What  makes  a  workplace  healthy?                                                                                                                                          NICOLE  MATER  

 

A   truly   healthy   workplace   evaluates   employee   health   and   well   being   both   mentally   and   physically.   Effectively  

healthy   workplaces   increase   employees’   physical   health   statuses,   improve   job   satisfaction   levels,   increase  

productivity,  and  reduce  office  turnover.  The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  analyze  and  synthesize  proposed  design  

solutions  for  healthy  workplaces  by  dissecting  current  strategies  used  to  design  offices  and  uncovering  information  

that  may   be   used   in   evidence   based   design.   This   information  will   then   be   analyzed  within   the   context   of   four  

existing   office   buildings   of   varying   scales   and   used   to   determine   their   effectiveness   as   healthy   office   spaces.    

Architects   should  use   evidence-­‐based   strategies   to  design  healthy  workplaces   that   can   improve   the  mental   and  

physical   well   being   of   the   employees   who   work   in   the   building,   in   turn,   benefit   employers   by   increasing  

productivity  and  job  satisfaction.  

 

 

 

Strategies  Beneficial  to  Health  

 

The  surgeon  general  recognizes  the  need  for  change  within  American  office  types.    

The  majority  of  the  140  million  men  and  women  who  are  employed  in  the  United  States  spend  a  

significant   amount   of   time   each   week   at   their   work   site.   Because   obesity   reduces   worker  

productivity  and  increases  health  care  costs,  employers  are  becoming  more  aware  of  the  need  to  

help   promote   health   within   the   workplace.     Employers   can   implement   wellness   programs  

HEALTH

MENTALPHYSICAL

Mental  and  physical  health  must  be  considered  of  equal  importance  because  mental  health  has  the  ability  to  influence  physical  health  and  

physical  health  may  influence  mental  health.  People  that  are  physically  ill  or  injured  my  become  depressed  by  their  inabilities  and  therefore  

become  mentally  unstable  and  unproductive.  People  who  have  mental  maladies  have  a  higher  probability  of  becoming  ill,  or  in  extreme  cases  

may  be  driven  to  injure  themselves.      

encourage  physical  activity   through  group  classes  and  stairwell  programs  and  create   incentives  

for  employees  to  participate.1  

Designers   have   the   ability   to   address   this   condition   through   careful   design   of   office   campuses   and  

individual  workspaces.   This  will   not   only   help   to   benefit   employees   productivity,   but   also   their  mental  

health.  By  increasing  their  output,  workers  have  higher  levels  of  job  satisfaction  and  overall  happiness.    

 

Increase  Campus  Walkability  

Walkability  is  a  key  tool  that  an  architect  must  harness  when  addressing  the  issue  of  healthy  workplaces.  “Walking  

can  be  integrated  into  most  people’s  daily  routines  if  it  is  made  convenient  by  a  well-­‐designed  built  environment.”2    

By   integrating  exercise   into  an   individual’s  daily  commute,   there   is  a  much  higher  probability   that   the   individual  

will   achieve   the   recommended   amount   of   exercise.   By   making   the   walk   desirable,   there   is   an   even   higher  

likelihood   that   it  will  be  used.  Addressing   specific   factors   can  help   to   formulate  a  method   for   creating  desirable  

walking  paths.  High  priority  concerns  are  the  presence  of  pedestrian  facilities,  the  absence  of  pedestrian  conflicts,  

and  the  inclusion  of  crosswalks.  Important  concerns  are  the  maintenance  of  the  pathway,  the  size  of  the  path,  the  

presence   of   a   buffer   between   the   path   and   the   adjacent   street,   the   compliance   to   universal   access,   and   the  

aesthetics.   A   lesser   priority   concern   is   the   presence   of   shading   devices,   although   this   varies   per   climate.   Places  

where   the   pathway   intersects   or   abuts   a   roadway   are   of   the   utmost   concern.   Smells   and   noises   generated   by  

traffic  are  generally  considered  unpleasant,  and  it  is  important  to  provide  a  buffer  between  the  walkway  and  the  

road.     It   is   also   important   to   provide   a   practical   and   direct   route,   without   unnecessary   twisting   ambulatory  

pathways.     The   most   desirable   pathways   are   direct   routes   through   landscaping   or   along   pleasant   slow-­‐speed  

roadways.    

 

Increase  Stair  Use  

Attractive   and   effective   staircase   design   can   promote   physical   activity  within   the  workplace.     Gayle  Nicoll,   PhD  

identifies   five   themes   of   staircase   design:   Appeal,   Comfort,   Convenience,   Legibility,   and   Safety.   Convenience   is  

1 Surgeon General Regina M. Benjamin, M. D. 2 Dannenberg

essential   to   promoting   stair   use.   The   stair   must   lie   along   a   desired   path   of   travel   in   order   to   present   the  

opportunity  to  use  it.  It  must  be  within  close  proximity  of  an  arrival  point  and  a  destination,  and  be  integrated  into  

those   spaces   seamlessly.   Stairs   that   address   comfort   are   used  more   often   than   stairs   that   do   not   account   for  

comfort.  A  very  good  staircase  is  designed  to  promote  socio-­‐operational  comfort,  meaning  that  an  individual  could  

ascend  the  staircase  while  carrying  on  a  conversation  with  another  person  walking  by  his  or  her  side.  In  order  to  

accomplish  this,  the  stairs  should  ensure  that  the  amount  of  exertion  required  to  climb  them  does  not  surpass  a  

threshold  of  comfort,  and  the  gait  of  the  stair  should  be  compatible  with  the  stride  of  the  prospective  user.  Lastly,  

staircases  that  are  designed  to  be  appealing,  whether  attractively  or  interactively,  have  an  increased  likelihood  of  

use.  Of  course,  none  of  these  suggestions  may  interfere  with  safety,  and  the  hand  of  a  talented  designer  is  needed  

to  employ  all  of  these  principles  without  straying  from  the  code  requirements.    

 

Ergonomic  Detailing  

In   a   recent   study   on   workplace   aesthetics   uncovered   a   strong   correlation   between   workplace   ergonomics   and  

physical   health.   Although   ergonomics   and   aesthetics   both   play   a   part   in   employee   satisfaction   and   health,  

aesthetics   showed  no   real   correlation   to  physical   health.   Ergonomics,   on   the  other  hand,   showed  a   very   strong  

correlation.  Problems  with  office  ergonomics  contribute  to  higher  rates  of  sick  leave  and  work-­‐related  pain.3  It   is  

equally  important  to  address  ergonomics,  as  it  is  to  address  aesthetic  concerns.  For  architects  and  designers,  this  

information  calls   attention   to   the  details  within  an  office.  All  office   furniture   should  be  ergonomically  designed,  

and   desk   and   chair   details   should   be   carefully   planned.   Any   surface   that   a   worker   would   encounter   could   be  

optimized  ergonomically,  including  door  handles  and  stair  railings.    

 

Avoid  Overstimulation  

Features  of  the  physical  environment  can  contribute  to  overstimulation,  a  condition  that  is  reached  by  overloading  

an   individual  with  stressors.   It  can  be  derived  from  environmental  clutter  and  perceived  spatial  restraints4.   In  an  

office  setting,  an  individual  reacting  to  overstimulation  may  withdraw  and  experience  dissatisfaction  with  the  task  

3 Schell 212. 4 Evans and McCoy

he   or   she   has   been   working   on   in   the   stressful   environment.5   Overstimulation   causes   individuals   to   become  

distracted  from  their  work,  which  leads  to  frustration  and  further  stress6.    They  may  fail  to  complete  their  work  in  a  

timely   manner   or   leave   tasks   incomplete   in   their   entirety.   Researchers   Baum,   Davis,   Desor,   and   Paulus   have  

identified   four  desired  conditions   that  help   to  alleviate   the  pressures  of  overstimulation:   reduced  social  density,  

increased  room  brightness,  increased  number  of  enclosures,  and  increased  intrapersonal  distance.      

 

Social  density  is  defined  by  the  “total  number  of  individuals  in  a  particular  area,  regardless  of  the  amount  of  space  

available   in   that   area.”7   Studies   have   shown   that   employees   react   negatively   to   high   ratios   of   social   density.  

Individuals  in  high  social  density  situations  not  only  feel  more  crowded,  which  contributes  to  stress-­‐levels,  but  they  

are  also  more  likely  to  act  withdrawn.  Individuals  in  low-­‐density  conditions  generally  feel  more  attracted  to  others  

in  the  room  and  are  more  likely  to  act  socially.8  

 

Intrapersonal   distance   is   an   important   principle   to   consider   when   planning   offices.   Similar   to   social   density,   it  

accounts   for   the   proximity   of   other   individuals   in   a   given   area.   Whereas   social   density   does   not   account   for  

perceptions  of  crowding  due  to  measured  distances,  intrapersonal  distance  considers  the  exact  distance  between  

a  given   individual  and   the  nearest  person   to   that   individual.   Studies  have  shown   that   individuals   feel   “crowded,  

confined,   distracted,   and   uncomfortable  when   there   is   little   distance   between   them   and   another   person,”   and  

“individuals  perform  at  lower  levels  in  close  conditions  as  opposed  to  far  distance  conditions.”  9  

 

Introducing  higher  levels  of  light  into  offices  may  help  to  decrease  negative  stimulus.  Regardless  of  the  actual  size  

of  the  room,  a  dark  room  seems  to  feel  smaller  than  a  large  room.  Because  of  this  illusion,  properly  lit  rooms  have  

the  opportunity   to   feel   larger   than   they  actually  are.  This  may  also  help   to  alleviate   stress   caused  by   shortened  

intrapersonal  distance.  Although  these  perceptions  cannot  decrease  the  social  density  of  the  space  by  definition,  

the  distance  from  one  individual  to  another  can  be  made  to  seem  further.  Office  darkness  “correlates  significantly  

5 Oldham 77. 6 Oldham & Rotchford 544. 7 Hayduck 295. Paulus 250. 8 Dean, Pugh, & Gunderson 230. 9 Paulus 249

to   office   turnover   and   discretionary  withdrawal.”   10     Architects   have  many   options   for   increasing   light   levels   in  

offices.    Bringing  in  natural  light  is  nearly  always  the  best  possible  solution,  but  advancements  in  technology  have  

resulted   in   high-­‐tech   lighting   systems   that   can   mimic   the   changing   color   temperatures   of   a   typical   daylight  

spectrum.  Illumination  can  be  achieved  in  a  variety  of  ways,  but  the  effects  of  color  should  not  be  underestimated.  

Painting  walls  in  brighter  colors  can  increase  light  reflectance  in  a  space.  Dark  colors  should  be  avoided  no  matter  

how  much  light  is  introduced  into  a  space,  as  their  absorptive  quality  will  counteract  the  desired  effect.  Lighting  a  

room  properly   can   help   to   alleviate   stress   levels   in   employees   because   bright   rooms   are   perceived   to   be  more  

spacious  than  dark  rooms.    

  Whereas   the   aforementioned   strategies   have   sought   to   increase   spatial   perception,   the   strategy   of  

increasing  the  number  of  enclosures  within  an  office  appears  to  compartmentalize  and  privatize  the  space  of  the  

individual.     An   “increased   number   of   enclosures   is   positively   correlated   with   an   individual’s   job   performance,  

workspace  satisfaction,  and  experienced  privacy.”  11  A  higher  number  of  enclosures  may  help  to  increase  focus  and  

reduce  episodes  of  discretionary  withdrawal.  Enclosures  also  help   to  decrease   the  perception  of  crowding.  They  

help  to  compartmentalize  the  gross  area  of  an  office,  breaking  social  density  down  into  smaller  areas  that  are  less  

dense.  They  help  to  increase  feelings  of  privacy,  whether  to  individual  workstations  or  groups  of  workstations.  This  

strategy  is  flexible  enough  to  work  with  many  types  of  office  organization  and  can  be  modified  to  benefit  individual  

focus  or  collaborative  teamwork.  

 

Choose  the  Right  Office  Organization  Type  

Motivation  within  the  workplace  is  in  a  constant  state  of  flux.  This  is  due  not  only  to  daily  stressors,  which  workers  

are  exposed  to  on  a  daily  basis,  but  also  on  the  spatial  and  practical  organization  of  each  office.  Trends   in  office  

organization  have   significant   impacts  on   the  way  people   feel   about   their  work,   in   turn  effecting   their   drive   and  

quality   of   performance.12   Practical   organization   is   trending   toward   collaborative   projects,   and   office   design   is  

changing   to   accommodate   these   recent   restructurings   of   office   organization.   Offices   can   be   organized   in  many  

10 Barnaby 21. 11 Oldham 77. 12 Amabile.

different  ways,  each  with  different  effects  on  employee  motivation.  Christina  Bodin-­‐Danielson,  PhD,  a  Stockholm  

University  architectural  researcher  specializing  in  work  psychology,  categorizes  offices  into  the  following  types:  Cell  

Offices,  Shared  Rooms,  Small  Open  Plans,  Medium  Sized  Open  Plans,  Large  Open  Plans,  and  Flex  Offices.    

 

Cell  offices  are  organized  as  individual  rooms  branching  off  a  main  hallway.  Each  office  has  window  access,  as  well  

as   amenities   for   each   room.   The   work   done   is   cell   offices   is   characterized   by   independence   and   is   of   a  

concentrated  nature.  Professions  that  value  the  work  of  the  individual  should  utilize  cell  offices.  Cell  offices  would  

be  detrimental  to  professions  that  value  team  collaboration.  Typically,  higher-­‐ranking  employees  in  the  technical  

and  professional  sector  work  in  cell  offices.  Cell  offices  are  advantageous  because  they  allow  for  a  high  degree  of  

privacy  and  a  high  degree  of  personalization.  Individuals  that  work  in  cell  offices  report  high  levels  of  health  and  

job  satisfaction.13  

 

Shared  rooms  are  usually  organized  for   two  or  three  workers,  with  workstations  arranged  freely  throughout  the  

room.  Those  that  share  the  office  share  a  window  or  set  of  windows  and  may  add  divisional  barriers  between  each  

workstation   for  added  privacy.   The   rest  of   the  amenities  are  usually   located  outside  of   the   shared   room.  Those  

within   the  office  usually  have  similar  assignments  and  may  work  on   team  projects   together.  Compared  to  other  

office   types,  workers   in   shared   rooms   tend   to  be  younger  and   in   lower-­‐ranking   jobs.  This   type  of  office  often   is  

perceived   negatively   because   they   often   lack   a   sufficient   amount   of   space   for   the  workers,   but   individuals   that  

work  in  shared  room  offices  report  high  levels  of  perceived  job  satisfaction.    

 

Open  plan  offices  are  categorized  by  size:  Small  (4-­‐9  persons),  Medium  (10-­‐24  persons),  and  Large  (more  than  24  

persons).  Small  open  plan  offices  tend  to  be  utilized  by  a  somewhat  older  age  group   in  mid-­‐to-­‐low-­‐ranking   jobs.  

Medium  open  plan  offices   serve  a   range  of   age  groups.   Large  open  offices   represent   the  most  diverse   levels  of  

office  hierarchy,  having  the  highest  percentage  of  business  and  administrative  management  positions.  Regardless  

of  size,   this   type  of  office   is  usually  an  open  room  with  workstations  that  are   freely  arranged   in  groups.  Screens  

between  workstations  provide  some  privacy  and  aid  acoustically.  Despite  the  open  conditions,  employees  in  open  

13 Bodin-Danielson 636.

CONTROLLED

PRIVATE

SOCIAL

FLEXIBLE

CELL OFFICE

OPEN PLAN

FLEXOFFICE

SHARED ROOM

plan  offices   tend   to  work   individually  on   routine-­‐based  work  with   relatively   low   levels  of   interaction.  Open  plan  

offices  are  desirable  to  building  owners  because  they  have  the  advantage  of  being  very  flexible  offices  and  allow  

the  organization   to  be   rearranged  without   requiring   reconstruction,  but  medium-­‐sized  open  plan  office  workers  

were   found   to  have  a   significantly   low   level  of   job  satisfaction  and,  overall,  open  plan  office  workers   report   the  

lowest  health  status  of  any  of  these  office  types.14  

 

Flex   offices   are  unique   in   that   there   are  no   assigned   individual  workstations.   Employees   choose   to  work  where  

they  see  fit  and  may  change  their   location  each  day.  Employees  that  work   in  flex  offices  also  have  the  option  to  

occasionally  work  from  home  or  at  other  places  outside  of  the  office,  like  cafes  or  libraries.    Within  the  office  there  

are  often  support  spaces  for  concentrated  work,  private  phone  calls,  and  meetings.  Offices  in  the  Media/IT  sector  

utilize  flex  offices  more  than  any  other  sector.  The  organization  of  a  flex  office  lends  itself  to  professions  that  value  

both   collaboration   and   individual   work.   Professions   that   operate   entirely   from   digital   devices,   such   as   laptop  

computers  and  tablets,  are  ideal  candidates  for  the  flex  office  type.    

 

 

 

 

 

 

Using  the  presented  information  from  Bodin-­‐Danielson’s  research,  a  diagram  may  be  extrapolated  that   identifies  

the   different   named   office   types   along   spectrums   of   flexibility   and   privacy.   Flexibility   in   this   case   refers   to   the  

amount  of  personalization  that  is  allowed  within  each  office  type.  Controlled  office  types  allow  lesser  amounts  of  

individual   personalization  due   to   restraints   placed  on   individuals   by   either   the  hierarchy  of   the  office   or   by   the  

implied   social   restrictions   of   the   spatial   office   organization.   The   privacy   spectrum   is   more   straightforward,   as  

14 Bodin-Danielson 636.

These  office  types  create  a  series  of  relationships  that  can  be  explained  with  a  matrix.  The  office  types  are  differentiated  by  aspects  of  Control,  individual  vs.  organizational,  and  Interaction,  individual/private  vs.  collaborative/social.  

 

CONTROLLED

PRIVATE

SOCIAL

FLEXIBLE

+

JOB SATISFACTION

-

+ +

CONTROLLED

PRIVATE

SOCIAL

FLEXIBLE

+

HEALTH

-

+ -

private  office   types  are   those  where   individuals  have  more  personal   space  and   feel  more  segregated   from  their  

peers.   Social   office   types   are   those  where  workers   share   their   immediate  workspace  with   their   peers,   and   as   a  

result  feel  as  though  they  have  little  to  no  personal  space.    

 

Based  on   the  research  diagrams  shown   in  Bodin-­‐Danielson’s  article,  one  may   further  extrapolate  which   types  of  

offices  lead  to  higher  levels  of  job  productivity  and  health.    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                               

Distilling  the  results  of  the  survey  done  by  Bodin-­‐Danielsson,  one  may  extrapolate  which  office  types  are  healthy  and  which  are  unhealthy,  each  indicated  by  a  plus  (+)  and  minus  (-­‐)  symbol.  

 

Using  the  same  system,  one  can  further  analyze  the  information  by  drawing  connections  between  office  type,  health,  and  job  satisfaction.  This  gives  some  insight  as  to  which  office  types  most  embody  a  healthy  workplace.  

 

Assessing  Strategy  Efficiency  within  Four  Case  Studies    

     Each  of  the  four  case  studies  typifies  one  of  the  four  office  organization  types  listed  in  the  previous  section.  Each  

has  been  noted  on  Architectural  Record’s  website  as  an  excellent  example  of  office  design.  Keeping  in  mind  the  

associations  that  were  made  between  organization,  job  satisfaction,  and  health,  this  paper  will  now  begin  to  

evaluate  each  office’s  efficiency  based  upon  the  summation  of  amenities  each  presents.    

 

Oval  Offices  

 

As  seen  in  the  plan  of  the  office  building  to  the  left,  the  Oval  Offices  

complex  in  Sauerbruch,  Germany  typifies  the  Cell  office  organization.  

Each  office  is  one  small,  private  room.  The  architect  ensured  that  each  

cell  office  had  immediate  access  to  natural  light  by  placing  offices  around  

the  perimeter  of  the  building  and  also  plunging  a  large  courtyard  into  the  center  of  the  building  and  placing  offices  

around  this  source  of  light.    The  supporting  spaces  for  the  office  fill  in  the  remaining  space  on  the  floor  plate  

without  access  to  natural  light.  As  seen  in  images  of  the  interior  of  the  office,  

the  designer  chose  to  paint  the  offices  deep  blue.    This  is  makes  the  offices  

seem  smaller,  even  though  they  are  actually  quite  large.  By  choosing  lighter  

colors,  the  office  could  feel  more  spacious.  The  Oval  Offices  are  praised  for  

their  mastery  of  sustainable  systems  and  the  integration  of  mechanical  

subsystems  with  the  office  aesthetic.  The  ceiling  “fingers”  shown  in  the  interior  image  conceal  lighting,  ventilation,  

and  sprinkler  systems.15  One  may  choose  to  adopt  similar  strategies  in  future  office  buildings,  as  this  integration  

reduces  the  amount  of  visual  clutter  within  a  space,  alleviating  overstimulation.    

 

World  Wildlife  Fund  Headquarters  

 

The  World  Wildlife  Fund  Headquarters  embodies  an  open  plan  

layout.  There  are  several  workstations  all  located  in  one  large  

open  area  of  an  office.  This  specific  office  may  be  considered  

of  the  medium  office  size  according  to  Bodin-­‐Danielson’s  

qualifications.  Though  this  type  of  office  is  considered  to  be  

one  of  the  least  productive  and  least  healthy  office  types,  the  

architects  of  this  office  have  attempted  to  reduce  the  effects  of  

overstimulation  by  segregating  the  office  with  a  number  of  office  

enclosures.  Natural  light  floods  into  the  space,  which  also  is  composed  of  

light  colors.  Both  of  these  effects  create  a  more  productive  workspace.  

This  office  attempts  to  encourage  employees’  physical  health  by  

providing  recreational  space  on  the  roof  of  the  building.  A  selection  of  

15 Dawson.

hardy  plants  composes  the  green  roof,  which  is  permeated  with  walking  paths.  This  roof  space  also  provides  an  

opportunity  for  positive  distraction.  Escaping  the  office  environment  for  a  few  minutes  and  recalibrating  oneself  in  

a  space  like  this  can  be  calming  and  overall  increase  productivity.  16    

 

Telenor  World  Headquarters  

Telenor’s  offices  may  be  considered  flex  offices  because  of  the  flexibility  they  offer  to  their  users.  Although  

employees  here  are  still  assigned  individual  workstations,  there  are  many  untraditional  spaces  throughout  the  

building  where  employees  may  choose  to  work.  There  are  spaces  that  may  be  used  for  informal  business  meetings,  

lunch  spots,  and  coffee  breaks.  There  are  spaces  where  one  may  choose  to  work  for  the  day  with  their  laptop  

when  they  need  a  break  from  their  workstation.17      

 

Natural  Resources  Defense  Council  

As  seen  in  the  floor  plan  to  the  left,  this  office  type  can  be  

considered  a  Shared  Room  organization.  Three  workers  share  

each  station  in  this  office.  They  are  each  given  individual  desk  

space  and  a  table  to  collaboration.  This  type  of  organization  

works  particularly  well  for  creative  offices,  but  it  seems  to  also  

work  in  this  situation,  which  is  more  similar  to  a  pro  bono  law  

office.    According  to  Bodin-­‐Danielson’s  research,  this  type  of  office  

has  high  levels  of  job  satisfaction  levels,  but  low  health  levels.  The  

Natural  Resources  Defense  Council  attempts  to  counteract  the  low  

health  levels  of  employees  in  this  office  type  by  giving  them  the  

most  access  to  natural  light.  The  office  is  organized  with  Shared  

Rooms  closest  to  the  perimeter  of  the  building,  and  conference  

16 Dorsy. 17 Sprekelmeyer

rooms  and  support  spaces  in  the  center.  The  building  shape  is  more  difficult  to  deal  with  here,  but  as  the  office  is  

located  within  a  remodeled  New  York  office  building,  the  designer  was  

restricted  on  the  amount  of  changes  he  or  she  was  able  to  make.18    This  

office  also  has  included  strategic  staircases  in  order  to  promote  physical  

activity.  The  attractive  staircase  design  encourages  stair  use.  They  have  

also  located  different  departments  on  different  floors,  requiring  

employees  to  move  between  floors  throughout  the  day.  19  

 

 

 

Architectural  Record,  a  major  architectural  publication,  considers  each  of  these  offices  to  be  a  successfully  healthy  

workspace.  Regardless  of  office  organization  type,  the  designers  of  each  of  these  spaces  have  made  necessary  

changes  to  the  standard  office  type  in  order  to  create  spaces  that  promote  health,  both  mental  and  physical,  to  

their  employees.      

18 Hilkin. 19 Hilkin.

 

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