what we know so far… dna is the instructions for your cells dna is like a cookbook – the recipes...
TRANSCRIPT
What we know so far…
• DNA is the instructions for your cells
• DNA is like a cookbook – the recipes are GENES
• Each GENE provides instructions for making a specific protein
• Specific proteins have specific shapes –mutations in the instructions (DNA) can result in changes in the protein.
Blonde hairBlue eyes
Hitchhiker’s thumbdetattached / attached earlobes
widow’s peak
How are these traits
passed from one generation to the next?
MEIOSIS!!
A VERY SPECIAL TYPE OF CELL DIVISION.
Words you need to know:
• Mitosis• Diploid• Haploid• Homologous
Chromosome• Meiosis• Sperm
• Egg• Sexual Reproduction• Crossing Over• Genetic
Recombination• Nondisjunction• Allele
You have 46 Chromosomes
• Each of your body cells has 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs.
• Each pair is made of HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
Homo = same
These chromosomes contain the same genes in the same order
• Half of your chromosomes (23) came from your mom
• Half of your chromosomes (23) came from your dad
You have 46 Chromosomes
Each parent gave you one chromosome from a homologous pair.
Homologous Pairsgene
From Mom
From Dad
From Mom
From Dad
MITOSIS Review
• When your BODY cells (autosomal) divide, they make exact copies
• Results = two cells with the same type and number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• Many animals reproduce ASEXUALLY – through mitosis
ex: flatworms, sponges, jellyfish
This is a problem for most other animals.
If humans were created through mitosis:
1st generation46 from mom + 46 from dad = 92 chromosomes for baby
then
2nd generation92 from mom + 92 from dad = 184 chromosomes for baby
And so on, and so on, and so on…
MEIOSIS
• A second type of cell division that occurs in the SEX CELLS (gametes: sperm and egg)
• Division creates four cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Haploid vs Diploid
• Body cells (autosomal cells) are DIPLOID• DI = 2; Each cell has 2 copies of each
chromosome• These are considered “2n”
– “n” is the chromosome number
• Sex cells are HAPLOID
• Each sex cell has HALF the normal number of chromosomes
•These are considered “n”
Sperm and Egg
• Sperm are the sex cells in males
• Eggs are the sex cells in females
Both are produced through MEIOSIS
Any reproduction that involves SPERM and EGGS is considered SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION.
Steps of MEIOSIS
• Prophase I• Metaphase I• Anaphase I• Telophase I• Prophase II• Metaphase II• Anaphase II• Telophase II
• Looks a lot like Mitosis, huh?
• Meiosis has 2 DIVISIONS
How does this result in unique individuals?
Division 1
Division 2
Crossing Over
Homologous chromosomes exchange sections =
Genetic Recombination
• Prophase 1: Homologous Chromosomes line up next to each other – CROSSING OVER
Crossing Over
• Crossing over creates new genetic combinations
• This results in new and unique individuals
This is why you look similar to, but not identical to, your brothers and sisters!
Mendel’s Laws of Heredity
Gregor Mendel worked with pea plants in the mid – nineteenth century
When he crossed tall pea plants and short pea plants, all offspring were tall.
These were F1 generation
When he crossed the F1 generation, the offspring were mixed Tall and Short.
hmmmmmmmmmm.
These were the F2 generation
Mendel’s Laws of Heredity
1. The rule of unit factors
each organism has two “factors” that control the traits
Now, we call those factors GENES.
A homologous pair can have two variations of the same genes.
Mendel’s Laws of Heredity
Mendel’s Laws of HeredityIdentical ALLELES Different ALLELES
TALL GENE
TALL GENE
TALL GENE
SHORT GENE
mom momdad dad
2. The Rule of Dominance
Alleles (variations of a gene) can be DOMINANT or RECESSIVE
Dominant genes contain instructions for a functional protein
Recessive genes contain instructions for a non-functioning protein
Mendel’s Laws of Heredity
For Example:
Cystic Fibrosis is caused by a non-functional protein (recessive gene)
To have Cystic Fibrosis you must have 2 recessive alleles – one from each parent.
This is called HOMOZYGOUS recessive.
HOMO = same
Mendel’s Laws of Heredity
It is possible to have one dominant allele (a functional protein) and one recessive allele (non-functioning protein).
This is called HETEROZYGOUS.
HETERO = different
These individuals are carriers.
Mendel’s Laws of Heredity
3. The Law of Segregation
During meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate and each sex cell receives one of the homologues.
Mendel’s Laws of Heredity
Long chromosomes are HOMOLOGUES
Short chromosomes are HOMOLOGUES
Errors in MEIOSIS
• Nondisjunction – homologous chromosomes do not separate during meiosis; results in gametes with too many chromosomes
EX. Down Syndrome
Individuals with an unusual number of chromosomes are POLYPLOID.
Polyploidy
• Some chromosome abnormalities do not cause disease, however abnormal numbers of chromosomes can be lethal or give rise to genetic disorders.– Cri-du-chat– Down Syndrome– Edwards Syndrome– Patau Syndrome
Punnett Squares
• Allow you to make predictions of offspring GENOTYPE and PHENOTYPE
Genotype = the actual genes an individual has
Phenotype = the physical appearance of an individual
• Genotype can be HOMOZYGOUS or HETEROZYGOUS
Homozygous = both alleles (copies of the gene) are the same – both genes for eye color are “blue”
Heterozygous = both alleles are different – one gene for “blue,” one gene for “brown”
Punnett Squares
• Genotypes are written using letters. Each letter represents one allele
All genotypes will have 2 letters
• Dominant genes (functional protein) are CAPITALIZED
• Recessive genes (non-functional protein) are lowercase.
Punnett Squares
Example: Brown eyes are dominant, blue eyes are recessive.
Genotype of an individual with brown eyes:
BB (homozygous) or Bb (heterozygous)
Genotype of an individual with blue eyes:
bb (only homozygous)
Punnett Squares
To have a recessive trait, you need to have both recessive alleles – one from mom, one from dad.
Recessive traits are always HOMOZYGOUS.
• Phenotypes are written as descriptions; blonde hair, brown hair, brown eyes, blue eyes, etc.
Punnett Squares
Example: Black fur is dominant to white fur in rabbits.
What are the possible genotypes for a black rabbit?
What are the possible genotypes for a white rabbit?
Punnett Squares
BB, Bb
bb
Cross 2 white rabbitsb b
b
b
bb bb
bb bb
• Monohybrid cross: only work with ONE gene/trait
• Determine what gametes are formed– Homologous pairs are split up, one goes to
each gamete– Gametes from male and female are combined
Punnett Squares