of #other$4it' 8here is no English 0oo5 of 4isdo# 4hich holds its o4n so 4ellB it is 5eptfro# cynicis# 0y its hu#our, and fro# going out of date 0y its 4riters 5no4ledge of the

4orld'

  8he ter# 1metaphysial@ 4hen applied to poetry has a long and interesting

history' /etaphysical poetry is concerned 4ith the 4hole experience of #an, 0ut theintelligence, learning and seriousness of the poets #eans that the poetry is a0out the

 profound areas of experience especially $ a0out love, ro#antic and sensualB a0out #an6s

relationship 4ith God $ the eternal perspective, and, to a less extent, a0out pleasure,

learning and art'

  Metaphysial poems are lyric poe#s' 8hey are 0rief 0ut intense #editations,

characterized 0y stri5ing use of 4it, irony and 4ordplay' ?eneath the for#al structure of

rhy#e, #etre and stanzaM is the underlying and often hardly less for#alM structure of the poe#6s argu#ent' 9ote that there #ay 0e t4o or #oreM 5inds of argu#ent in a poe#'

"eflections on love or God should not 0e too hard for you' <riting a0out a poet6s

techni:ue is #ore challenging 0ut 4ill please any exa#iner' Giving so#e ti#e to each

4here the tas5 invites thisM, 4hile ending on techni:ue 4ould 0e ideal'

  +ere are so#e suggestions as to ho4 to loo5 at the detail of individual poe#sunder a very 0road heading'

  In ter#s of the 4hole poetry of these four, this s#all selection accurately reflects

the argua0ly narro4 preoccupation of +er0ert and aughan 4ith religious :uestions, andthe great variety of /arvell'

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8he selection only of love poe#s is partly #isleading in 7onne6s case' +e 4rote a great

deal of devotional verse, #uch of it very good, 0ut his #ost stri5ing achieve#ents are in

the &ongs and &onets' +er0ert, of course, is not narro4 $ he is concerned 4ith #an6s4hole life in relation to God' aughan is #ore pro0le#atic $ his preoccupation 4ith his

o4n salvation and his conviction that #ost of #an5ind is da#ned are less attractive

:ualities' +e is fanatical 4here +er0ert is tolerant'

!he poems2 arguments

  John 'onne, along 4ith si#ilar 0ut distinct poets such as George +er0ert,

Andre4 /arvell, and +enry aughn, developed a poetic style in 4hich philosophical and

spiritual su0ects 4ere approached 4ith reason and often concluded in paradox' 8hisgroup of 4riters esta0lished meditation H0ased on the union of thought and feeling

sought after in *esuit Ignatian #editationHas a poetic #ode'

  8he #etaphysical poets 4ere eclipsed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

 0y ro#antic and ictorian poets, 0ut t4entieth century readers and scholars, seeing in the#etaphysicals an atte#pt to understand pressing political and scientific upheavals,

engaged the# 4ith rene4ed interest'

  John 'onne 1=! 3M 4as the #ost influential #etaphysical poet' +is

 personal relationship 4ith spirituality is at the center of #ost of his 4or5, and the psychological analysis and sexual realis# of his 4or5 #ar5ed a dra#atic departure fro#

traditional, genteel verse' +is early 4or5, collected in Satires and in Songs and Sonnets,

4as released in an era of religious oppression' +is Hol$ Sonnets, 4hich contains #any of7onnes #ost enduring poe#s, 4as released shortly after his 4ife died in child0irth' 8he

intensity 4ith 4hich 7onne grapples 4ith concepts of divinity and #ortality in the Hol$

Sonnets is exe#plified in @&onnet T Q7eath, 0e not proudR,@ @&onnet TI Q?atter #yheart, three persond GodR,@ and @&onnet TII Q&ince she 4ho# I loved hath paid herlast de0tR'@

  +eorge #erbert 1> 3M and Andre4 /arvell 3! 3=;M 4ere

re#ar5a0le poets 4ho did not live to see a collection of their poe#s pu0lished' +er0ert,the son of a pro#inent literary patron to 4ho# 7onne dedicated his  Hol$ Sonnets, spent

the last years of his short life as a rector in a s#all to4n' 2n his death0ed, he handed his

 poe#s to a friend 4ith the re:uest that they 0e pu0lished only if they #ight aid @any

deected poor soul'@ /arvell 4rote politically charged poe#s that 4ould have cost hi#his freedo# or his life had they 0een pu0lic' +e 4as a secretary to *ohn /ilton, and once

/ilton 4as i#prisoned during the "estoration, /arvell successfully petitioned to havethe elder poet freed' +is co#plex lyric and satirical poe#s 4ere collected after his deatha#id an air of secrecy'

  Loo5ing at the poets6 techni:ue should, perhaps, 0egin 4ith a consideration of

argu#ent' In a 4ay all of the poe#s have an argu#ent, 0ut it is interesting or stri5ing in

so#e #ore than others'

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Consider, rather, the 4hole range of sources of i#agery each uses' ?roadly spea5ing,

7onne is eclectic 4ide$rangingM and apparently o0scure' +e did not 4rite for

 pu0lication, 0ut sho4ed poe#s to friends 4ho# he supposed to 0e 4ell$read enough tounderstand these references' 7onne6s i#agery dra4s on the ne4 in the late 3 th centuryM

learning of the English renaissance and on topical discoveries and exploration' <e find

references to alche#y, sea$voyages, #ythology and religion a#ong #any other thingsM'Certain i#ages or ideas recur so often as to see# typical( 5ingship and ruleB su0ectivis# 

@one little roo# an every4here@ @nothing else is@MB alche#y $ especially the #ystical

 0eliefs associated 4ith elixir and :uintessence $ and cos#ology, 0oth ancient and #odernreferences 0oth to spheres and to the 4orld of @sea$discoverers@M'

  +er0ert6s i#agery, 0y 4ay of contrast, dra4s on the everyday and fa#iliar B

reason is li5e @a good hus4ife@, spirit is #easured in @dra##es@ and God6s grace is a

@sil5 t4ist@, suffering is a harvest of thorns or 0lood$letting, Paradise is a garden 4here4inter never co#es, severity is a rod and love is God6s 0o4 or the host at a 0an:uet' It

4ill 0e seen, ho4ever, that #any of these i#ages are found in Christ6s teaching, 4hile

others or the sa#e onesM #ay have ac:uired religious connotations'

Metaphysial &oems

  /!he Churh0 by +eorge #erbert' !he Soul3s progress'Is a0out the souls

irritation and despondency at the slo4ness 4ith 4hich it can achieve perfect union 4ith

GodBso that the 4atch is the 0revity of hu#an life, and the length of ti#e already spent in

4aiting'8hs single #eaning of the su0ect for the poe# contains #etaphors,hardly lessi#portant than itself, either fro# the earthly state of courtship'It is also used to give a sort

of hu#ility and reality, so#ething of the conviction of steady prose, to this flat and as it

4ere pastoral exchange of gifts'!he title is ta5en fro# the Ofa#ous stone), that su0stance

sought 0y alche#ists 4hich 4ould supposedly change 0aser #etals into purest gold'!heopening 4ith its personal address to U#y God and -ing thus sounding note of psal#$li5e

sincerity and urgent hu#ility appears to need no #ore instruction 0y the third stanza,4hich #atter$of$factly counsels readers on ho4 visions #ay 0e had'!he speaking

presene in this poe#, shifts the interpretive focus continusously and uneasily 0et4een

text and context,structure and function''ouble meaning$<illia# E#pson feels thatChrist 4ishes his o4n grief #ay never 0e exceeded a#ong the hu#anity he pities'+e

#ay ,incidentally, 4ish that they #ay say this,that he #ay 0e sure of recognition,and of a

church that 4ill 0e a sounding$0oard to his agonyBor he #ay #ean O#ine) as a :uotation

fro# the others'E#pson,ho4ever is not sure ho4 far people 4ould 0e 4illing to acceptthis dou0le #eaningBhe is only sure that after you have once apprehended it, after you

have felt this last clash as a sound, you 4ill never 0e a0le to read the poe# 4ithoutre#e#0ereing that it is a possi0ility'#arbert3s openings are 5eyed in lo4 tones is 4e areto get the full i#pact of his cli#ax, 4hich consists often in a su0tle change of feeling or

attitude'+is #ost characteristic gift is the po4er of controlling the #ove#ent of feeling in

his poe#s'8he e#otional pattern is #anaged 4ith ex:uisite tact'8he attitudes he handlesare su0tle and delicate, over$e#phasis or e#phasis in the 4rong place, over$haste or too

#uch delay, 4ould destroy their effectB0ut is such #atters +er0ert is a #aster'!he pulley

is presu#ed to dra4 #an up to God on either side,as long as on the other there is a

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co#pensating descent'Signi$iation and re$erentiality'8hese poe#s address the

continuous sense of dou0t felt 0y +er0ert that the ingenious and infinitely co#plex

 patternings of poetic discourse are purely self$referential and conse:uently incapa0le ofacco##odating the pre$linguistic experiences of faith and 4orship'

  /!he "ati4ity0 by Rihard Crashaw''e4otional poetry under attak '8hedoctrines of religion #ay indeed 0e defended in a didactic poe#, and he 4ho has the

happy po4er of arguing in verse, 4ill not lose it 0ecause his su0ect is sacred'A poet #ay

descri0e the 0eauty and grandeur of nature, the flo4ers of the spring, and the harvests ofautu#n, the vicissitudes of the tide, and the revolutions of the s5y, and praise the /a5er

for his 4or5s in lines 4hich no reader shall lay aside'

  /'i4ine )ne0 by Joseph *ddison'5uali$ying i$,lauses differ fro# the ordinaryif$clauses(Mthere is no casual relation 0et4een ancient and conse:uentB!Mthe co#plex

 proposition is not intelligentBMcertain paraphrases,not availa0le to ordinary

traditionals,are allo4ed'

  /'i4ine &oems0 by John 'onne'&rayers%hymns and psalms have clearly

esta0lished zones of linguistic de#arcation 0et4een the t4o pronouns OI) and Oyou), or#ore often Othou)'In the 0est 5no4n'the Lords Prayer,the textual deictics are esta0lished

as separate 0y the contextual deter#inates of Oon earth) in Oheaven)'!he emoti4e

$untion, focused on the addresser, ai#s at a direct expression of the spea5ers attitudeto4ards 4hat he is spea5ing a0out'It tends to produce an i#pression of a certain e#otion

4hether true or feigned'8he purely e#otive stratu# in language is presented 0y

intereections or excla#atory #onosylla0les 4hich 0rea5 up the lines suddenly,

indicating a pause or inta5e of 0reath'* logial $ramework '7onnes pattern is the patternof thought,of a #ind #oving for# the conte#plation of a fact to deduction fro# a fact

and thence to a conclusion'8he poet appeals through the ear to the intellect'8he repeated

Olasts) of the first four lines are the ha##er stro5es of finality'!he interrogati4e textinvites an ans4er or ans4ers to the :uestions it poses'It also tends to e#ploy devices to

dra4 attention to it o4n textuality'8he reader is distanced,at least fro# ti#e to ti#e,rather

than 4holly interpolated into a fictional 4orld 4hich includes 4hat Louis Althusser callsUan internal distance fro# the ideology in 4hich it is held,4hich per#its the reader to

construct fro# 4ithin the text a criti:ue of this ideology'

  /Where$ore60 by Franis 5uarles' Strong lines' <hat 4e call #etaphysical poetry 4as referred to 0y conte#poraries as Ostrong lines),a ter#n 4hich calls attention

to other ele#ents in #etapshysical poetry than its fondness for indulging in Unice

speculations of philosophy in unusual contexts'Li5e the later ter#n U#etapshysical, theter# Ustrong$lined is a ter#n of disappro0ation'It too is a 5ind of slang, a phrase 4hich

4ould see# to have 0een coined 0y those 4ho disli5ed this 4ay of 4riting'