What is Development?

• Systematic changes and continuities–In the individual

–Between conception and death• “Womb to Tomb”

• Three broad domains–Physical, Cognitive, Psychosocial

Other Developmental Definitions

• Growth: Physical changes that occur from birth to maturity

• Aging: Positive and negative changes in the mature organism

• Maturation: The biological unfolding of the individual genetic plan

• Learning: Relatively permanent changes due to environmental experiences

Age Grades, Age Norms, and the Social Clock

• Age Grade: Socially defined age groups

– Statuses, roles, privileges, responsibilities

– Adults can vote, children can’t

• Age Norms: Behavioral expectations by age

– Children attend school

• Social Clock: When things should be done

– Early adulthood – time for 1st marriages

• “Off time” experiences are more difficult

Life-Span Phases in Historical Context

• Only two phases: Childhood & Adulthood

• 1600: Children viewed as miniature adults

• Modern view: innocence, need protection

• Average life expectancy in 1900: 49 yrs.

• 1998

– Females} White:80 yrs, Black:75 yrs

– Males} White:75 yrs, Black 68 yrs

– Increasing population of age 65+

Framing the Nature/Nurture Issue

• Nature: heredity

– Maturational processes guided by genes

– Biologically based predispositions

– Biological unfolding of genes

• Nurture: environment

– Learning: experiences cause changes is thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

• Interactionist view: nature & nurture interact

Figure 1.1

Methods of Studying Life-Span Development

• Historical

– Baby Biographies: Charles Darwin

– Questionnaires: G. Stanley Hall

• Key Assumptions of Modern Life-Span Perspectives

– Lifelong, multidirectional process

– Gain and loss and lifelong plasticity

– Historical/cultural contexts, multiple influences

– Multi-disciplinary studies

HOW IS RESEARCH CONDUCTED

• The Scientific Method

Theory- a set of concepts and propositions intended to describe and explain some aspect of behavior

Hypothesis- specific prediction regarding a particular set of observations

Sample Selection

Random Sample- a sample formed by identifying all members of the larger population and then, by random means, selecting a portion of that population to study.

Conducting Developmental Research

• Self-reports: interview, questionnaires, tests

• Behavioral Observations

– Naturalistic

• Advantage: natural setting

• Disadvantage: conditions not controlled

– Structured (Lab)

• Disadvantage: cannot generalize to natural settings

• Advantage: conditions controlled

Figure 1.2

The Correlational Method

• Determine if 2 or more variables are related

• Correlation: A measure of the relationship

– Can range from +1.0 to –1.0

– Positive: variables move in same direction

– Negative: variables move in opposite dir.

• No relationship if correlation is 0

• Cannot establish a causal relationship

Figure 1.3

The Experimental Method

• Three Critical Features

– 1. Manipulation of independent variable

– 2. Random assignment of individuals to treatment conditions

– 3. Experimental control

• Quasi-Experiment: No random assignment

THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

• Some aspect of the environment is manipulated or altered to see how this affects the behavior of the sample of individuals being investigated.

• Independent Variable: variable in the experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter

• Dependent Variable: variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment

• Random Assignment: researchers assign participants to the experimental and control groups by chance

• Advantage Establishes cause

• Disadvantages Generalize to the real world Ethical considerations

DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Cross-sectional design- performances of people of different age groups, or cohorts are compared. Looks at age differences

• Longitudinal design- the performance of one cohort of individuals is assessed repeatedly over time. Looks at age changes

• Sequential design- combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal approach in one study

Figure 1.4

Age, Cohort, and Time of Measurement Effects

• Age effects: Changes which occur due to age

• Cohort Effects: Born in one historical context

– Changes due to differences in society

– Disadvantage of cross-sectional design

• Time of measurement effects: Historical

– Take place at time of data collection

– Disadvantage of longitudinal design

Sequential Designs

• A combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

• Advantages of both designs

• Gives information about

– Which age-related trends are age effects?

– Which age-related trends are truly cohort effects?

– Which age-related trends are a result of historical events?

Figure 1.6

Protecting the Rights of Participants

• Risk to benefit balance of the research

• Researcher responsibilities

– Informed consent

– Debriefing

– Protection from harm

– Confidentiality

Sources of Change

* Normative Age Graded Influences highly similar across individuals/cultures often biological relevant to early development

* Normative History Grade Influences forces unique to a period in history

* Non-normative Influences unique to the individual

The Ecology of Human Development

• Bronfenbrenner: Bioecological Model

– How nature and nurture interact to produce development

• The biological, psychological, person

• Four environmental systems

–Microsystem: family, school, work

–Mesosystem: interactions among microsystems

–Exosystem: society

–Macrosystem: culture