what should be the content for student learning?

WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—

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RUNNINGHEADER:WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?

WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?

TheodoreW.Frick

ProfessorEmeritus

DepartmentofInstructionalSystemsTechnology

IndianaUniversityBloomington

FinalDraft(4,923totalwords):August19,2018

Submittedasachapterfordiscussionatthe

SummerResearchSymposium

AssociationforEducationalCommunicationsandTechnology(AECT)

Bloomington,Indiana

July16-17,2018


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Abstract

Content in education is typically conceived as subject matter, often divided into

disciplinessuchasmathematics,English,history,science,geography,andsoforth.Content

isoftenfurtherconceivedasbeingembeddedinmediasuchastextbooks,handouts,movies,

computers,posters,andbulletinboardsthatareused inthecontextofclassrooms inside

school buildings. I present Steiner’s alternative conception of content, namely that of

schemataforcognition,intention,andemotion,whichstandincontrasttotraditionalnotions

ofsubjectmatter.Ifurtherdistinguishsignsofcontentfromcontentasobjectsthemselves,

asdoesPeirce. IdiscussMaccia’s epistemologyof educationalobjectives that includes9

kindsofknowing:instantial,theoretical,andcriterial‘knowingthat’;protocolic,adaptive,

andcreative ‘knowinghow’; and recognitive, acquaintive, andappreciative ‘knowing that

one’.Next,throughretroductivereasoning,Iextendcontentobjectivestoincludeformation

of affective (emotional) and conative (intentional) mental structures. Finally, I briefly

discuss the theory of Totally Integrated Education (TIE) as a way to characterize the

educational aim of guiding students to form strongly connected cognitive, conative, and

affectivementalstructures. Insteadofconceivingsubjectmatterasacquiringknowledge

withinextantdisciplines,Iarguethateducationalcontentshouldbeconsideredwithrespect

tostudentmentalstructuresthatareexpectedtoresultfromteachingandlearningactivities.

Thisstandsininstarkcontrastto“coveringthecontent”presentedinprintedtextbooksand

other media. If we pursue totally integrated education (TIE), student learning will be

grounded.Groundingofknowing,feeling,andintendingisvitallyimportant.Studentswho

aregroundedarelesseasilydeceivedandmisledbyotherswhoareignorant,prejudiced,or

whointentionallylieordistorttruth.


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1. Introduction:WhatisContent?

The great American philosopher of education, John Dewey, discussed the typical

conceptionoftheprimaryaimofeducationas:

… the formationofmindbymeansof a subjectmatter presented fromwithout (p.69,

italicsadded)….Inthetraditionalschemesofeducation,subjectmattermeanssomuch

material to be studied. Various branches of study represent so many independent

branches,eachhavingitsprinciplesofarrangementcompletewithinitself.Historyisone

such group of facts; algebra another; geography another; and so on till we have run

throughtheentirecurriculum(p.134)….[Subjectmatter]consistsofthefactsrecalled,

read,andtalkedabout,andtheideassuggested,incourseofdevelopmentofasituation

havingapurpose.(1916,p.180)

Dewey(1916)furtherlamentedthat:

…thebondswhichconnectthesubjectmatterofschoolstudywiththehabitsandideals

of a socialgrouparedisguisedandcoveredup. The tiesare so loosened that itoften

appearsasiftherewerenone;asifsubjectmatterexistedsimplyasknowledgeonitsown

independentbehoof,andasifstudywerethemereactofmasteringitforitsownsake,

irrespectiveofanysocialvalues.(p.181)

ElizabethSteiner(1988),anothergreatAmericanphilosopherofeducation,logically

characterizedcontent asoneof the componentsof aneducationsystem. Fromageneral

systemsperspective,shecontendedthat:

Education is defined as a system consistingof subsystems of teacher (T), student (S),

content(C),andcontext(X)….Learningisdefinedaspsychicaldevelopment:formation


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ofmentalstructures.Contentisdefinedasstructuresforpsychicaldevelopment:either

cognitive(CG)orconative(CN)oraffective(AF).(p.40,italicsadded)

BasedonGeorgeMaccia’s(1973;1987;1988)conceptionsofknowing,Steiner(1988)

further described cognitivemental structures as being “schemata for thoughtwhich are

eitherquantitative(QN)orqualitative(QL)orperformative(PF)”(p.41). Steiner(1988)

furtherdefinedconative structuresas“schemata forvolition”, andaffective structuresas

“schemataforfeeling”(p.42).

IndiscussingElizabethSteiner’sconceptionofeducationandtheroleofcontent, I

previouslywrote:

Education cannot occur withoutcontent. The content is what is shared between

successive generations. Students must interact with content in order to construct

understandingsandtheirpersonalvaluesandbeliefs.Contentisnotjustmath,English,or

biology.Andcontent isnot found inbooksorcomputerprogramsoronthetelevision

screen either. Content is the stuff of human thoughts, ideas, aspirations, feelings, and

attitudes.WhatisfoundinmediasuchasbooksandTVarerepresentationsofcontent.The

contentmay be symbolically coded in language only, or itmay be conveyed through

drama,forexample.(Frick,1991,p.15)

CharlesSandersPeirce’s(1932)semiotictheoryclarifiedthenatureofsigns:

Asign,orrepresentamen,issomethingwhichstandstosomebodyforsomethinginsome

respectorcapacity….everyrepresentamenbeingthusconnectedwiththreethings,the

ground,theobject,andtheinterpretant(2:228)….TheSigncanonlyrepresenttheObject

andtellaboutit.ItcannotfurnishacquaintancewithorrecognitionofthatObject;forthat


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is what is meant in this volume by the Object of a Sign; namely, that with which it

presupposes an acquaintance in order to convey some further information concerning

it(2:231,italicsadded).

Educologybuildsontheseconceptionsofeducationandsubjectmatter.Contentis

defined in educology as “signs of objects and objects selected for student learning”

(Educology,2018,http://educology.indiana.edu/content.html). Contentforlearningmay

be represented with signs only, or it may be the objects themselves with or without

mediation by their respective signs. In education, students are expected to formmental

structures(i.e.,tolearn)throughinteractionwithcontentinacontext.Whatthosemental

structuresshouldbeispartofthephilosophyofeducation,i.e.thedeterminationofwhatis

worthwhileeducation.

In order to address this question, the typology of cognitive mental structures is

discussed next. This is followed by a parallel characterization of conative and affective

mentalstructures.Buildingonthisfoundation,thetheoryofTotallyIntegratedEducation

(TIE) is subsequently introduced. Examples of extant cases are then provided which

illustrateimplementationsofTIE. Inconclusion,themajorgoalsofworthwhileeducation

aresummarized.

2. TypologyofCognitiveStructures

GeorgeMaccia(1973)developedanepistemologyofeducationalobjectives,whichhe

further refined and described in 1987 and 1988 (see Frick, 1997). Central to Maccia’s

argumentisthatstudentsshouldnotonlycometo‘knowthat’buttheyshouldalsocometo


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‘knowhow’andto‘knowthatone’.Maccia(1987)particularlyemphasizedtheimportance

ofqualitativeknowing(‘thatone’).Thesetypesofknowingarebrieflydescribednext.

OverviewofTypesofKnowing

Therearethreefundamentaltypesofcognition:1)‘knowingthat’,2)‘knowinghow’,

and 3) ‘knowing that one’ (Brown, 1972; Estep, 2003, 2006; Frick, 1997; Geach, 1964;

Maccia,1973,1987,1988;Ryle,1959;Sheffler,1965).Clearly,thesethreeclassificationsof

cognitionarenotexclusiveinthesensethattwoormoreofthemcanoccuratthesametime

withinanindividual.Forexample,inFig.1,thepersonknowsRoverasaninstanceofthe

dog classification (‘knowing that’), away to giveRover a bath (‘knowing how’), and this

particularuniquedog,Rover(‘knowingthatone’).

Figure1.Threebasickindsofknowing(drawingsbyElizabethBoling)

On the physiological level, mental structures are encoded through strengthened

neuralconnectionsinthenervoussystem(Kandel,1989;2001;Squire&Kandel,1999).On

thebasisofaseriesofempiricalstudies,Kandel(2001)concludedthat“…learningresults

from changes in the strength of synaptic connections between precisely connected cells


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[neurons]” (p. 1032). According to Eagleman (2015),whenwe are bornwe each have

approximately100billionneuronsinournervoussystem.Duringthefirst2-3yearsoflife,

ourbodycreatestrillionsofconnectionsamongthoseneurons.Aswefurthergrow,develop,

andlearn,ourindividualexperiencesliterallyprunethoseconnections,sothattheremaining

connectionsformauniquementalstructure,theuniquelong-termmemoriesandabilities

weeachhave.Certainconnectionsarestrengthenedthroughthoseexperiencesthroughout

ourlives,andotherconnectionsareweakened.

Moreover,asEagleman(2015)emphasizes:

When we look inside the brain, we see neurons, synapses, chemical transmitters,

electrical activity. We see billions of active, chattering cells…. To understand human

consciousness,wemayneedtothinknotintermsofthepiecesandpartsofthebrain,but

insteadintermsofhowthesecomponentsinteract.(Locations2724–2730,italicsadded)

Inshort,theuniquementalstructureeachofushasatanygivenpointintimeallowsusto

think, to intend, and to feel as we consciously interact with our surroundings.

Neuroscientistscanobservethepatternsofactivitiesofneuronscommunicatinginrealtime

through movies of functional magnetic resonance images (fMRI). Our unique mental

structuresdeterminehowourindividualmindscanfunctionfrommomenttomoment.

Since one’s knowing consists of cognitive mental structures that are not directly

observablebyanotherperson,itisnecessarytoidentifyobservableindicatorsorsignsof

suchknowing.Aseducators,wecanobservetheactionsofanotherperson,whichindicate

whatsheorheknows,wants,andfeels.Thesemaybeevidentfromobservingthisperson

carryoutsometask,fromexaminingaproductresultingfromthisperson’sactivity,andfrom


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examining signs this person uses and creates (icons, indices and symbols) during that

activityorinthatproduct.Estep(2006)referstosuchindicatorsas:

signsofintelligence….[which]includethebroaderrealmofthree-dimensionalpatterns

of sign-making, sign-exhibiting, and sign-disclosure of dynamic intentional doings….

Three-dimensionalsignssuchassignalsandcues,includegestures(aswithhands),but

alsofull-bodydoingssuchastasksorotherperformances….Thesesigncategories...span

all sensorimotor capacities, including visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and

somatosensorycategories(includingtouching,moving,andproprioception).(pp.38-39)

As an example, near the end of physicians’ medical education, medical students

becomeinternswheretheypracticemedicinewithactualpatientsandtheirmaladies.They

aresupervisedandobservedbyteacher-physicianswhoarealreadylicensedforpractice,

andwhoprovide further coachingand feedback to thesestudent-physicians-to-be.These

physician-coaches can infer from observation whether or not their student interns are

makingproperassessments,diagnoses,andcarryingoutappropriatetreatments.Inshort,

thetestisamethodbywhichateachercanunambiguouslyinferstudentmentalstructures

fromobservableindicatorsofstudentperformanceunderappropriateconditions.Testsare

not restricted to answering questions or solving problems, as typically conceived by

educators.Suchwrittenororalexamsarejustonekindofindicator.

Indiscussingpedagogicalepistemology,Maccia(1973)referredtotutorialconditions

ofknowing:


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...knowingisviewedin lightof tutorialrequirements.Onlythoseknowingstowhicha

teacher has access, which a teacher can bring to a learner, and which a learner can

communicateinsomewaytoateacheraretakenseriously.(p.1)

Theremaybeotherkindsofstudentknowingtowhichteachershavenoaccesswhen

observingandcommunicatingwithstudents.Forexample,Polyani(2015)refers to"tacit

knowing,"whichessentiallymeansprivate,personalknowingnotsharablewithothersas

intersubjectivesigns.Similarly,studentfeelingsandintentionsmaybetacit,unavailableto

theirteachers.

Without further digression here, if teachers have no way to tell if students have

achieved suchunobservablekindsofknowing, then thesekindsofknowingareexcluded

fromeducology.This iswhyMaccia referred to tutorial conditionsofknowing in further

explicatinghispedagogicalepistemology(e.g.,Maccia,1987,1988).

Kinds of knowing are based onMaccia’s pedagogical epistemology, Estep’s (2003,

2006) evidential arguments about natural intelligence, and Frick’s (1997) discussion of

issues in artificial intelligence. Nine kinds of knowing are outlined below as goals for

worthwhileeducation—i.e.,cognitivestructuresthatstudentsoughttodevelop:

1. ‘Knowingthat’:whatareindicatorsof‘belief’—isitwarrantedbydisciplined

inquiry,i.e.,isittruebelief?

1.1. Instantial:classificationofobjectsofthesamekind.

1.2. Relational:rationalexplanationofrelationshipsbetweenkindsofobjects.

1.3. Criterial:rationaljudgmentofkindsofobjectsandtheirrelationsaccordingto

anorm.


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2. ‘Knowinghow’:whatareindicatorsof‘performance’—isiteffectiveandethical?

2.1. Protocolic:takeonepathtogoal;inflexible,duplicativedoing.

2.2. Adaptive:takealternativepathstogoal,choosingorcombiningpathsbasedon

specificconditions.

2.3. Creative:innovateorinventanewwaytoreachanexistingornewgoal.

3. ‘Knowingthatone’:whatareindicatorsof‘opinion’—isitright?

3.1. Recognitive:selecttheuniqueQfromnot-Qandnot-QfromQ.

3.2. Acquaintive:identifyrelationsdeterminateoftheuniqueQ.

3.3. Appreciative:identifyrelationsappropriateoftheuniqueQ.

Normsforevaluatingthesekindsofknowingareindicatedbythequestionsfollowing

each of the threemajor types. Inworthwhile education,when students developmental

structuresfor‘knowingthat’,theirbeliefsmustbewarrantedbydisciplinedinquiry.Inother

words,studentsshouldcometoholdtruebeliefs.For‘knowinghow’,studentconductmust

bebotheffectiveandethical.For‘knowingthatone’,rightopinionisessential.Clearly,some

learned beliefs are unwarranted, some actions are unethical, and some opinions are not

right.

Unfortunately,studentscandevelopmentalstructuresforfalsebeliefs,badactions,

andwrongopinions.Onecan,forexample,believethattheearthisthecenteroftheuniverse;

however, Galileo and Copernicus long agoprovided empirical evidence that this belief is

false.Itisnotsupportedbyfacts.Onecanholdthefalsebeliefthatplainwaterfreezesat

100degreescentigrade.Suchbeliefisclearlyatoddswithempiricalevidence.Onecanlearn

how todeceiveothers,bymakingemotional appeals to their fearsandprejudices. Such

conductisunethical.


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Note thatwithineach typeofknowing, eachhigher level requires the lower level.

Criterialknowing requires relationalknowing, and relationalknowing requires instantial

knowing. Creative ‘know how’ requires adaptive ‘know how’ that, in turn, requires

protocolic ‘know how’. Appreciation requires acquaintance, and acquaintance requires

recognition. In other words, within each classification of knowing, the categories are

progressivelyinclusive.

Thetypesofknowingarenotmutuallyexclusive.Wecan‘knowthat’withrespectto

someobject, ‘knowhow’and ‘knowthatone’. This is illustrated inFig.1,wherethedog

Rover, is theobjectof ‘knowingthat’, ‘knowinghow’, and ‘knowingthatone’. SeeFrick

(1997;2018)forfurtherexamplesofthesethreekindsofknowing.

3. TypologiesofConativeandAffectiveMentalStructures

Maccia’s typology for cognitive structures is used here as a starting point for

classifyingconativeandaffectivestructures.

Universals

There are classifications of universals.For example, 'justice' is a universal

(general).A student can learn to seek justice as a goal.This would be a conative

structure.That student could also develop affective mental structures for good feelings

aboutjustice,andbadfeelingsaboutinjustice.

MeanstoEnds

Thereare'meanstoends'.Forexample,theMacintoshoperatingsystemisameans

tolaunchapps,printdocuments,dotextmessaging,etc.OnemightwanttousetheMacOS,


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timeandtimeagain.Thiswouldbeaconativementalstructure.Onemightalsohavegood

feelingstowarduseoftheMacOS.Hence,theremaybeconativeandaffectivestructuresfor

waysofdoing.

Uniques

Conativestructurescanhaveuniqueobjects,justascognitivethoughtsandmeansto

ends.Forexample,apersoncanwantaparticularthing,suchasMacBookcomputer,orto

befriendswithauniquepersonsuchasCesurDagli.Similarly,onecanhavefeelingstowards

thatMacBookorCesur.

ContentasConativeandAffectiveStructures

Inadditiontocognitivementalstructures,contentineducationshouldincludegoals

forstudentstodevelopconativeandaffectivestructures.Studentsshouldlearnmorethan

just ‘knowingthat’, ‘knowinghow’,and‘knowingthatone’. Theyshouldalsoformmoral

intentionsandgoodfeelingsaboutthoserespectiveobjectsofcognition.

4. PuttingItAllTogether:TIETheory

ThetheoryofTotallyIntegratedEducation(TIE)isbuiltonwell-definedterminology

fromeducology(Frick,2018).CentraltoTIEtheoryisthepremisethat,totheextentthat

studentmental structures are formedwhich integrate cognition, intention, and emotion,

thenstudentlearningwillbestrongerandmoreholistic.InTIEtheory,integratedmental

structuresarepredictedtobelessvulnerabletoforgetting(Fig.2,3,4,and5).


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Figure2.Schemafordesiredconnectionsamongastudent’scognition(thinking),intention(willing),andemotion(feeling)duringalearningactivity(graphicbyColinGray).ReprintedwithpermissionfromFrick,2018.

Figure3.Illustrationofintegrationof9kindsofcognition.GraphicbyColinGrayandTheodoreFrick.ReprintedwithpermissionfromFrick,2018.


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Figure4.Illustrationoftotallyintegratededucation,wherecognition,intentionsandemotionsarecompletelyconnected.Figures1-3arecombinedvisually.GraphicbyColinGrayandTheodoreFrick.ReprintedwithpermissionfromFrick,2018.

Figure5.Disconnectedmentalstructures(graphicbyColinGray).‘Knowinghow’and‘knowingthatone’aredisconnectedfrom ‘knowing that’. Student intention and emotion are disconnected from ‘knowing that’. This ungrounded anddissociatedlearningcanoccurwhensignsusedincommunicationareusedinisolationfromtheircorrespondingreal-worldobjectsandpurposefulactivity.Theresultingmentalstructuresareweaklyconnected,lackingwholenessandintegration.ReprintedwithpermissionfromFrick,2018.


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5. Examples

Frick(2018)describedtwoextantcaseswhichillustrateTIE.Threemorecasesare

describedhere,the: UnionvilleElementarySchoolEARTHcurriculum;StateUniversityof

NewYork(SUNY)CobleskillFisheries,WildlifeandEnvironmentalSciencesprogram;SUNY

CobleskillBiotechnologyprogram.

5.1UnionvilleElementarySchoolCurriculum

The Unionville Elementary School inBloomington, Indiana, USA, has developed a

unique curriculum they identify by the acronym EARTH: Environment, Art, Resources,

TechnologyandHealth.Howell(2018)notes:

Youcanseeitwhenyoustopbytheschool:Traysfullofseedlingssproutingonclassroom

windowsills.Potatoesgrowingrootsincupsofwater.Largeshelvesbearinggardening

toolsandseedpacketsnearthebackdoor.Teachersandstudentsholdingclassoutside,

onthehill,bythegardenboxes,underthesheltered“learninglab”ontheplaygroundand

in the miniature amphitheater with wooden benches by the pond. Students planting

flowersandvegetables,orwatchingandsketchingthetrees,writingtheirobservationsin

sciencenotebooks.(paragraph2)

Howellfurtherwrites:

Inmanyways,thecurriculumharnessesthingsUnionvillehasbeendoingforyears.They

compostandrecycleintheschoolcafeteria,usetheoutdoorspacesoftenandgoforhikes

onUnionville’s18acres.Thefishingclubcatchesfishintheschool’spondfromalittle

dockbuiltforclasspurposes.Theyusedifferentkindsofart,includingquilting,tovisually


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representwhatthey’relearning.Theschoolteachesdigitalcitizenshipandcoding,aswell

ashealthylivingandgoodlifestylechoices.

EARTH puts a renewed focus on those elements, increases the number of science

experiencesandputsanoutdoor,environmentaltwistonitall.(paragraphs7-8)

Howell quotes the Unionville principal, Lily Albright, who said, “It’s about

appreciating and understanding what’s going on right here in our own backyard, and

applying that as we think about the world and our place in the world” (Howell, 2018,

paragraph9).

The EARTH curriculum clearly leads Unionville elementary students to connect

‘knowingthat’,‘knowinghow’,and‘knowingthatone’(seeFig.1,2,3and4).Itillustratesa

practicalimplementationofTIEtheoryinthisparticularcontext.

5.2SUNYCobleskillFisheries,WildlifeandEnvironmentalSciencesProgram

Hands-onlearningiscentralforstudentsintheFisheries,WildlifeandEnvironmental

SciencesprogramattheStateUniversityofNewYork,inCobleskill,NY,USA.Theprogram

utilizesitsowncold-waterfishhatcherytanks(Fig.6).Oneclassroomincludesaquariums

with live fish as well as some taxidermized species on the walls (Fig. 7). Advanced

undergraduate students spend time in the outdoors doing scientific research, and

subsequentlypresenttheirfindingsatprofessionalconferences(Fig.8).

Feldman(2018)quotesdepartmentchair,MarkCornwell,whosays:

Asstudentsprogressintheprogram,movingupleveltolevel,themixoftheiractivities

changes… For example, those at the beginning of their study are taught in four-hour

blocksoftime.Thefirsthourisclassroominstructioncoveringtheoryandpractice;the


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remainingthreehoursarespentinthewater,wherestudentsaresuddenlysurrounded

bywhattheywerejusttaughtaboutinclass.It’saterrificwaytoteachandlearn.”(p.7)

Figure6. Departmentchair,MarkCornwell,explains that largefish tankson campusareusedforbreedingpurposes.Studentslearnhowsuchhatcheriesaremanaged,engageinraisingfish,andthenreleasethemintothewildinupstateNewYork.PhotobyT.Frick.


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Figure7.AclassroomatSUNYCobleskillincludesbothliveandmountedspeciesoffish.PhotobyT.Frick.

Figure8.Posterssuchasthisonearepresentedbyundergraduatestudentsatprofessionalresearchconferences.PhotobyT.Frick.


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Feldman(2018)furtherdescribesthisuniqueprogram:

Astheycontinueintheprogram,studentscollectandinterpretdata,delvedeeplyintothe

biologyofthespecieswithwhichtheywork,evenbecomeconversantaboutthelawsand

regulationsthataffectthepresentandfutureofspecifichabitatsandoftheenvironment

ingeneral.(p.7)

Cornwellisfurtherquoted:“Ultimately,ourgoalistoproducegraduateswhoareboth

extremely knowledgeable about the real-world species and systems they study and the

relevantpublicpolicyissuesthatariseinourfield”(Feldman,2018,p.7).

ItisclearthatstudentsinthisundergraduatedegreeprogramatSUNYCobleskillare

abletoconnect‘knowingthat’,‘knowinghow’,and‘knowingthatone’.Partsoftherealworld

arebroughttothecampuslearningenvironment,andstudentsalsogooutintotherealworld

astheycontinuelearning.Thisisanexcellentexampleoftotallyintegratededucation(TIE),

as illustrated in Fig. 4. Contrast these SUNY learning environmentswith typical barren

classrooms where students read textbooks, perhaps watch some videos, sit at desks

discussing ideasduringclass,andsubsequently takepaper-and-pencil testsonwhat they

havelearned(schematizedinFig.5).

5.3SUNYCobleskillBiotechnologyProgram

Undergraduate students from the SUNY Biotechnology program are actively

recruitedbygraduateschoolsandcorporations. Feldman(2018)describestheintensive,

hands-onprogram,where juniorsandseniors“dovaluable leading-edgeresearch insuch

areasasdevelopingdiseaseanddrought-resistantcropsforagriculturalenhancement”(p.

8).


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Student research involves genetics, and some of them are invited to present at

professional conferences. Students not only must understand genetic theory (‘knowing

that’),butengageincreative‘knowing-how’(Fig.4)astheydevelopnewstrainsofplants.

Student learning is purposeful (conative) and satisfying (affective). Feldman quotes

biotechnologyprofessor,PeiyuZeng:

Ourprogramdefinitelymakesitsmarkamongotherresearchersworkinginourfield…

Forinstance,SUNYCobleskillisoneofonlyahandfulofacademicinstitutionsthathave

beenabletocreateastrainofsoybeanscapableofwithstandinghighlyadversegrowing

conditions.Itiswonderfulforstudentstoknowthattheworktheydoherewillhavea

realimpact—andrealvisibility—intheworldoutsideourlabs.(p.8)

TheSUNYbiotechnologyprogramisafurtherexampleoftotallyintegratededucation

inhighereducation.TIEisnotjustatheory;itcanbeactualizedinpractice.Asdefinedin

educology,contentisconceivedas“objectsandsignsofobjectsselectedforstudentlearning”

(Educology, 2018, http://educology.indiana.edu/content.html). As C. S. Peirce (1932)

noted:

TheSigncanonlyrepresenttheObjectandtellaboutit.Itcannotfurnishacquaintance

withorrecognitionofthatObject;forthatiswhatismeant…namely,thatwithwhichit

presupposes an acquaintance in order to convey some further information concerning

it(2:231,italicsadded).

Contextisdefinedineducologyas“thesystemenvironmentforteachingandlearning

that includes content” (http://educology.indiana.edu/context.html). Clearly, teachers at

UnionvilleElementarySchoolandatSUNYCobleskillutilizecontentandcontextsbeyondthe


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confinesofclassroomwallsandsigns(wordsandpictures)containedinbooksandother

media. These students become acquainted with particular, unique objects in their

immediate learning environments with which respective signs are directly associated

(‘knowing that one’). These students are able to connect cognition with emotion and

intention (Fig. 2, 3, and 4). Through hands-on learning activities, they are able to form

holistic,integratedmentalstructures.

6. SummaryandConclusion

Contentastypicallyconceivedisthesubjectmatterofeducation,oftencontainedin

textbooks, movies, posters, and more recently within software apps run by computers,

tablets,andsmartphones.Thischapterhas,hopefully,dispelledthislimitedconceptionof

content.Myargumentsforamuchbroaderconceptionofcontentarelargelybasedonthose

made by Dewey, Steiner, and Maccia (see the Educology Website:

http://educology.indiana.edu/). Ihave furtheralludedtoconativeandaffectiveschemata

forstudentlearningasSteiner(1988)described.Conativeandaffectivementalstructures

are also important parts of content for student learning. TIE theory (Totally Integrated

Education)predictsthatlearningwillbeenhancedwhencognitive,conative,andaffective

structuresare connectedvia student learningactivitieswhichholistically integrate these

structures(Fig.2,3,4,and5).TheUnionvilleElementarySchoolwasusedasanexemplary

case,aswellastwoundergraduateprogramsinthesciencesatSUNYCobleskill.

Worthwhilecontent ineducation iswhatstudentsought to learn. Withrespect to

typesofknowing,teachersshouldselectthebestofcultureandleadstudentsto:


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• ‘Knowing that’: mental structures forbeliefs that arewarrantedbydisciplined

inquiry(i.e.,rigorousresearch);

• ‘Knowinghow’: mentalstructuresforeffectiveperformanceswhichareethical;

and

• ‘Knowingthatone’:mentalstructuresforrightopinions,wherestudentslearnto

appreciateuniqueelementsoftheircultureandsurroundings.(Educology,2018,

http://educology.indiana.edu/worthwhileContent.html)

Inotherwords,studentsshouldlearnto“distinguishopinion fromtruth,”“tellright from

wrong”andactethically,and“toappreciatebeauty”(Frick,1991,p.32).

Ifwe pursue totally integrated education (TIE), student learningwill be grounded.

Grounding of knowing, feeling, and intending is vitally important. Students who are

groundedarelesseasilydeceivedandmisledbyotherswhoareignorant,prejudiced,orwho

intentionally lie or distort truth. Studentswho can think critically become responsible

participantsinademocraticsociety.Criticalthinkerswillnotallowdeceitfulleaders,tyrants,

shysters,orslickpoliticianstocontrolusandtelluswhattobelieve,feel,ortodo.

Inconclusion,everyonehasarighttoaworthwhileeducationthatwill:

• enhancethequalityoflife,

• reduceinequality,

• minimizesuffering,and

• maximizeoverallgood.

(Educology,2018,http://educology.indiana.edu/we2.html)


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7. References

Brown,D.G.(1970).Knowinghowandknowingthat,what.InG.PitcherandO.Wood

(Eds.),Ryle:ACollectionofcriticalessays(pp.213-248).GardenCity,NY:Doubleday.

Dewey,J.(1916).Democracyandeducation.NewYork,NY:TheFreePress.

Eagleman,D.(2015).Thebrain.NewYork,NY:PantheonBooks.

Educology (2018). Knowledge of education. Retrieved May 30, 2018 from

http://educology.indiana.edu

Estep,M.(2003).Atheoryofimmediateawareness:Self-organizationandadaptation

innaturalintelligence.Boston,MA:KluwerAcademicPublishers.

Estep,M.(2006).Self-organizingnaturalintelligence:Issuesofknowing,meaningand

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