What is Biology? What is Science?

Science is a way of gaining ____________ and ____________ about our natural world.

Whenever we ask ____ or ____ something happens we are dealing with science.

What is Biology?

Biology is the study of __________________.

There are six major categories (Kingdoms) that living things have been divided into:

____________________

____________________

____________________

____________________

____________________

____________________

There are many branches or divisions of biology, each specializing in the study of a specific group of living

things.

Division Area of Specialty

What is a living thing?

In order for something to be considered alive it must show certain characteristics. Living things…

Living things will show all of these characteristics but there are some exceptions. For example,

____________________________.

Non-living things may show one or a few of these characteristics but not all.

Development of the Cell Theory Throughout history people have wondered what causes life and how life is maintained. It was not until

the invention of the microscope and improvements on the microscope that we were able to look at living

tissues and make detailed observations.

With these observations scientists came up with a formal cell theory that is used to explain

observations of living things.

1.

2.

3.

Types of Microscopes

____________________________ – single hand-held lens (earliest type of microscope)

____________________________ - contains 2 lenses, an eyepiece (ocular lens) and objective lenses.

___________________________ – uses an invisible beam of electrons to pass through an object.

Specimen must be dead and sliced very thin. Is capable of

magnifying up to 5 000 000 x.

_________________________ – reflects electrons from the surface of a specimen, allowing thicker

specimens to be viewed. Is capable of magnifying up to 300 000 x.

Historical Look at the Cell Aristotle - Classified all known organisms into two kingdoms: plant and animal. (334 BC)

Robert Hooke - Observed tree bark lining with a compound microscope; described the magnification as “empty room-like

compartments or cells” (1665)

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek - Reports living “beasties” as small as 0.002 mm observed with a simple single lens microscope

(1674)

Matthias Jacob Schleiden - “All plants are made of cells” (1838)

Theodor Shwann - “All animals are made of cells” (1839)

Carl Heinrich Braun - “The cell is the basic unit of life” (1845)

Rudolph Virchow - “Cells are the last link in a great chain [that forms] tissues, organs, systems and individuals… Where a cell

exists, there must have been a pre-existing cell…Throughout the whole series of living forms… there rules

an eternal law of continuous development” (1858)

Loiuse Pasteur - Demonstrates that living organisms cannot arise spontaneously from non-living matter (1860)

Classification of Organisms

Taxonomy -

The purpose of classification is to provide a clear and practical way to organize and

communicate information about organisms. Classification reduces _______, provides clues

about organisms’ ____________ and indicates lines of __________ (lineage).

A History of Classification

1. Aristotle

Greek philosopher (322 B.C.)

Divided organisms into 2 groups - ________ and ___________

Divided animals into 3 groups according to how they move - _____, _____, or _______

System was used into the ___________

2. Carolus Linnaeus

Classified plants and animals according to _______________________ - the more

features organisms have in common, the closer the relationship

His classification system is still used today

Designed a system in which each organism is given a ___________________ (latin)

He called this ________________________

1. “Genus” is always capitalized 2. “species” remains uncapitalized

The scientific way of writing binomial nomenclature would be in italics or underlined.

Examples:

Salmo salar Canis familiaris

Felis domesticus Canis lupus

Levels of Classification

Rank -

There are __ ranks to distinguish between different degrees of similarity, organisms are

classified according to ___ ________ within ____ _______. Each kingdom is subdivided into

progressively smaller groups. The named group for each organism is referred to as its ______.

As you proceed down the ranks, the numbers of members of each taxon becomes ________.

Rank Human Taxa ________ Taxa

The most widely used definition of a species is the __________ species concept. This idea

focuses on organisms that _________ freely in nature and produce _____, _______ offspring.

There are also the _____________ species concept (similarities in appearance) and the

_________________ species concept (evolutionary relationships).

3. Charles Darwin

Ushered in a new era of taxonomy with the publication, __________________ (1859)

Identified ________________ as a driving force behind ____________

Focus on groups that had _____________ from a common _____________

Attempts were made to find, “____________” between higher taxa, such as the fossil

Archaeopteryx between _________ and _________

4. Modern Taxonomy

Advances in ________________ have had a huge impact on the field of taxonomy

Biologists can now ______ and __________ the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) of many

different organisms and compare these DNA sequences to estimate relationships and

construct classification systems

Dichotomous Keys

A dichotomous key is a tools used to aid in the identification of organisms. In this

type of key, 2 questions are asked about the organism. Based on your response you

are directed to another question in the key.

Example:

_________

Determining Relatedness in Species One goal of taxonomy is to determine the _________________ of groups of organisms. To do this, scientists compare species

living _______ with species that existed in the _______. To study evolutionary relationships, scientists can use several

different forms of evidence:

1. Evidence from Anatomy

By studying the anatomy of living organisms or _____ remains, scientists are

able to determine the evolutionary history of different organisms. Biological

features that have a __________ ___________________ are said to be

__________. For example: the bones in a human arm, a cat’s leg, a bat's

wing and a whale's flipper.

Homologous structures differ from ________ structure; these are ones that

perform the _____ or ____________ by a similar mechanism but ________

___________. For example, the __________________________.

2. Evidence from Development

Scientists compare the early stages of development of an

organism to reveal relationships that are not always

_________ from comparison of _________ organisms alone.

3. Evidence from biochemistry

Scientists are now able to compare the _________ from which

organisms are made. Comparison of macromolecules like

__________ among organisms can indicate genetic similarities

and differences.

4. Evidence from DNA

The study of DNA can determine the _________________ in

common for different organisms. The DNA from humans and

chimpanzees are

____ identical.

DNA analysis can also determine how long ago two species began to diverge from a

common ____________. Divergence can be predicted by studying ___________

DNA (which differs from chromosomal DNA) as it is passed ______ from a

mother to her offspring and ______ at a predictable rate.

Phylogeny

When scientists classify species into various taxa, they are presenting a

hypothesis about the ________________, or _____________ of the organisms.

This information is often organized in a phylogenetic tree.

The base of the tree represents the ____________________, the upper

branches represent the _____________________ species and forks are where a

species ____ into two new species. New features evolved from a primitive

ancestor are called _________________________.

SBI 3UI

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

Kingdoms

Arrangement of DNA

Cell Division

Reproduction

Cell Structures

Size

Oxygen Requirements

Examples

Kingdom Archaea

The Kingdom Archaea contains one of the oldest groups of organisms on Earth. These

micro-organisms are all single celled (_____________) _____________ and tend to

live in very __________ environments (_____________). Some environments where

they thrive are:

Extremely cold or hot water and land masses(-4oC, 95oC)

Highly Acidic and/or basic waters (ph 2, ph 12)

Extremely salty waters (25%)

Archaea have evolved diverse ways to obtain their energy. Some are ____________

and obtain their energy from ______________________ (______________), while

others are ___________ and obtain their energy from ________________________

(_________________). Others use _________ (_____________) as their energy

source.

Although members of Kingdom Archaea and Bacterial look similar in appearance to each

other, _______________ and _______________ they are more different than plants

and animals. The ___________ (______) of the two kingdoms differ, as well as the

composition of their ________. In addition, the _________________ of organisms

within Kingdom Archaea contain unusual _________ that allow them to survive in

extreme environments that would normally __________ most cells.

Archaea’s ability to flourish in such extreme conditions is ___________ and not

completely understood. But the fact that these micro-organisms can tolerate such

environments have allowed scientists to use some of their components (____________)

when conducting experiments that require harsh processing i.e. PCR – polymerase chain

reaction

Kingdom Archaea can be divided into two major phyla :

1. __________________– which contains three main groups of archaea:

a) Methanogens (________________________) Live in _________________ environments and produce ______ as a waste product

Utilize inorganic molecules such as ________________________ or __________

____________ as a source of energy

Found below the surfaces of ___________, and __________, as well as _______

________________

Example: Methanococcus jannischii. This organism was isolated from a "white smoker" hydrothermal

vent some 2600m deep on the bottom of the Pacific Ocean...at a place called the East Pacific Rise.

b) Halophiles (____________________)

Live in extremely ____________ environments – concentrations may reach up to

_________ (seawater is 3.5% salt)

Found in the ___________, as well as other hypersaline water bodies including the interior

lakes of San Salvador Island in the Bahamas Example: Halobacterium salinarium carries out aerobic respiration but in water up to 5M (25%!) NaCl

(salt). It can be found in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and the Red Sea in Asia Minor.

c) Thermophiles (________________)

Live in extremely ____________________________

Can be found in piles of _____________ or in rocks deep below Earth’s surface

2. ________________________ – most of the organisms in this phylum are:

a) Thermoacidophiles (___________________________) Live in very _______________ water environments (corrosive conditions)

Grow best at temperatures above _________

Some use _______________ (________________) while others use ________ from hot

sulfur springs as their ____________ source

Found in _______________________________, and ____________________

While many archaea live in harsh environments, they have since been found in a broad range of

habitats, such as ____________________, and _______________. Archaea are

particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in _____________ may be one of the

most abundant groups of organisms on the planet. Archaea are now recognized as a major part

of life of Earth and may play an important role in both the _______________ and

_____________. No clear examples of archaea __________ are known.

Kingdom Bacteria

All are __________ and the majority live as ________ (___________) but some occur in

________. They reproduce mainly _________ by ___________ but can have a _____

reproductive stage (__________). Most bacteria are __________, but some bacteria can

perform _________________ (_________________)

Biological Importance of Bacteria

Advantages

1)

Used in the production of cheese, vinegar, yogurt etc…

2)

Used as natural pesticides or added to soils to enrich nitrogen content (nitrogen fixation)

3)

Recycle organic material from dead organisms. Some bacteria are found in our intestines and

aid in the digestion process.

4)

Scientists have used bacteria to study cell metabolism and molecular biology.

Engineered bacteria are used to produce useful substances like: insulin, antibiotics,

hormones and anti-cancer drugs.

5)

Some bacteria naturally produce substances, which inhibit the growth of harmful organisms

(examples: streptomycin, erythromycin)

6)

The process of using bacteria to destroy, transform or immobilized environmental

contaminants.

For example, the bacterium Pseudomonas is used in the treatment of wastewater and

sewage; a toxic wood preservative can be removed from soil by a bacterium from the genus

Flavobacterium.

A relationship between two organisms (such as a bacteria and a human or plant or animal) is

called a ___________________. In cases in which both partners benefit from the

interaction it is referred to as _________________.

Disadvantages

1)

The action of bacterial decomposers can cause food to spoil and become harmful to eat.

Example: Clostridium botulinum (Botulism)

2)

Many bacteria are __________. These bacteria can also be termed _______, meaning that

one organism (the parasite) benefits at the expense of another organism (the host), which is

often harmed but usually not killed.

These pathogenic (disease causing) micro-organisms typically produce deadly substances

called ______. A toxin is a poison produced in the body of a living organism. It is not harmful

to the organism itself but only to other organisms.

There are two types of toxins that bacteria produce, endotoxins and exotoxins.

Endotoxins Exotoxins

Just one gram of the exotoxin that causes botulism could kill a million people!!!

Classification of Bacteria

Bacteria can be classified using many different criteria. Some of these include:

1) Shape (three types):

These shapes can be arranged in patterns or groupings:

2) Metabolic Needs

Classification based on:

Whether they are heterotrophs or autotrophs

Do they need oxygen? (aerobic or anaerobic)

Special food sources – carbon, nitrogen etc…

Examples:

Term Description

Needs oxygen

Die when exposed to oxygen

Can grow with or without oxygen

Use light as an energy source

Use chemical compounds as an energy

source

Feed on dead organisms or organic waste

Grow in temperatures above 50oC

Grow best in temperatures below 15oC

The Shapes of Bacteria

Thousands of different types of bacteria are known and have been observed. Scientists can tell these organisms

apart by the shape of the bacteria or by the way they join together. Write the meaning of the following terms.

1. bacillus ___________________________ 4. diplo _________________________

2. coccus ___________________________ 5. strepto _______________________

3. spirillum __________________________ 6. staphylo ______________________

Use the terms you defined above to name the bacteria in each diagram below. Write the name on the line below

each diagram. Note: Some names will combine two of the terms. For instance, a chain (strepto) of round

(coccus) bacteria is called a streptococcus.

__________________ ________________ __________________

__________________ ________________ __________________

__________________ ________________ ___________________

3) Colony Morphology

Describes the appearance of a colony in a Petri dish. Such as:

4) Reaction with Gram Stain

Gram __ retain crystal violet stain (_______) - contain a ________ layer in their cell wall

Gram __ do not retain crystal violet stain (______) – contain a _____ layer in their cell wall

5) Presence/Absence of:

Flagellum -

Capsule -

6) Spore Formation

Diagram of a Bacterium

Reproduction in Bacteria

The majority of time, prokaryotes reproduce _________ by a process known as

______________. Sexual reproduction is not very common in prokaryotes, but does occur in

some, such as Escherichia coli, by a process known as ___________.

Asexual Reproduction (Binary Fission)

Asexual reproduction is the formation of a new individual from a ____ organism. It results in a

genetically ___________ offspring. In favourable conditions, a bacterium can grow and divide

through binary fission in as little as ___ minutes.

Binary fission is prokaryotes can be broken down into stages:

1. DNA replicate (____________

________), resulting in identical

copies of genetic material

2. The two strands of DNA will then

___________

3. A new ____________ and _____

______ will develop through the

midsection of the prokaryote

4. The cells will eventually become two

_________________, which may

separate or remain attached

Sexual Reproduction (Conjugation)

Sexual reproduction is a process involving ___ organisms and results in offspring that are

genetically ____________ from both parents.

Conjugation in prokaryotes can be broken down into stages:

1. Two bacteria join together by forming a specialized structure called a _______.

2. Genetic information (_____________) is ________ through the pilus, resulting in an

altered set of characteristics.

3. Following the transfer, the two bacteria separate and can then undergo binary fission.

The result of the uptake of a new piece of DNA by conjugation can have many effects including:

1)

2)

In both cases, if the piece of DNA is inserted into the chromosome, then the process is called

______________________.

This produces a permanent change in the DNA of the cell, which is ___________ to the

________________ of that cell.

During unfavourable conditions, some prokaryotes survive by forming dormant or resting cells,

called __________, which can withstand harsh environments such as ______ and ______.

When suitable conditions return, the prokaryote will re-emerge and begin _______________.

Bacterial Growth

Bacterial growth curves take on a particular pattern, which shows the rate at

which bacteria will reproduce when conditions are optimal. A typical growth curve

consists of 4 different phases:

Lag phase –

Exponential growth phase –

Stationary phase –

Death phase –

Bacterial Growth Curve

The maximum number of organisms a particular environment can support is

termed the _____________________

Growth rate is the time it takes for a population of bacteria to

__________ in number

Like all organisms, bacteria thrive under __________ conditions The primary reason that our planet isn’t buried under a thick layer of

bacteria can be attributed to the fact that conditions are rarely ______

for the bacteria to grow. Scientists who study bacteria try to create the

optimal environment in the lab: culture medium with the necessary

___________, _________, ___, and ________________, in which

bacteria grow predictably

Generation times for some common bacteria under optimal conditions of growth

Bacterium Medium Growth Rate

(minutes)

Escherichia coli Glucose-salts

Bacillus megaterium Sucrose-salts

Streptococcus lactis Milk

Streptococcus lactis Lactose broth

Staphylococcus aureus Heat infusion broth

Lactobacillus acidophilus Milk

Rhizobium japonicum Mannitol-salts-yeast

extract

Mycobacterium tuberculosis Synthetic

Treponema pallidum Rabbit testes

Viruses

A virus is an extremely _________ (____________) particle that carries out no

______________ and cannot _______ on its own. On this basis, viruses occupy a position

between ____ and ____________ matter.

A virus consists of genetic material (___ or ___) wrapped in a ___________ (____), but lack

all other cell structures.

All viruses are _____________, reproducing by infecting a specific cell and using the host’s

machinery to ________ itself. For this reason they are known as __________

_____________.

Temperate viruses are those that reproduce without _____ their host cell. Typically viruses

will reproduce in two ways: through the __________ and the ________ cycle.

Viral Reproduction

The Lytic Cycle (T4 Example)

Phage finds the right bacterium,

attaches to the cell with its tail

fibres to a _________________ site

and uses an _________ to bore a hole

through the cell wall.

Bacteriophage injects its _______

material into the bacterium.

The bacteriophage genome

makes many copies of itself by

using _________________ (ribosomes).

The bacteriophage components and

_____________ continue to be produced.

The components of the

bacteriophage are assembled.

Bacteriophage enzyme breaks down

the bacterial cell wall causes

the bacterium to split open (______)

The Lysogenic Cycle

In the lysogenic cycle, the phage's ___ recombines with the bacterial ___________. Once it

has inserted itself, it is known as a ________. The bacteria and the prophage can ______

normally. Sudden changes in the ____________ may activate the phage ______________

and cause a production of viral particles.

Classification of Viruses

Viruses cannot be classified in the same way as bacteria. Viruses are clustered according to:

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

Viral shape is an important characteristic because it…

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

Structure of a Virus

How Do Viruses Spread?

Viruses are usually spread by ______. Vectors are anything that assists the spread of an

______________.

Ex.

How Do Animals Spread Viruses?

Viruses are contained within the infected animal. During a ____, the virus located in the

____________ (______ or ________) can come into contact with another animal’s blood

causing _________________ of the virus infection.

How Do Humans Spread Viruses?

Viruses can be spread by contact of an infected individual’s

________________ with a non-infected individual’s secretions.

Ex.

How Do Viruses Spread by Water?

Many viruses replicated within the host are __________ and carried away with the _______.

Some viruses can survive ______________ and are released into _______ and ___________.

How do Viruses cause problems in humans?

Typically the symptoms displayed from a viral infection are NOT a result of cells being

___________, but rather the body’s own ________ and _______ to fight off the virus (ex.

__________)

Differences Between the Common Cold (Rhinovirus) and the Flu (Influenza)

Symptoms Cold Flu

Rare Characteristic, high

(100-102°F); lasts three to four days

Rare

Prominent

Slight

Usual; often severe

Quite mild

Can last up to two to three weeks

Never

Early and prominent

Common

Sometimes

Usual

Sometimes

Common

Sometimes

Mild to moderate;

hacking cough

Common; can become severe

Sinus congestion

or earache

Bronchitis, pneumonia;

can be life-threatening

None

Annual vaccination*; Symmetrel, Flumadine, or

Tamiflu (antiviral drugs)

Only

temporary

relief of symptoms

Symmetrel, Flumadine, Relenza,

or Tamiflu within 24-48 hours

after onset of symptoms

1-4 days 1-4 days

RNA RNA

Vaccination – the administration of an antigenic agent that stimulates the body to develop resistance to

a pathogen.

A vaccination against the small pox virus was the first created (1976) and administered on a global scale,

such that it is the only pathogen to be eradicated from the planet (1977).

Kingdom Protista

All Protists share the following features:

Most are ________; multicelluar forms do not form tissue

Cells are _______________

Cells reproduce ________, but some can reproduce with

_________________________________________

Always found in ________ environments (fresh water, salt water, animal fluids…)

The Kingdom Protista can be separated into three distinct groups based on their nutrition:

Plant-like Protists

Animal-like Protists (Protozoa)

Fungi-like Protists (Slime moulds and Water moulds)

Classifying protista can be difficult because the members of this Kingdom are grouped together

mainly because they do not fit into the other Kingdoms, rather than because they are similar or

closely related to one another.

Plant-like Protists

These organisms are __________ that contain ________, the pigment that begins the process

of ___________. During periods of darkness, some cells will engulf ________.

_______ are type of plantlike protist and are responsible for about ____ of the global supply of

______. These can range in size from single cells to giant seaweeds _____ in length. Algae are

classified into six phyla, based

partly on the type of

____________ and

___________ they contain.

Human waste and industrial

contaminants can ______ algal

populations. Excessive algae

(__________) can block sunlight

from penetrating the water

Algae can be consumed as _____,

used as ____________ or in the

production of _____________.

Animal-like Protists (Protozoa)

Protazoa are heterotrophs that move around to obtain food, using _____, ________ or

__________. Some will ____ their food; others will _____ nutrients directly through their

cell ________________.

Some protozoa are unable to move; they are exclusively _______ and form reproductive cells

called _________.

Protozoa are classified mainly by their mode of _________________.

Fungi-like Protists

These organisms are referred to as ____________ (2 groups) or ____________ (1 group).

They prefer ________________ places usually under fallen leaves or rotting logs. These

organisms are _________________.

Helpful and Harmful Protista

In addition to providing food and oxygen, protists also live in our ____________ to aid in the

digestion process.

Some of the world’s most serious diseases are caused by protists:

Plasmodium vivax (malaria)

Giardia intestinalis (found in untreated drinking water)

Trypanosoma (African sleeping sickness)

Life Cycle of the Plasmodium vivax

Most widespread human

parasite

Causes malaria in

humans

Can be treated with

drugs

Kingdom Fungi Fungi DO NOT ____________. Fungi are ___________ ( ___________) that feed by releasing

digesting _______ into their surroundings, then absorbing the nutrients into their cells; this is called

_____________ _______________.

Fungi are composed of ________ cells that may be ___________ (yeasts), but the majority are

___________ (moulds and mushrooms). Fungal cells have a ______________ composed of ________.

Fungi can reproduce ______ and _______ but will always produce _____. Spores are typically _____

(contain half the amount of genetic information) and in multicellular fungi are produced in ________. If

a spore germinates, it produces _____, which are a network of fine ________. Hyphae are the main

part of fungi and are found under the ground; a group of hyphae are referred to as a _____________.

Fungi can be harmful and cause ________ in humans (_____________), plants and animals. Fungi are

also very important to __________ because of their role as ___________. Fungi form many

____________ relationships:

a) Plant Roots (form myccorhizae)

The fungal hyphae help the plant absorb ___________ – increase the _______________

The plant shares its ________________ and ________________

b) Cyanobacteria or Green Algae (form lichens)

Fungal mycelia provide _______________ and ________________ and _________ to the

autotrophic partner

The autotrophic partner shares _______________

Fungi Reproduction

Fungi reproduce asexually. When a piece of hyphae ____________ it will grow into a new ______.

This is referred to as _________________.

Spores are the main means for reproduction employed by fungi. The spores that are produced by fungi

may be asexual (produced by _______) or sexual (produced by ________). Spores have a protective

outer coating that prevents them from __________. Fungi will produces spores in the ______, which

like seeds can spread by ____, ______ or on the ________________. If a spore finds a

__________________ it can grow into a new organism.

Classifying Fungi

1. Zygospore Fungi (Zygomycotes)

This group includes ___________. During sexual reproduction they form ____________ after the

mating of two opposite strains of _____ (mating strains + and -). Some of these fungi produce two

kinds of hyphae, __________ (horizontal) and ___________ (downward) that anchor and secrete

digestive enzymes.

During asexual reproduction _________________ project above the mycelium to release spores from

_________________.

2. Club Fungi (Basidiomycotes)

This group includes the ____________ that grow on lawns. These have short lived reproductive

structures called basidiocarps (fruiting bodies) that form ____________ on a structure called

________. The largest part of the club

fungus is a vast, sprawling network of

hyphae that spread _______________.

3. Sac Fungi (Ascomycotes)

This is the ________ group of fungi and

includes _____ and single-celled _____.

Sac fungi form small finger-like sacs

called ____ during sexual reproduction.

Spores are produced directly at the tip

of modified hyphae.

4. Imperfect Fungi (Deuteromycotes)

Do not appear to have a _________ phase. They develop asexually from spores called _________.

Many of these fungi produce __________ (penicillin and cyclosporin) or are used in the production of

________ (soy sauce and cheese).

Kingdom Plantae

Plants are ___________, __________ organisms. Plants are

________, meaning that they produce their own food through

the process of ___________________.

Plants have a life cycle in which they alternate between two

forms (called ______________________________):

i) Haploid form

Called a ____________________ (produces gametes)

ii) Diploid form

Called a ____________ (result of the union of two gametes)

Major Divisions

Non-Vascular Plants

(bryophytes)

e.g. mosses

Seedless Plants

(pteridophytes)

e.g. ferns

"Naked Seeds"

(gymnosperms)

e.g. conifers

Monocots

e.g. corn

Dicots

e.g. beans

"Enclosed Seeds"

(angiosperms)

e.g. trees, shrubs, flowers

Plants with Seeds

(spermatophytes)

Vascular Plants

(tracheophytes)

Plant Kingdom

Vascular and Non-vascular Plants

Most plants consist of ______________________________:

- Roots penetrate the soil to ________ the plant and to reach sources of ______

- Leaves provide a greater _____________ to carry out ___________________

- Stems supply rigid tissues that _______ and __________ the ___________

In order for roots, leaves and stems to grow they need a regular supply of ______, and

_____________

These tasks are carried out by vascular tissue - vascular tissue are made up of cells that

conduct solutions throughout the plant (similar to a circulatory system)

There are two main types of vascular tissue:

Xylem -

Phloem -

Evolution of vascular tissue has allowed plants to

increase in ________

Non-vascular Plants (Mosses and their Relatives)

There are three divisions of Mosses:

1. Mosses (__________________)

- Lack vascular tissue and do not have well-developed roots

- Thrive in diverse habitats such as bogs, tundra, exposed rocks and deep shade

2. Liverworts (_____________________)

- Grow flat and close to the ground

- Rarely more than 30 cells thick

3. Hornworts (______________________)

- Gametophytes are broad flat and usually less than 2 cm in diameter

- Have a blue-green colour

Seedless Vascular Plants (Ferns and their Relatives)

Developed vascular tissue that

allowed them to grow tall

Sporophyte generation is the

dominant stage

Gametophyte generation are

tiny, short-lived and depended

on moisture to carry out

sexual reproduction

(prothallus)

Vascular Plants (disperse by

seeds)

Seeds allow a plant to

reproduce sexually without

needing water

Seeds also provide protection

against harsh environmental

conditions

There are two groups of seeds:

1. Gymnosperms "naked seeds"

These are ___________ plants

with most possessing ________.

There are both male and female cones.

Generalized life cycle of a gymnosperm:

In male cones, microspore mother cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid pollen grains, the

male gametophytes.

Female cones have ovules in which a megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produces

only one megaspore, or female gametophyte.

Pollen gets trapped on sticky sap secreted by the female cone.

After fertilization, the diploid zygote develops into an embryo, which remains in the ripened

ovule, now called a seed.

Mature "naked" seeds fall out of the female cones.

It may be several years before the seedling grows into a mature plant to produce its own

cones.

2. Angiosperms

_________ plants that protect their seeds within a _____. Monocots have one _______

(seed leaf) and dicots have two cotyledons.

Generalized life cycle of an angiosperm:

Within the anther chambers, microspore mother cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid

pollen grains, or male gametophyte.

Within the ovule, a megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce only one megaspore,

or female gametophyte.

Pollination is aided by wind, insects, birds, and bats.

Pollen gets trapped by the sticky substance on the stigma.

Self-pollination involves one plant only; cross-pollination involves two separate plants.

After fertilization, the diploid zygote grows into an embryo, which remains in the ripened

ovule, now called a seed.

As the seeds develop, the ovary and other parts develop into the fruit enclosing the seeds.

The Life Cycle of a Flowering Plant

Kingdom Animalia

Animals are ________, _________ __________ that reproduce ____________ and are

usually capable of ___________ at some stage of their lives.

This complex kingdom is divided into two broad groups:

1. Invertebrates (majority of animals)

Do not have a ___________. Examples: leeches, clams, insects

2. Vertebrates

Have a ________________ (a rod shape structure that extends the length of the body;

often replace by the spine)

Examples: fish, amphibians, birds, reptiles and mammals

The following are major characteristics used to classify animals:

1. Body organization

Organized of tissues into organs, organ systems etc…

2. Body Layers

Three different types:

i) _________ (outer e.g. skin, nervous system)

ii) _________ (inner e.g. lining of body cavity)

iii) _________ (middle layer e.g. circulatory system)

3. Body Symmetry

i) ____________

ii) ____________

iii) ____________

4. Digestive tract or gut

i) _____ opening – Example: Hydra

ii) _____ openings - Example: Earthworm

5. Coelom ________________________

Allows for the development of

more ____________________

A Quick look at Animals

The First Animals

Sponges (Porifera) Live permanently attached to one surface

Cells are organized in a simple fashion

Single opening

No tissue no organs and only two layers of cells

Jellyfish, Corals and Anemones (Cnidaria) Two cell layers and a single opening

Simple nervous system and muscle tissue

Allows then to swim and capture prey

Use digestive enzymes for external digestion

No special excretory or respiratory systems

Flatworms (Platyhelminthes) Parasitic tapeworms and flukes as well as free living

planarians

Digestive system is a closed pouch with one opening

Lack circulatory system but have a simple excretory

system

Simple nervous system and a brain like concentration of

nerve cells at the head

No coelom

Segmented Worms (Annelida) Earthworms and leeches

Body is divided into ringed segments that

contain similar sets of organs for excretion,

circulation and nerve control

Other specialized organ systems including

digestive, and reproductive

Open digestive system; two openings

Contain a coelom

Squid, Clams, Snails (Mollusca) Soft Body, hard shell (for many of the organisms)

Three cell layers

Open digestive system; two openings

Contain a coelom

3 different classes include the Bivalves, Gastropods and Cephalopods

Second most diverse group but all have a similar body plan including a mantle which

surrounds internal organs and secretes calcium carbonate for the shell as well as a

muscular foot for movement

Contain specialized organ systems including digestive, circulatory, respiratory, excretory,

reproductive and nervous

Starfish (Echinodermata) All are marine

Include starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers and sand dollars

Adults are radially symmetrical, larvae are bilateral

Contain a coelom

Open digestive system; two openings

Contain specialized organ systems including water vascular, digestive, respiratory,

circulatory, nervous, reproductive etc..

Joint-Legged Animals (Arthropoda) Arthropods resemble annelids in basic structure

Annelids are very similar to larval stages of insects

Open digestive system; two openings

Contain a coelom

As arthropods evolved they developed several distinct differences from annelids. Such as:

o Fewer body segments

o Hard external cuticle which acts as an exoskeleton

o Legs divided into moveable segments connected by joints

o Have separate muscles organized into groups related to specific movements of

body parts

o Strongly developed jaws

o Better developed nervous systems and sense organs

o Other specialized organ systems including digestive, respiratory, circulatory and

reproductive

Chordates (Chordata) At some stage in their life history all chordates have: A dorsal nerve cord from which other nerves branch A notochord, or rod of cartilage, which runs along the dorsal length of the body

A notochord occurs only in the embryo

A backbone of cartilage or bone replaces the notochord

Gill slits in the pharynx, or throat (in terrestrial vertebrates the gill slits only appear in the

embryo)

Contain a coelom

Open digestive system; two openings

Contain specialized organ systems including digestive, respiratory, circulatory, nervous,

reproductive etc..