William Shakespeare (/ ek s p r/;[1] 26 April 1564 (baptised) – 23 April 1616) [ was an n!lis" p#et$ pla%wri!"t$ and a&t#r$ widel% re!arded as t"e !reatest writer
in t"e n!lis" lan!'a!e and t"e w#rlds pree*inent dra*atist+ ,e is #-ten &alled
n!landsnati#nal p#et and t"e .ard #- A0#n.+ ,is etant w#rks$ in&l'din!
s#*e &#llab#rati#ns$ &#nsist #- ab#'t 3 pla%s$[  154 s#nnets$ tw# l#n! narrati0e
p#e*s$ and a -ew #t"er 0erses$ #- w"i&" t"e a't"#rs"ip #- s#*e is 'n&ertain+ ,is
pla%s "a0e been translated int# e0er% *a#r li0in! lan!'a!e and are per-#r*ed
*#re #-ten t"an t"#se #- an% #t"er pla%wri!"t+ [4]
"akespeare was b#rn and br#'!"t 'p in trat-#rd'p#nA0#n+ At t"e a!e #- 1$ "e
*arried Anne ,at"awa%$ wit" w"#* "e "ad t"ree &"ildren 'sanna$ and
twins ,a*net and 'dit"+ etween 155 and 1572$ "e be!an a s'&&ess-'l &areer in
8#nd#n as an a&t#r$ writer$ and part#wner #- a pla%in! &#*pan% &alled t"e 8#rd
9"a*berlains :en$ later kn#wn as t"e in!s :en+ ,e appears t# "a0e retired t#
trat-#rd ar#'nd 1613 at a!e 47$ w"ere "e died t"ree %ears later+ <ew re&#rds #-
"akespeares pri0ate li-e s'r0i0e$ and t"ere "as been &#nsiderable spe&'lati#n
ab#'t s'&" *atters as "is p"%si&al appearan&e$ se'alit%$ reli!i#'s belie-s$ and
w"et"er t"e w#rks attrib'ted t# "i* were written b% #t"ers+
"akespeares w#rks in&l'de t"e 36 pla%s printed in t"e <irst <#li# #- 1623$ listed
a&&#rdin! t# t"eir -#li# &lassi=&ati#n as &#*edies$"ist#ries and tra!edies+[2>4] ?w#
pla%s n#t in&l'ded in t"e <irst <#li#$ The Two Noble Kinsmen and Pericles, Prince of
Tyre$ are n#w a&&epted as part #- t"e &an#n$ wit" s&"#lars a!reed t"at "akespeare
*ade a *a#r &#ntrib'ti#n t# t"eir &#*p#siti#n+[2>5] @# "akespearean p#e*s were
in&l'ded in t"e <irst <#li#+
n t"e late 17t" &ent'r%$ dward B#wden &lassi=ed -#'r #- t"e late &#*edies
as r#*an&es$ and t"#'!" *an% s&"#lars pre-er t# &all t"e* tragicomedies$ "is ter*
 
is #-ten 'sed+[2>6] ?"ese pla%s and t"e ass#&iated Two Noble Kinsmen are *arked
wit" an asterisk (C) bel#w+ n 176$ <rederi&k + #as &#ined t"e ter* .pr#ble*
pla%s. t# des&ribe -#'r pla%s All's Well That Ends Well$ Measure for Measure$ Troilus
and Cressida and amlet +[2>D] .Bra*as as sin!'lar in t"e*e and te*per &ann#t be
stri&tl% &alled &#*edies #r tra!edies.$ "e wr#te+ .Ee *a% t"ere-#re b#rr#w a
&#n0enient p"rase -r#* t"e t"eatre #- t#da% and &lass t"e* t#!et"er as
"akespeares pr#ble* pla%s+.[2>] ?"e ter*$ *'&" debated and s#*eti*es applied
t# #t"er pla%s$ re*ains in 'se$ t"#'!" amlet  is de=niti0el% &lassed as a tra!ed%
Christopher Marlowe] (baptised 26 <ebr'ar% 1564 – 3> :a% 1573) was
an n!lis" pla%wri!"t$ p#et and translat#r #- t"eliFabet"an era+ :arl#we
was t"e -#re*#st liFabet"an tra!edian #- "is da%+[2] ,e !reatl%
inG'en&ed Eillia* "akespeare$ w"# was b#rn in t"e sa*e %ear as :arl#we
and w"# r#se t# be&#*e t"e pree*inent liFabet"an pla%wri!"t a-ter
:arl#wes *%steri#'s earl% deat"+ :arl#wes pla%s are kn#wn -#r t"e 'se
#- blank 0erse and t"eir #0errea&"in! pr#ta!#nists+
A warrant was iss'ed -#r :arl#wes arrest #n 1 :a% 1573+ @# reas#n was
!i0en -#r it$ t"#'!" it was t"#'!"t t# be &#nne&ted t# alle!ati#ns #-
blasp"e*%Ha *an's&ript belie0ed t# "a0e been written b% :arl#we was
said t# &#ntain .0ile "ereti&al &#n&eipts.+ In 2> :a% "e was br#'!"t t# t"e
&#'rt t# attend 'p#n t"e Jri0% 9#'n&il -#r K'esti#nin!+ ?"ere is n# re&#rd #-
t"eir "a0in! *et t"at da%$ "#we0er$ and "e was &#**anded t# attend 'p#n
t"e* ea&" da% t"erea-ter 'ntil .li&ensed t# t"e &#ntrar%+. ?en da%s later$ "e
was stabbed t# deat" b% n!ra* <riFer+ E"et"er t"e stabbin! was &#nne&ted
t# "is arrest "as ne0er been res#l0ed+
 
:arl#we "as le-t 's -r#* "is s"#rt$ b't brilliant$ &areer se0en pla%s$ and in
se0eral #- t"e* "e was a pi#neer in t"at parti&'lar !enre+ I-
t"ese ?a*b'rlaine Jarts 1 and 2 &a'sed t"e !reatest e&ite*ent a*#n! "is
&#nte*p#raries+ ?"e "er#i& nat're #- its t"e*e$ &#'pled wit" t"e splend#'r
#- t"e blank 0erse and t"e &#l#'r and s&ale #- its pa!eantr% led t# its
&#nstant re0i0al$ wit" t"e !reat a&t#r dward Alle%n takin! t"e part #-
 ?a*b'rlaine+
Farinelli (talian pr#n'n&iati#n [-arinLlMi]) (24 an'ar% 1D>5 – 16 epte*ber 1D2[1])$ was
t"e sta!e na*e #-
 
Carlo :aria :i&"elan!el# @i&#la Broschi (pr#n#'n&ed [karl# brNski])$
&elebrated talian &astrat# sin!er #- t"e 1t" &ent'r% and #ne #- t"e !reatest sin!ers in t"e
"ist#r% #- #pera+
r#s&"i was b#rn in Andria (in w"at is n#w Ap'lia$ tal%) int# a -a*il% #- *'si&ians+ As
re&#rded in t"e baptis*al re!ister #- t"e &"'r&" #- + @i&#la in Andria$ "is -at"er al0at#re
was a &#*p#ser and maestro di ca!!ella #- t"e &it%s &at"edral$ and "is *#t"er$ 9aterina
arrese$ a &itiFen #- @aples+ ?"e B'ke #- Andria$ <abriFi# 9ara-a$ a *e*ber #- t"e ,#'se #-
9ara-a$ #ne #- t"e *#st presti!i#'s -a*ilies #- t"e @eap#litan n#bilit%$ "#n#red :aestr#
r#s&"i b% takin! a leadin! part in t"e baptis* #- "is se&#nd s#n$ w"# was baptised 9arl#
:aria :i&"elan!el# @i&#la+ [n later li-e$ <arinelli wr#te .l B'&a dAndria *i tenne al -#nte+.
 
(.?"e B'ke #- Andria "eld *e at t"e -#nt+.)]+ n 1D>6 al0at#re als# t##k 'p t"e n#n*'si&al
p#st #- !#0ern#r #- t"e t#wn #- :aratea (#n t"e western &#ast #- w"at is n#w asili&ata)$
and in 1D>7 t"at #- ?erliFFi (s#*e twent% *iles s#'t"east #- Andria)+ Onlike *an% &astrati$
w"# &a*e -r#* p##r -a*ilies$ <arinelli was wellt#d#$ and was related t# *in#r n#bilit% #n
b#t" sides #- t"e -a*il%+
<r#* 1D>D$ t"e r#s&"i -a*il% li0ed in t"e &#astal &it% #- arletta$ a -ew *iles -r#* Andria$
b't at t"e end #- 1D11$ t"e% *ade t"e *'&" l#n!er *#0e t# t"e &apital &it% #- @aples$
w"ere$ in 1D12 9arl#s elder br#t"er Pi&&ard# was enr#lled at t"e 9#nser0at#r% #- + :aria di
8#ret#$ spe&ialisin! in &#*p#siti#n+ 9arl# "ad alread% s"#wn talent as a b#% sin!er$ and was
n#w intr#d'&ed t# t"e *#st -a*#'s sin!in!tea&"er in @aples$ @i&#la J#rp#ra+ Alread% a
s'&&ess-'l #pera &#*p#ser$ in 1D15 J#rp#ra was app#inted maestro at t"e 9#nser0at#r% #-
+ In#-ri#$ w"ere "is p'pils in&l'ded s'&" wellkn#wn &astrati as Qi'seppe Appiani$ <eli&e
ali*beni$ and Qaetan# :a#ran# (kn#wn as 9aRarelli)$ as well as distin!'is"ed -e*ale
sin!ers s'&" as Pe!ina :in!#tti and Sitt#ria ?esi; <arinelli *a% well "a0e st'died wit" "i*
pri0atel%+
al0at#re r#s&"i died 'nepe&tedl% #n 4 @#0e*ber 1D1D$ a!ed #nl% 36$ and it see*s likel%
t"at t"e &#nseK'ent l#ss #- e&#n#*i& se&'rit% -#r t"e w"#le -a*il% pr#0#ked t"e de&isi#n$
pres'*abl% taken b% Pi&&ard#$ -#r 9arl# t# be &astrated+ As was #-ten t"e &ase$ an e&'se
"ad t# be -#'nd -#r t"is ille!al #perati#n$ and in 9arl#s &ase it was said t# "a0e been
ne&essitated b% a -all -r#* a "#rse+
Onder J#rp#ras t'iti#n$ "is sin!in! pr#!ressed rapidl%$ and at t"e a!e #- =-teen "e *ade "is
deb't a serenata b% "is *aster entitled Angelica e Medoro+ ?"e tet #- t"is w#rk was t"e
=rst b% t"e s##nt#be-a*#'s Jietr# ?rapassi (kn#wn as :etastasi#)$ w"# be&a*e a li-el#n!
-riend #- t"e sin!er+ <arinelli re*arked t"at t"e tw# #- t"e* "ad *ade t"eir deb'ts #n t"e
sa*e da%$ and ea&" -reK'entl% re-erred t# t"e #t"er as "is caro gemello (.dear twin.)+
 
 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (/T Urt/;[1] Qer*an [#M"an 0Nl-Ta -Nn
TVMt] ( listen); 2 A'!'st 1D47 – 22 :ar&" 132) was a Qer*an writer
and states*an+ ,is b#d% #- w#rk in&l'des epi& and l%ri& p#etr% written in a
0ariet% #- *etres and st%les; pr#se and0erse dra*as; *e*#irs; an
a't#bi#!rap"%; literar% and aest"eti& &riti&is*; treatises #n b#tan%$ anat#*%$
and &#l#'r; and -#'r n#0els+ n additi#n$ n'*er#'s literar% and s&ienti=&
-ra!*ents$ *#re t"an 1>$>>> letters$ and nearl% 3$>>> drawin!s b% "i* are
etant+ A literar% &elebrit% b% t"e a!e #- 25$ Q#et"e was enn#bled b% t"e
B'ke #- aeEei*ar$ 9arl A'!'st in 1D2 a-ter =rst takin! 'p residen&e
t"ere in @#0e*ber 1DD5 -#ll#win! t"e s'&&ess #- "is =rst n#0el$ The "orrows
of #oung Werther + ,e was an earl% parti&ipant in t"e "turm und
$rang literar% *#0e*ent+ B'rin! "is =rst ten %ears in Eei*ar$ Q#et"e
ser0ed as a *e*ber #- t"e B'kespri0% &#'n&il$ sat #n t"e war and "i!"wa%
&#**issi#ns$ #0ersaw t"e re#penin! #- sil0er *ines in nearb% l*ena'$ and
i*ple*ented a series #- ad*inistrati0e re-#r*s at t"e Oni0ersit% #- ena+ ,e
als# &#ntrib'ted t# t"e plannin! #- Eei*ars b#tani&al park and t"e
reb'ildin! #- its B'&al Jala&e$ w"i&" in 177 were t#!et"er
desi!nated a O@9I E#rld ,erita!e ite+[2]
A-ter ret'rnin! -r#* a t#'r #- tal% in 1D$ "is =rst *a#r s&ienti=& w#rk$
t"e Metamor!hosis of Plants$ was p'blis"ed+ n 1D71 "e was *ade *ana!in!
dire&t#r #- t"e t"eatre at Eei*ar$ and in 1D74 "e be!an a -riends"ip wit"
t"e dra*atist$ "ist#rian$ and p"il#s#p"er<riedri&" &"iller$ w"#se pla%s "e
pre*iered 'ntil &"illers deat" in 1>5+ B'rin! t"is peri#d Q#et"e p'blis"ed
"is se&#nd n#0el$Wilhelm Meister's A!!renticeshi!$ t"e 0erse epi& ermann
and $orothea$ and$ in 1>$ t"e =rst part #- "is *#st &elebrated
dra*a$%aust + ,is &#n0ersati#ns and 0ari#'s &#**#n 'ndertakin!s
t"r#'!"#'t t"e 1D7>s wit" &"iller$ #"ann Q#ttlieb <i&"te$ #"ann Q#tt-ried
,erder$ Aleander 0#n ,'*b#ldt$ Eil"el* 0#n ,'*b#ldt$
and A'!'st and <riedri&" &"le!el "a0e$ in later %ears$ been &#lle&ti0el%
ter*ed Eei*ar 9lassi&is*+
 
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (Qer*an [ 0 N l- T a a*a de MW s *# M tsa X t]$ n!lis" see -n+;[1] 2D an'ar% 1D56 – 5 Be&e*ber 1D71)$ baptised as Johannes Chrsostomus Wolfgangus !heophilus Mozart$[2] was a pr#li=& and inG'ential &#*p#ser #- t"e 9lassi&al era+
:#Fart s"#wed pr#di!i#'s abilit% -r#* "is earliest &"ild"##d+ Alread% &#*petent #n ke%b#ard and 0i#lin$ "e &#*p#sed -r#* t"e a!e #- =0e and per-#r*ed be-#re 'r#pean r#%alt%+ At 1D$ "e was en!a!ed as a &#'rt *'si&ian in alFb'r!$ b't !rew restless and tra0elled in sear&" #- a better p#siti#n$ alwa%s &#*p#sin! ab'ndantl%+ E"ile 0isitin! Sienna in 1D1$ "e was dis*issed -r#* "is alFb'r! p#siti#n+ ,e &"#se t# sta% in t"e &apital$ w"ere "e a&"ie0ed -a*e b't little =nan&ial se&'rit%+ B'rin! "is =nal %ears in Sienna$ "e &#*p#sed *an% #- "is bestkn#wn s%*p"#nies$ &#n&ert#s$ and #peras$ and p#rti#ns #- t"e PeK'ie*$ w"i&" was lar!el% 'n=nis"ed at t"e ti*e #- "is deat"+ ?"e &ir&'*stan&es #- "is earl% deat" "a0e been *'&" *%t"#l#!iFed+ ,e was s'r0i0ed b% "is wi-e 9#nstanFe and tw# s#ns+
,e &#*p#sed #0er 6>> w#rks$ *an% a&kn#wled!ed as pinna&les #- s%*p"#ni&$ &#n&ertante$ &"a*ber$ #perati&$ and &"#ral *'si&+ ,e is a*#n! t"e *#st end'rin!l% p#p'lar #- &lassi&al &#*p#sers$ and "is inG'en&e #n s'bseK'ent Eestern art *'si& is pr#-#'nd; 8'dwi! 0an eet"#0en &#*p#sed "is #wn earl% w#rks
 
in t"e s"ad#w #- :#Fart$ and #sep" ,a%dn wr#te t"at .p#sterit% will n#t see s'&" a talent a!ain in 1>> %ears+.[3]
saa& @ewt#n was b#rn at E##lst"#rpe near Qrant"a* #n 25 Be&e*ber 1642+ ,is -at"er died be-#re "e was b#rn
and in 1645 "is *#t"er *arred a &ler!%*an -r#* @#rt" Eel"a* in 8ei&esters"ire+ "e went t# li0e wit" "i* w"ile
 
saa& @ewt#n li0ed wit" "is !rand*#t"er+ E"en "er se&#nd "'sband died in 1656 saa&Ys *#t"er ret'rned t#
E##lst"#rpe and saa& @ewt#n went t# li0e wit" "er a!ain+
In ret'rnin! t# 9a*brid!e in 166D$ "e be!an t# w#rk #n al&"e*%$ b't t"en in 166 @i&#las :er&at#r p'blis"ed a
b##k &#ntainin! s#*e *et"#ds -#r dealin! wit" in=nite series+ @ewt#n i**ediatel% wr#te a treatise$ $e Analysi$
ep#'ndin! "is #wn wider ran!in! res'lts+ ,is -riend and *ent#r saa& arr#w &#**'ni&ated t"ese dis&#0eries t#
a 8#nd#n *at"e*ati&ian$ b't #nl% a-ter s#*e weeks w#'ld @ewt#n all#w "is na*e t# be !i0en+ ?"is br#'!"t "is
w#rk t# t"e attenti#n #- t"e *at"e*ati&s &#**'nit% -#r t"e =rst ti*e+ "#rtl% a-terwards$ arr#w resi!ned "is
8'&asian Jr#-ess#rs"ip (w"i&" "ad been establis"ed #nl% in 1663$ wit" arr#w t"e =rst in&'*bent) at 9a*brid!e s#
t"at @ewt#n &#'ld "a0e t"e 9"air+
@ewt#nYs =rst *a#r !ublic s&ienti=& a&"ie0e*ent was t"e in0enti#n$ desi!n and &#nstr'&ti#n #- a reGe&tin!
teles&#pe+ ,e !r#'nd t"e *irr#r$ b'ilt t"e t'be$ and e0en *ade "is #wn t##ls -#r t"e #b+ ?"is was a real ad0an&e
in teles&#pe te&"n#l#!%$ and ens'red "is ele&ti#n t# *e*bers"ip in t"e P#%al #&iet%+ ?"e *irr#r !a0e a s"arper
i*a!e t"an was p#ssible wit" a lar!e lens be&a'se a lens -#&'sses diRerent &#l#rs at sli!"tl% diRerent distan&es$ an
eRe&t &alled chromatic aberration+