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What’s the Matter with Memory? Eli b hFLf Elizabeth F. Loftus University of California, Irvine Doug Nelson Festschrift March 2008 March, 2008

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What’s the Matter with Memory?

Eli b h F L fElizabeth F. LoftusUniversity of California, Irvine

Doug Nelson FestschriftMarch 2008March, 2008

Doug’s interests Beth’s interests

Memory and Cognitive Psychology in general

Memory and Cognitive Psychology in generalPsychology, in general Psychology, in general

Doug’s interests Beth’s interests

Got his Ph.D. in 1967 Was in her 2nd year of graduate school.

Doug’s interests Beth’s interests

the influence of pre‐existing knowledge on

the influence of post‐eventInformation on the recall andexisting knowledge on 

the recall and recognition of recently experienced 

Information on the recall and recognition of experienced events.

information.

Doug’s interests Beth’s interests

Free Association Norms False MemoryFree Association NormsRecognition & RecallAging and Memory

False Memory

False Memory PIER Model

Last updated 2002

Doug’s interests Beth’s interests

the influence of pre‐existing knowledge on

the influence of post‐eventInformation on the recall andexisting knowledge on 

the recall and recognition of recently experienced 

Information on the recall and recognition of experienced events.

information.

Doug’s interests Beth’s interests

Contributions of P h l

Legal SystemPsychology to Mathematics and Science Education

Psychotherapy PracticesScience Education

Aging & Cognitiong g g

I P jInnocence ProjectAs of Feb 17, 2008:

-- 213 DNA exonerations

-- Eyewitness error is the single most important cause of wrongfulimportant cause of wrongful imprisonment.

http://www.innocenceproject.org/

“Do you swear toDo you swear to tell the truth, the

h l hwhole truth, or whatever it is youwhatever it is you think you remember?”y

Doug’s interests Beth’s interests

the influence of pre‐existing knowledge on

the influence of post‐eventInformation on the recall andexisting knowledge on 

the recall and recognition of recently experienced 

Information on the recall and recognition of experienced events.

information.

Research on Memory DistortionyChanging Memory for Actual Events

Research on Memory Distortion –Research on Memory Distortion The Misinformation Effect

70

50

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40

0

10

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0Control Misled

Doug --- at that timeg

hResearch on Memory Distortion

Planting entirely false memoriesPlanting entirely false memories

M I l t tiMemory Implantation

When you were about ten, your family went for a camping trip to Totoranui for two

When you were about four, your family went for a tramp at Smith’s creek near Kaitoke.

When you were about four years old, and Dan was about seven, your family went for a

You, your mom, and your brother went to Kmart. You were 5 years old. Your mom gave

weeks with Gill and her family, John and Liz, and your grandparents. You made a lot of friends at the campsite and

Ben’s friend Sisko also went with you. You set up tents by the river, and while you were there you swam in the river, and cooked

ytrip to Christchurch, to your Uncle John’s wedding. After the service you walked to the Avon river where the bride and

geach of you some money to get a blueberry Icee. You ran ahead to get into the line first, and lost your way in the storecampsite, and

spent most of the time with them and Bevan.

and cooked pancakes over the fire.

the bride and groom rode a gondola down to the reception.

Event 1 Event 2 Event 3 Event 4

way in the store. Your mom found you crying to an elderly woman.

Event 1 Event 2 Event 3 Event 4

Loftus & Pickrell, 1995False Memory Rate: 25%

More Planted Memories

•Overnight hospitalization (Hyman: 20%)

A id t t W ddi•Accident at Wedding (Hyman: 25%)

S i i l tt k

R d b lif d

•Serious animal attack UBC: 26% com 30% par

•Rescued by lifeguard (Tenn: Heaps & Nash) - 37%

More Planted Memories

•Hot Air Balloon Ride (New Zealand: Wade Garry et al)(New Zealand: Wade, Garry et al)

Wade, Garry, Read, Lindsay (2002)

More Planted Memories

• “Familial-Informant false-narrative procedure” (Lindsay et al 2004)procedure (Lindsay et al, 2004)

•“Family-member confederate paradigm”(Blandon-Gitlin, 2007 (Munsterberg)

More Planted Memories

“Lost-the-mall” procedure

Other Techniques for Planting False Memories

ImaginationDream InterpretationDream Interpretation

HypnosisF l i f tiFalse information

Impossible MemoriesImpossible Memories

Met Bugs at Disneyland (without Bugs Detectors)

60

50

36

30

40

rcen

tage

910

20Per

0

10

Generic Bugs Adg

Condition

Grinley

Memories of BugsMemories of Bugs

Sh k hi h d 62%• Shook his hand 62%• Hugged him 46%• Touched his ear 23%• Touched his tail 23%

H ldi 1

Touched his tail 23%• Heard “What’s up doc.” 23%• Holding a carrot n = 1

Hugged by Bugs? Yesbut Molested by Mickey?

Licked by PlutoLicked by Pluto

Berkowitz, Laney, Morris, Garry, Loftus (2008)

False Feedback:

ANAHEIM California (AP) Last Tuesday the

Bad Newspaper ArticleANAHEIM, California (AP) Last Tuesday, the Disneyland Resort released file records of all employees who violated the employee code of conduct during the 1980’s and 1990’s. …The man dressed up as the Disney character Pluto. The employee… had abused hallucinogenic drugs, while on the clock for Disney. As ahallucinogenic drugs, while on the clock for Disney. As a result, the Pluto character apparently developed a habit of inappropriately licking the ears of many young visitors with his large fabric tongue Records show that Pluto’swith his large fabric tongue. Records show that Pluto s disturbing behavior went largely unnoticed by management for several years… In one of the last visitor complaints, a parent stated, “It was obvious that my son was uncomfortable with Pluto’s persistent licking….”

Who believed the feedback?

Liberal definition: Deny at first, then report Memory y , p yor Belief 30% - Bad Pluto30% Bad Pluto39% - Good Pluto

Disneyland Questionnaire -CConsequences

What is the most you are willing to pay for each ofWhat is the most you are willing to pay for each of the following Disney souvenirs?

11. Disneyland postcard Nothing 25¢ 50¢ 75¢ $1 $1.25 $1.50 $2

12. Keychain Nothing $1 $2 $3 $4 $5 $6 $7

13. Mickey Mouse magnet Nothing $1 $2 $3 $4 $5 $6 $7

14. Donald Duck coffee mug Nothing $2 $4 $6 $8 $10 $12 $14

15 Pl ff d i l $ $ $ $ $ $ $15. Pluto stuffed animal Nothing $5 $10 $15 $20 $25 $30 $35

16. Winnie the Pooh t-shirt Nothing $5 $10 $15 $20 $25 $30 $40

17 Tigger boxer shorts Nothing $5 $10 $15 $20 $25 $30 $4017. Tigger boxer shorts Nothing $5 $10 $15 $20 $25 $30 $40

Consequences - Willingness toConsequences Willingness to pay for a Pluto Stuffed Animal

15

16

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14

Rat

ing Controls

Bad Pluto Believers

11

12

Mea

n

Good Pluto Believers

9

10

Session 1 Session 2Conservative Believers

and Controls All Subjectsand Controls All Subjects

'Tigger' arrested on molestation chargesCostumed character at Disney World charged with fondling girl, mother.y g g g

Orange County Sheriff's Office investigators have arrested a Walt Disney World employee who worked as the character "Tigger" and charged him with molesting a 13-year-old girl and her mother while posing with them for pictures in February.

Mi h l Ch t d 36 h d ith t f l d d l i i l t ti fMichael Chartrand, 36, was charged with one count of lewd and lascivious molestation of a child between 12 and 15 years old and one count of simple battery.

He was booked into the Orange County Jail today on a $2,500 bond.

A Disney spokeswoman said Chartrand has been suspended without pay

"As the photo was being taken, [the victim] claims that Tigger moved his right hand up "As the photo was being taken, [the victim] claims that Tigger moved his right hand up

A Disney spokeswoman said Chartrand has been suspended without pay.

The sheriff's office received a complaint that a costumed character at Disney World had touched a girl and her mother inappropriately while their pictures were being taken with the character Feb. 21. According to an incident report, Chartrand fondled the breasts of the girl and the mother while posing for pictures at the Magic Kingdom's Toon Town.

to her right breast and started massaging it several times," the incident report states. [The victim] became very embarrassed and ashamed of the incident and claims that

to her right breast and started massaging it several times," the incident report states. [The victim] became very embarrassed and ashamed of the incident and claims that

"As the photo was being taken, [the victim] claims that Tigger moved his right hand up to her right breast and started massaging it several times," the incident report states. [The victim] became very embarrassed and ashamed of the incident and claims that she did not say anything to her mother until they left the park."

ashamed of the incident and claims that she did not say anything to her mother until they left the park."--------------------------------------------------------------

ashamed of the incident and claims that she did not say anything to her mother until they left the park."--------------------------------------------------------------

Later, the girl learned that the costumed character had done the same thing to her mother with his left hand, the report says.

In a charging affadavit filed in court, police wrote that Chartrand told them he had trouble remembering things but was "very sorry for everything that had occurred " and hoped the

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------remembering things, but was very sorry for everything that had occurred, and hoped the

victim would forgive him for what he had done.

The girl and her father reported the incident on Feb. 29.

--------------------------------------------------------------

Not Guiltyy

Consequences of False Memory

Profile for: Alan AldaAfter you sent the completed personality and food questionnaires to us, we entered your data into a computer and generated a profile of your early childhood experiences with certain foods From the datayour early childhood experiences with certain foods. From the data you provided, the computer generated the following profile.

As a young child:As a young child:

1) you disliked spinach

2) you enjoyed fried foods

3) you felt sick after eating hard-boiled eggs3) you felt sick after eating hard boiled eggs

4) eating chocolate birthday cake made you happyhappy

Actual Study

• Find People who Denied having gotten sick on eggs or pickles

• False feedback suggesting they had gotten sick

• Believers - increased confidence they got sick and claim to have Memory or Belief.

» Bernstein, Laney, Morris & Loftus, Social Cognition 2005Social Cognition 2005

Party Behavior QuestionnaireParty Behavior QuestionnaireImagine that you are at an afternoon barbeque party with 100 guests.

… After a bit of a swim in the host’s pool, you see another table with snacks. How likely are you to pick each of the nibblers below?

definitely no maybe definitely yes

Green olives on toothpicks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Potato chips 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8S di lb 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Sardines on melba toast 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Dill pickle spears 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Tortilla chips with salsa 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Tortilla chips with salsa 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Stuffed mushrooms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Salted hard boiled eggs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8gg

Carrots with ranch dip 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Consequences: Party Behavior

4.5

5

3 5

4

Rat

ing No Feedback

Did Not Believe

3

3.5

Mea

n R

FeedbackBelieved Feedback

2

2.5

Dill Pickle Spears Hard-Boiled EggDill Pickle Spears Hard-Boiled Egg

Bernstein et al., Social Cognition

Conclusion:

• It is possible to plant false memories of getting sick on amemories of getting sick on a particular food, and these memories have consequences for subjectssubjects.

ld i k i hWould it work with a fattening food?fattening food?

Profile for: Mary SmithAfter you left the lab last week, we entered your responses to the personality and food questionnaires into our computer and generated a profile of your early childhood experiences with certaingenerated a profile of your early childhood experiences with certain foods. From the data you provided, the computer generated the following profile.

As a young child:

1) you disliked spinach1) you disliked spinach

2) you enjoyed eating bananas

3) you felt ill after eating strawberry ice cream

4) you felt happy when a classmate brought4) you felt happy when a classmate brought sweets to school

Elaboration ExerciseConsider the following item from your profile: You got sick after

eating strawberry ice cream

Directions: Think about your memory of this experience. If you don’t have a specific memory, imagine what might have happened. Then answer the following questions, in some pp g q ,detail, regarding the item listed above.

1 How old were you?1. How old were you?2. Where did it occur? And what were you doing at the time?3. Who were you with?4 H did i k f l?4. How did it make you feel?

Consequences: Party Behavior

5 4

5.6

5.8

5

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n R

atin

g No Feedback

Did Not BelieveFeedback

4.4

4.6

4.8

Mea

n FeedbackBelieved Feedback

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4.2

Strawberry-ElaborationElaboration

Post-test data only; Bernstein et al, PNAS, 2005

In their battle against the bulge, desperate dieters have tried drugs, surgery, exercise, counseling, creams and even electrical fat-burning belts.Now some psychologists have a new idea: Telling lies.A team led by psychologist Elizabeth Loftus of the University of California found it could persuade people to avoid fattening foods by implanting unpleasant childhood memories about the food -by implanting unpleasant childhood memories about the food even though the event never happened.In a paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the team said it successfully turned people off strawberry ice cream. In earlier studies it did the same with i kl d h d b il d i h b i l ti th pickles and hard-boiled eggs - in each case, by manipulating the

subjects into believing the foods made them sick when they were children.The scientists say they have also successfully implanted positive opinions about asparagus by convincing subjects that they once p p g y g j yloved the vegetable.

Losing weight through suggestionReuters

August 03, 2005

IT might be possible to talk a dieter into hating strawberry ice cream but it may be IT might be possible to talk a dieter into hating strawberry ice cream, but it may be impossible to help people lose their cravings for more popular snacks such as chocolate chip cookies.

A study on the power of suggestion found that people could be falsely persuaded that they had once become sick eating strawberry ice cream as children - and they later said they would avoid this food. "We believe this new finding may have significant implications for dieting," said Elizabeth Loftus, a professor who specialises in memory and suggestion at the University of California Irvine University of California Irvine. Professor Loftus and colleagues at the University of Washington and Kwantlen University College in Washington experimented with more than 200 volunteers, mostly students, who did not know the goal of the study. They used what is called a false feedback technique.

News-Medical.Net

So you thought you liked strawberry ice !cream!

False memories helps to keep fit, researchers say

M i l ti th i d t lt th Manipulating the mind to alter the shape of the body

We can learn to hate ice-cream - but not We can learn to hate ice cream but not cookies

False Memories Fight Flab

News Front Page > Health

Forget Atkins -- False Memories Fight Flab, Study SaysJames Owen for National Geographic News

August 2, 2005Just as the Atkins diet fad goes belly up—the Atkins Nutritionals company filed for bankruptcy on Sunday—a new, mind-bending anti-obesity technique may be on the way. The potential treatment relies not on diets, medications, or workouts but on tricks played on the mind.

The Mental DietThink you like ice cream? Let me tell you a story

As every weight-loss veteran knows -- and too many parents of overweight kids are learning--the most fattening foods are often the most comforting, conjuring up memories of sweet treats and celebrations. That's why there was so much interest last week in a report out of the University of California, Irvine that suggests a new approach to thinking about food: brainwashingfood: brainwashing.Or, as Elizabeth Loftus prefers to call it, planting false memories. Loftus is famous in psychological circles for her controversial work investigating claims of child and sexual abuse. She was able to show that people can be persuaded to remember terrible things that never happened. Could the same power of suggestion change a dieter's appetite?To test that thesis, Loftus and her assistants gave 131 students a questionnaire about their

“Would a mind-over-matter diet really work? Loftus doesn't know yet; she's still “Would a mind-over-matter diet really work? Loftus doesn't know yet; she's still g

food preferences and experiences. Members of one group were told, falsely, that at some point in their childhood strawberry ice cream had made them sick. The researchers then encouraged the students to elaborate, asking them where they were when they got sick and who else witnessed the episode. When questioned later about which foods they wanted to eat, 41% of this group said they would avoid strawberry ice cream."Wh t ' h i th t l t f l b li f d th t h

trying to figure out how long these effects last. But, she says, "nothing would stop a parent of an overweight child from trying

trying to figure out how long these effects last. But, she says, "nothing would stop a parent of an overweight child from trying

"What we've shown is that we can plant a false belief or memory, and that has consequences in terms of what we choose to eat," says Loftus. She showed similar results in the vegetable section of the food pyramid, giving people a taste for asparagus by conning them into thinking that they liked it as children.Would a mind-over-matter diet really work? Loftus doesn't know yet; she's still trying to figure out how long these effects last But she says "nothing would stop a parent of an

this out on their kid"--as long as parents don't expect miracles. “this out on their kid"--as long as parents don't expect miracles. “

figure out how long these effects last. But, she says, nothing would stop a parent of an overweight child from trying this out on their kid"--as long as parents don't expect miracles. Weight control, after all, involves a devilishly complex combination of genes, biology and the environment. But every little bit helps when you are dieting--even the power of suggestion.From the Aug. 15, 2005 issue of TIME magazine

Th N Y k Ti M iThe New York Times MagazineDecember 11, 2005

The 5th Annual Year in Ideas

False Memory Diet, TheBy John Glassie. Published December 11, 2005

Th N w Y k Ti sAccording to the results of a study released in August, it possible to convince people that they don’t like fattening foods. - by giving them false memories of experiences in which those foods made them sick…..

The process of implanting false memories is relatively simple In essence according to

The New York Times

MagazineDecember 11, 2005

The process of implanting false memories is relatively simple. In essence, according to the paper that Loftus’ team published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, subjects are plied with “misinformation” about their food histories. But a number of obstacles remain before members of the general population can use this technique to stay thin. Attempts to implant memories about potato chips and chocolate-chip cookes, for example, failed. “When you have so many recent, ,frequent, and positive experiences

“More work is needed to determine If the false memory effect is lasting and if “More work is needed to determine If the false memory effect is lasting and if y y

with a food,” Loftus explains, “one negative thought is not enough to overcome them.”

More work is needed to determine if the false memory effect is lasting and if it is strong enough to withstand the presence of an actual bowl of icec ream. It’s also not clear at this point, how people could choose to undergo the process without thereby becoming less

l bl t thi ki d f ti

it is strong enough to withstand the presence of an actual bowl of ice cream. It is also not clear…how people

it is strong enough to withstand the presence of an actual bowl of ice cream. It is also not clear…how people

vulnerable to this kind of suggestion. From the Dec 11, 2005 issue of New York Times Magazinecould choose to undergo the process

without thereby becoming less vulnerable to this kind of suggestion.”

could choose to undergo the process without thereby becoming less vulnerable to this kind of suggestion.”

Lasting False Memories

Geraerts, Bernstein, Merckelbach et al (2008)

8 ControlNon-Believers

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atin

gNon BelieversBelievers

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vent

ory

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tory

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edControl

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onsu

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iche

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M

ShakespeareShakespeare

“Who can….. cloy the hungry edge of appetitecloy the hungry edge of appetiteBy bare imagination of a feast?”

The Tragedy of King Richard the Second

C i l tCan we convince people to eat more of somethingeat more of something

healthy?healthy?

Laney, Morris, Bernstein, Wakefield, Loftus (in press)

Restaurant QuestionnaireImagine that you are at a nice restaurant for a special dinner. How

likely are you to order each of the items on the menu below, assuming that price is not an object?

Le RestaurantLe RestaurantHand-breaded tiger shrimp 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Spicy tortilla soup 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

G ill d fill t i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Grilled fillet mignon 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Sautéed asparagus spears 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Five layer chocolate fudge cake 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Findings & ConclusionsW t d f l i f l i f d• We created false memories of loving a food the first time it was eaten

• Those subjects who bought the manipulation embraced a healthy food more

• The manipulation makes a photo of the food seem more appetizing and less disgustingseem more appetizing and less disgusting

“It’s broccoli, dear!”

“I say it’s spinach, and I say the h ll ith it ”

The New Yorker December 8, 1928

hell with it.”

A Desirable Case Study

“I do not like broccoli…”

I do not like broccoli. And I h 't lik d it i I littl haven't liked it since I was a little kid and my mother made me eat it. And I'm President of the United States and I'm not going to eat States a d ot go g to eatany more broccoli.

George H. W. Bush

“mmm…broccoli is one of my favorite veges…”

True versus False MemoriesTrue versus False Memories

Two research projects

True vs. False Memories

Emotional MemoriesEmotional Memories

Laney & Loftus, 2008

Alien Abduction Memories

“emotional responding during recollection id t th t th iprovides no guarantee that the memory is

veridical,” (McNally et al., 2004, p. 146)

Three Emotional Events

• A hild th 12• As a child younger than 12:• You were hospitalized overnight.• You caught your parents having sex.• You witnessed a physically violent fight

between your parents.

False memories

H i l i 38 5%• Hospital item 38.5%• S it 20 3%• Sex item 20.3%• Fight item 14 6%• Fight item 14.6%

Emotionality of False MemoriesEmotionality of False Memories

Comparing true and false i t dmemories on amount and

kind of subjective emotion.kind of subjective emotion.

Emotionality of True and FalseEmotionality of True and False Memories

atin

gde

nce

Ra

an C

onfid

Mea

1 = not at all emotional7 = more emotional than anything else

Emotionality of True and False Memories (P )(Post test)

6.000

7.000

3 000

4.000

5.000

TrueFalsen

Rat

ing

1 000

2.000

3.000 False``

Mea

n

0.000

1.000

Hospital Item Sex Item Fight Itemp g

1 = not at all emotional7 = more emotional than anything else

Conclusions

• False memories can be ti lemotional.

• In fact, they can be just as c , ey c be jus semotional as true memories. S i i f• So, emotion is no guarantee of memory accuracy. y y

True vs. False Memories

Neuroimaging During ReportNeuroimaging During Report

Okado, Loftus, Stark, 2006; Okado & Stark, 2006

True vs. False

•Encoding: Saw original and heard misinformation•Encoding: Saw original and heard misinformation••True:True: “Yes, Saw” to Original••False:False: “Yes Saw” to Misinformation••False: False: Yes, Saw to Misinformation

Differences observed in early stages of sensoryDifferences observed in early stages of sensory processing

Conclusions

• TM and FM similar in terms of brain activity.

• TM more activity in visual cortex• TM – more activity in visual cortex, FM – more in auditory

• Prefrontal and hippocampal regions slightly more active for TM than FM

Implications

• Theoretical (Nature of Memory)

False Memory Recipe

• Make potential event plausible• Create “belief” that event happened• Create belief that event happened• Embellish belief with sensory detail

Implications

• Theoretical (Nature of Memory)• Practical• Practical

– Nutritional Selection

Implications

• Theoretical (Nature of Memory)• Practical• Practical

– Nutritional Selection– Legal Reforms

A i l dFor More Articles and Information, visit my UCI website:

www.seweb.uci.edu/faculty/loftus/www.seweb.uci.edu/faculty/loftus/