wetlands management: a review of policies and practices€¦ · creek watersheds (bruneau, 2015b)...

Susanna Bruneau Research & Stewardship Coordinator March 2017

Wetlands Management: A Review of Policies and Practices

Watershed Management Plan: Land Management Component

Serving the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds

in Alberta

Policies and Practices for Wetland Management

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Suggested Citation: Bruneau, S. (2017). Wetland Management: A review of policies

and practices. Camrose, Alberta: Battle River Watershed Alliance.

Front Cover: Wetland near Ferintosh, AB

Back Cover: Small lake in Miquelon Lake Provincial Park

This report contains information that may be subject to future revisions. Persons wishing

to use this information in any form may want to contact the Battle River Watershed

Alliance to ensure they have the most recent version.


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Executive Summary

As part of the Battle River Watershed Alliance’s dedication to the development of the

Watershed Management Plan (WMP), policy research and development will be

undertaken for each of the main watershed management components. This report is the

background policy research for the wetland component of the WMP.

To develop effective policies and guidelines encouraging compliance on a voluntary

basis, knowledge of the policies, guidelines, and monitoring resources that exist as

potential support measures is crucial. Policies and guidelines set out by various sectors

that affect wetlands on the international to the local level are outlined and discussed.

Many policies pertain to beneficial management practices for the agricultural sector,

addressing economic drivers of wetland loss, and support for wetland restoration and

conservation is paramount.

Currently, most municipalities in the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds do not

have wetland management plans, polices, or bylaws. Most programs and policies

pertaining to wetlands occur at the provincial/state and federal level through several

different ministries. The majority of these programs and policies focus on addressing

agricultural wetland challenges, with emerging assistance for municipalities.

Some international agencies and governments have developed polices and

recommendations regarding wetland management policies, plans, and programs. With a

changing climate comes increased uncertainty as well as increasingly extreme weather.

Wetlands play an important role in managing water in extreme events by reducing the

severity of those events while keeping the health of the landscape. As such, these can be

used to create policy recommendations specific to the Battle River and Sounding Creek

watersheds.

Wetland management is not a new concept, especially to agricultural producers who

manage ongoing challenges. Wetlands offer naturalized solutions to waste and storm

water issues in growing urban areas. Selecting regionally appropriate management

methods and monitoring effectiveness of those methods through the adaptive

management process is the most effective way to promote implementation.

Ongoing education to address differing societal values in relation to wetlands is needed as

strategic restoration and conversation efforts continue. From landowners and the public,

to government commitments and polices, all need to be held accountable and empowered

to ensure wetlands continue as an important part of our watershed.


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Table of Contents

Executive Summary....................................................................................................... 3

Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... 4

Table of Figures ............................................................................................................. 7

List of Acronyms ........................................................................................................... 8

1 Introduction and Background ............................................................................... 9

1.1 Overview and Purpose of Document .................................................................. 9

1.2 Battle River Watershed Alliance ........................................................................ 9

1.3 Battle River Watershed .................................................................................... 13

1.3.1 Location of the Battle River watershed......................................................... 13

1.3.2 Natural landscape of the Battle River Watershed. ......................................... 14

1.4 Sounding Creek Watershed .............................................................................. 15

1.4.1 Location of the Sounding Creek Watershed. ................................................ 15

1.4.2 Natural Landscape of the Sounding Creek Watershed. ................................. 15

2 Wetlands ............................................................................................................... 16

2.1 Definitions ....................................................................................................... 16

2.1.1 What is a wetland? ....................................................................................... 16

2.1.2 Types of wetlands ........................................................................................ 17

2.2 Importance of Wetlands ................................................................................... 18

2.3 Wetland Loss and Cumulative Impacts ............................................................ 19

3 Battle River and Sounding Creek Wetlands ....................................................... 22

3.1 Prairie Pothole Region .................................................................................... 22

3.2 Wetlands of the Battle River & Sounding Creek Watersheds ............................ 23

3.2.1 Wetland Inventories ..................................................................................... 25

4 Land Use ............................................................................................................... 29

4.1 Agriculture ...................................................................................................... 29

4.2 Urban and Rural Development ........................................................................ 32

4.2.1 Naturalized Stormwater and Wastewater Ponds ........................................... 32


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4.3 Industry ........................................................................................................... 33

4.3.1 Gravel Mining ............................................................................................. 34

4.3.2 Oil and Gas .................................................................................................. 34

4.4 Land Use Planning .......................................................................................... 34

4.4.1 Land Use Framework and Regional Plans .................................................... 35

4.4.2 Municipal .................................................................................................... 36

4.5 Buffers ............................................................................................................. 36

5 Ecosystem Functions ............................................................................................ 40

5.1 Biodiversity and Habitat .................................................................................. 40

5.2 Water Quality .................................................................................................. 42

5.3 Water Quantity ................................................................................................ 43

5.3.1 Wetland Drainage, Consolidation, and Surface water Connectivity .............. 44

5.4 Groundwater Connectivity............................................................................... 45

5.5 Carbon Storage ............................................................................................... 47

6 Ecosystem Services ............................................................................................... 48

6.1 Valuation and Ecological Services .................................................................. 48

6.2 Human Health and Wellbeing .......................................................................... 49

6.3 Cultural Values ............................................................................................... 50

6.3.1 Recreation ................................................................................................... 51

6.4 Payment for Ecosystem Services ...................................................................... 52

7 Additional Challenges in Wetland Management ................................................ 53

7.1 Beavers ........................................................................................................... 53

7.2 Mosquitoes and Wetlands ................................................................................ 54

7.3 Invasive Species .............................................................................................. 54

7.4 Wetlands and Climate Change ......................................................................... 56

8 Governance and Legislation................................................................................. 58

8.1 Federal............................................................................................................ 58

8.2 Provincial ....................................................................................................... 60

8.2.1 Alberta ......................................................................................................... 60


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8.2.2 Saskatchewan .............................................................................................. 65

8.2.3 Manitoba ..................................................................................................... 66

8.3 International ................................................................................................... 67

8.3.1 North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP)........................... 67

8.3.2 United States................................................................................................ 67

8.3.3 Ramsar Convention...................................................................................... 73

9 Conservation and Restoration ............................................................................. 75

9.1 Wetland Restoration in Battle River and Sound Creek Watersheds .................. 75

9.2 Reverse Auctions ............................................................................................. 78

9.3 Prioritising Wetlands and Regional Wetland Objectives .................................. 78

9.4 Wetland Mapping ............................................................................................ 80

9.5 Carbon offset credits ....................................................................................... 80

10 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 81

10.1 Data Gaps and Future Directions.................................................................... 81

10.1.1 Wetland Inventories ................................................................................. 81

10.1.2 Land Use Planning ................................................................................... 82

10.1.3 Restoration and Conservation ................................................................... 82

10.2 Summary ......................................................................................................... 83

Literature Cited ........................................................................................................... 84

Appendix A ................................................................................................................ 112


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Table of Figures

Figure 1. Counties within the Battle River Watershed Alliance planning area with county

boundaries. .................................................................................................................... 10

Figure 2. Framework for watershed management planning components in the Battle

River and Sounding Creek watersheds. .......................................................................... 11

Figure 3. Adaptive management planning cycle for watershed management planning in

the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds ........................................................... 12

Figure 4. Policy research and development process. ...................................................... 13

Figure 5. Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds within Alberta. ......................... 14

Figure 6. Plant and water zones for various prairie wetland classes using the Stewat and

Kantrud (1971) system. ................................................................................................. 18

Figure 7. Prairie Pothole Region (PPR) in Canada and the United States ....................... 22

Figure 8. Wetland type distribution in Alberta ............................................................... 23

Figure 9. The proportion of land in Alberta classified as wetland .................................. 24

Figure 10. Green and White Management Areas in Alberta. .......................................... 25

Figure 11. Iron Creek subwatershed wetland inventory. ................................................ 27

Figure 12. Battle River and Sounding Creek wetland inventories as of 2009. ................ 28

Figure 13. Critical Function and Protection Zones. ........................................................ 37

Figure 14. Diagram of the water balance components of a prairie wetland. .................... 44

Figure 15. Diagram of groundwater flow under wetlands. ............................................. 46

Figure 16. Wetland Management Districts of states in the PPR ..................................... 70

Figure 17. Ducks Unlimited Canada projects in the a) Battle River and b) Sounding

Creek watersheds........................................................................................................... 77


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List of Acronyms

AAMDC Alberta Association of Municipal Districts and Counties

ABWRET-A Alberta Wetland Rapid Evaluation Tool - Actual

AEP Alberta Environment and Parks

ALUS Alternative Land Use Services

AUMA Alberta Urban Municipalities Association

AWE Agriculture Watershed Enhancement

BMP Beneficial management practices

CE Conservation Easement

DUC Ducks Unlimited Canada

EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

ER Environmental Reserve

ES Ecosystem Services

NAWMP North American Waterfowl Management Plan

PPR Prairie Pothole Region

WMD Wetland Management Districts

WPAC Watershed Planning and Advisory Council

WRRP Watershed Resiliency and Restoration Program


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1 Introduction and Background

1.1 Overview and Purpose of Document

The role of policy is to provide overall strategic direction we want society to go towards.

Policies include formal policies, such as government policies or policies from various

organizations, as well as informal policies, such as beneficial management practices

(BMPs) programs and other forms of governance. The purpose of this report is to

highlight the policies, governance approaches, and management approaches that are

currently in place locally, regionally, provincially, federally, and internationally that

could support and contribute to the development of policy recommendations and action

as they pertain to the management of wetlands in the Battle River Watershed Alliance

planning area.

Riparian management is a vital component of wetland management. Loss of, and impacts

to, riparian areas around wetlands decreases their ability for healthy functioning. The

removal of riparian areas reduces in the ability of wetlands to filter, percolate, buffer, and

retain water. Riparian areas and vegetated buffers are explicitly discussed only in part

within this document. This report is about the management of wetlands as a whole on the

landscape. For more information on the management of riparian areas, please see

Understanding the Policy Context for Riparian Areas in the Battle River and Sounding

Creek Watersheds (Bruneau, 2015b) report and accompanying documents.

This report is designed to be read and applied in conjunction with the additional wetland

documents, Wetlands Management: Policy Advice and Wetland Management:

Implementation Guidelines.

1.2 Battle River Watershed Alliance

The Battle River Watershed Alliance (BRWA) was created in 2006 as a non-profit

society. Under the Water for Life: Alberta’s Strategy for Sustainability, the BRWA was

selected by Alberta Environment and Parks (then Alberta Environment) as the designated

Watershed Planning and Advisory Council (WPAC) for the Battle River watershed

(Figure 1). The planning area for the Battle River Watershed Alliance begins just west of

Highway 2 at Battle Lake, and continues east to the Alberta-Saskatchewan border (Figure

5). The planning area boundary is defined as the portion of the Battle River watershed

that lies within Alberta.

The BRWA works in partnership with communities, watershed stewardship groups, four

orders of government (first nations, municipal, provincial, federal), industry, non-

http://www.waterforlife.alberta.ca/03364.html


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governmental organizations and residents, to improve the health of the Battle River and

Sounding Creek watersheds using the best science and social science available.

The interplay of interests and pressures to and from governments, and the many layers of

negotiation involved in instances of policymaking are of interest to the BRWA. Interests

and pressure include external influences that exist in all aspects of policymaking and

regulation, including those from industry, the four orders of government in Canada, other

governments, and public groups of various forms. The BRWA uses a policy community

approach (Bruneau, 2015a) to examine the interplay of interests and pressures between

actors, and layers of negotiation involved in instances of policymaking (Atkinson &

Coleman, 1992; Coleman &d Skogstad, 1990; Skogstad, 2005). In this way, we define

policy making as a series of decisions made before, during and after formation of

policies.

Figure 1. Counties within the Battle River Watershed Alliance planning area with

county boundaries.

The Watershed Management Plan (BRWA, 2012) is comprised of four general topic

areas: water quality, water quantity, land management, and biodiversity. Wetlands is one

component under land management, but has implications for all areas (Figure 2).

http://www.battleriverwatershed.ca/sites/default/files/Watershed with County Boundaries.jpg


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Figure 2. Framework for watershed management planning components in the Battle

River and Sounding Creek watersheds.

Adaptive management is an approach to natural resource policy that embodies a simple

imperative: policies are experiments that, over the course of the adaptive management

planning cycle (Figure 3), may prove inappropriate (Lee, 1993). Adaptive management

learns from these experiments in a manner that links science with social and economic

values found within the watershed (Mitchell, 1997; Sauchyn et al., 2010). By adopting an

adaptive management approach for watershed management planning, the BRWA

acknowledges that the natural and social systems functioning within the watershed are

not completely understood. Both the natural and social systems will, in the course of

time, present surprises that will test the adaptive management approach. The BRWA and

its partners must approach watershed management planning with the expectation that

some policies and actions identified during the planning process may be inappropriate,

but that the experiences and lessons learned allow us collectively to improve these

watershed management approaches over time. The stages of adaptive management for

watershed management planning are described in Water for Life: Alberta’s Strategy for

Sustainability (Government of Alberta, 2003).


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Figure 3. Adaptive management planning cycle for watershed management

planning in the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds (Government of

Alberta, 2003).

Adaptive management could be a very useful approach to determining effective wetland

conservation and restoration configurations to optimize benefits (Zendler, 2003). Such an

approach is important in agricultural watersheds where key land, and thus landowners

and managers, would be required to be a part of the restoration, and not just restoration

on an ad hoc basis.

Policy background research, policy recommendations, and guidelines are developed for

each watershed management component for each sub-watershed throughout the

watershed management plan development (Figure 4). Policies examined incorporate

formal and informal (ad hoc) policies, and address economic, social, and environmental

impacts of the topic. Examples of short term (i.e. during the current crop year) and

longer-term (longer than the current crop year) adaptations are presented by topic area.


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Figure 4. Policy research and development process.

The purpose of this report is to explore the policy context within which the management

of wetlands occurs in the planning areas of the Battle River Watershed Alliance, and

opportunities to learn from other jurisdictions to incorporate into our governance models.

From this report, and in accordance with the watershed management plan, the Battle

River Watershed Alliance has developed policy advice and implementation guidelines.

1.3 Battle River Watershed

1.3.1 Location of the Battle River watershed.

The Battle River watershed begins at Battle Lake in the west, and moves eastward into

Saskatchewan, where the Battle River joins the North Saskatchewan River at Battleford.

Topography defines the entire watershed, as it shapes the course and speed of water

moving through the area. The boundaries of the watershed are known as drainage divides

(i.e. the height of land between adjoining watersheds). Within the Battle River watershed,

there are five sub-watersheds: Bigstone, Iron Creek, Paintearth, Blackfoot, and Ribstone.

Sounding Creek watershed to the southeast is also part of the BRWA planning area, and

incorporates Alberta’s Special Areas (Figure 5) (BRWA, 2012).

Background Research

Policy AdviceImplementation

Guidelines Implementation


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Figure 5. Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds within Alberta.

1.3.2 Natural landscape of the Battle River Watershed.

The Alberta portion of the Battle River watershed is located entirely within the province’s

settled “White Zone”, and takes in portions of the Lower Foothills, Central Mixedwood,

Dry Mixedwood, Central Parkland and Northern Fescue Natural Sub-Regions (BRWA,

2012).

The Battle River watershed is a sub-watershed of the larger North Saskatchewan River

Basin, draining approximately 40 per cent of the land base of this watershed. However,

the Battle River only contributes approximately 3 per cent of the water that flows in the

North Saskatchewan River. There are two primary reasons for this. Firstly, the

headwaters of the Battle River originate in the Western Plains at Battle Lake. This means

water flowing in the Battle River originates as groundwater and surface water runoff from

local snowmelt and rains, rather than from mountain and foothills snowpack runoff.

Secondly, the topography of the Battle River Watershed is predominantly flat (the river’s

average gradient is less than 0.4 m/km) with large tracts of land that are considered non-

contributing, either naturally or due to human influence. Non-contributing means that

water falling as snow or rain collects in small lakes and wetlands, where the water will


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eventually either infiltrate into the ground or evaporate before it ever reaches the Battle

River. All of this results in very low flows in the Battle River, except for a short period of

time annually in April and May and periodically in summer months during major

rainstorm events (BRWA, 2012).

1.4 Sounding Creek Watershed

1.4.1 Location of the Sounding Creek Watershed.

The planning area for the Sounding Creek watershed begins just east of Sullivan Lake

near Highway 36 and continues east to the Alberta-Saskatchewan border (Figure 1). The

planning area boundary is defined as the portion of the Sounding Creek watershed that

lies within Alberta (BRWA, 2012).

1.4.2 Natural Landscape of the Sounding Creek Watershed.

The Alberta portion of the Sounding Creek watershed is entirely within the province’s

settled “White Zone”, and takes in portions of the Central Parkland, Northern Fescue and

Dry Mixed Grass Natural Sub-Regions (BRWA, 2012).

The Sounding Creek watershed is considered dead drainage. Sounding Creek begins near

Hanna, Alberta and flows into Sounding Lake. The outlet from Sounding Lake is Eyehill

Creek, which flows into Saskatchewan and culminates in Manito Lake. There is no outlet

from Manito Lake. As outflows from Sounding Lake are believed to have only occurred

one or two times in the last fifty years, the area upstream of Sounding Lake is generally

considered a non-contributing area. Despite being a non-contributing watershed, it is

classified by Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration (PRFA) as a sub-watershed of

the greater North Saskatchewan River Basin (BRWA, 2012).


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2 Wetlands

Alberta’s wetlands provide a host of hydrological, ecological, and socio-economic

benefits and are among the most productive ecosystems in the province. Within the

context of watershed management, wetlands play a particularly important role in

determining water quality and quantity through filtration and removal of contaminants,

sediments and excess nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous, and by recharging

groundwater, storing water, attenuating floods and contributing to base flows.

Often referred to as “nature’s kidneys”, wetlands are one of the Earth’s most productive

and beneficial aquatic ecosystems, providing numerous benefits to watersheds,

communities and economies. The complex physical, chemical, and biological interactions

that occur within wetlands perform many important ecological functions related to water

quality and supply. Wetlands are integral to watershed health and contribute to the

achievement of all three goals of Water for Life: Alberta’s Strategy for Sustainability:

Safe, secure drinking water

Healthy aquatic ecosystems

Reliable, quality water supplies for a sustainable economy

The role of wetlands in watershed health and function is well documented globally. That

role is particularly evident in prairie-fed watersheds such as the Battle River and

Sounding Creek watersheds. The services provided by wetlands include local and

regional groundwater recharge, surface water storage, flood attenuation, tourism, wildlife

habitat, recreational opportunities, economic benefits via forage production, tourism,

fishing and hunting, and carbon sequestration. The also provide several water quality

benefits including retention of sediments from runoff, absorption of excess nutrients such

as nitrogen and phosphorous, degradation of pesticides and reduction of water-borne

pathogens.

A healthy and resilient watershed requires an abundance of wetlands consisting of a

variety of types and classes properly distributed throughout the watershed in order to

function properly. Each wetland type and class provides unique and complimentary

functions, all of which are important. Water permanence is not an indication of

importance.

2.1 Definitions

2.1.1 What is a wetland?

Wetlands are defined as areas of land saturated with water for long enough periods to

promote aquatic processes as indicated by the poorly drained soils, hydrophilic


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vegetation, and various kinds of biological activity that are adapted to a wet environment

(National Wetlands Working Group, 1988). Wetlands are also considered waterbodies,

many with bed and shore characteristics. As such, they are owned by the Crown. Though

the government does not claim ownership of ephemeral, temporary and seasonal wetlands

(Alberta Environment and Parks, 2016b), all wetlands are subject to the Water Act, thus

any modifications to any wetland, even on private property, require approval

(Government of Alberta, 2015c).

2.1.2 Types of wetlands

The Canadian Wetland Classification System recognizes five wetland classes, which

include bogs, fens, swamps, shallow water, and marshes (Adams et al. 1987, 1997). The

five classes are recognized based on the overall origin of wetland ecosystems and the

nature of the wetland habitat. Almost all prairie wetlands belong to the marsh and shallow

open water classes under this system. Wetland forms, subdivisions of each wetland class)

are based on surface morphology, surface pattern, water type and morphology of

underlying mineral soil. Many of the wetland forms apply to more than one wetland class

and some can be further subdivided into sub-forms and types. Wetland types are

classified according to soil type and vegetation (Adams et al. 1997).

Wetlands are also classified based on hydrology and pond permanence, or the duration of

surface water in the wetland. They can be ephemeral, temporary, seasonal, semi-

permanent, or permanent (Figure 6) [for definitions see Alberta Environment and

Sustainable Resource Development (AESRD), 2015]. These conditions may change over

time, and with land use changes. These types of wetland also have different policy and

regulation status, as will be discussed later on in this document.


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Figure 6. Plant and water zones for various prairie wetland classes using the Stewat

and Kantrud (1971) system (from Ross & Martz, 2013). Reprinted with permission.

The Alberta Wetland Classification System (AESRD, 2015) was developed to align with

the Canadian Wetland Classification System, as well as with classification systems of

Ducks Unlimited Canada and the Alberta Wetland Inventory. The Alberta Wetland

Classification System utilizes a similar system of classification and the other two

classification systems, but is based more on the criteria of Stewart and Kantrud (1971)

while incorporating Alberta’s flora and ranges of environmental, geological, and climatic

characteristics (AESRD, 2015).

2.2 Importance of Wetlands

Wetlands are important for various ecological, social, and economic reasons. Wetlands

have several key ecological functions. These include

1) Remove and store nutrients;

2) Climate stabilization;

3) Carbon sequestration;

4) Water storage;

5) Groundwater recharge and discharge;

6) Improve water quality

7) Maintain habitat and biodiversity; and

8) Create primary productivity.


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These functions create and provide various products, ecosystem services (ES), and

benefits we experience though health, water, education opportunities, industry, cultural

heritage, agriculture, recreation, aesthetics, and tourism (Wray & Bayley, 2006). They are

also important natural heritage areas, and are the focus of much scientific research.

Wetlands also support a variety of economic activities and functions. Degraded and

drained wetlands have a financial cost that are incurred by society to replace the

ecological goods and services these wetlands provided, such as (Wolfe, 2006, p. 2)

Increased water treatment costs;

Increased illness and health care costs;

Irrigation water shortage;

Water hauling and deeper wells required;

Increased insurance costs due to flooding;

Decreased property value due to degraded aesthetic qualities;

Decreased swimming/fishing opportunities; and

Decreased revenues from tourism activities associated with healthy ecosystems.

2.3 Wetland Loss and Cumulative Impacts

It is estimated that wetlands cover about 6% of the world’s land surface (Maltby &

Turner, 1983), though this is likely about half of the extent before human modifications.

In North America, prairie pothole wetlands (the predominant wetland formation in the

Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds) are some of the most threatened

ecosystems, largely due to drainage from land use and agricultural expansion (Badiou et

al, 2011). Much of the drainage has been uncontrolled. Pre 1990, wetlands were removed

from the landscape as a policy of the Alberta government encouraged landowners and

producers to drain wetlands to increase land for agricultural use (AESRD, 2009). This

was accomplished through various supports such as the Farm Surface Water Drainage

Program, and through the operation of drainage districts. However, these likely only

account for a small portion of the total drainage (<15-20%) (A. Corbett, personal

communication, December 4, 2016). Approximately 60‐70 percent of wetlands in the

White (Settled) Area of Alberta have been lost (acreage loss about 40-50%), and loss

continues at approximately 0.3-0.5 per cent of its wetlands each year (Pattison et al.,

2013).

Throughout much of the Prairie Pothole Region (PPR), wetland loss has been focused on

smaller wetlands (Van Meter & Basu, 2015) as they tend to be easier to drain. The high

perimeter (P) to area (A) ratio of smaller wetlands translates into a disproportionate loss

of wetland perimeter (Van Meter & Basu, 2015). For example, if we assume wetlands are

circular, the P: A ratio for a wetland with an area of 100 meter squared (m2) would be


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0.32 m-1 whereas that ratio for a 1000 m2 wetland would be only 0.11 m-1. This is

significant as much of the biological/biogeochemical cycling (Marton et al., 2015) and

groundwater interaction (Hayashi & Rosenberry, 2002) functions of wetlands occur at the

perimeter.

Wetland loss and function impairment contributes to non-point source pollution, severely

affecting water quality. Part of what contributed to these impacts is that the drainage area

increases. In Manitoba, Ducks Unlimited Canada, in partnership with the University of

Guelph and Tarleton State University, completed a research project to determine the

impacts of wetland loss and associated drainage activity in the Broughton’s Creek

watershed in southwestern Manitoba. The study determined that wetland loss between

1968 and 2005 increased drainage area by 31%, and had additional impacts (Yang et al.,

2008)

A 31 % increase in nitrogen & phosphorus export from the watershed,

Peak runoff or rainfall event flow increased by 18%,

Total watershed outflow increased by 30%,

Average annual sediment loading increased by 41%,

The release of approximately 34,000 tonnes of carbon, the equivalent of 125,000

tonnes of CO2 (annual emissions from almost 23,200 cars), and

28% reduction in waterfowl production potential

When intact, wetlands collect and store water from the surrounding landscape during rain

or snowmelt, where they filter sediments, pollutants, and nutrients before slowly

returning water to aquatic or groundwater systems. The local drainage area is connected

to downstream flows, so when wetlands are drained, or even partly drained, this causes

water carrying nutrients and sediments to move rapidly through the former wetland area

and directly to downstream ditches, streams, rivers, lakes and drinking water supplies.

Isolated wetland loss is not the only issue associated with wetlands. Land use and other

impacts that affect wetland function are challenges that need to be managed. These

impacts can be gradual or abrupt. When many wetlands are drained or functionally

impaired, the cumulative impacts can be significant, and can constrain wetland

restoration efforts (Bedford, 1999). This aspect of wetland management is rarely

addressed in policies and management frameworks. In addition to significant loss of

wetland area, cumulative impacts associated with wetlands have resulted in several

things, including disproportionate loss of certain wetland types, degradation of remaining

wetlands, and the subsequent decrease in native biodiversity (Bedford, 1999). These

impacts also alter the landscape and the resilience of the ecosystem (Gunderson et al.,

2006). When ecosystems and landscapes undergo a certain degree of change, their

resilience declines, and they can abruptly change from one state to another (Gunderson et


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al., 2006), called a regime shift. These shifts come with different ecosystem conditions

and services, and are difficult to reverse. Combined with impacts of climate disruption,

continued loss and impacts to wetlands may push our prairie and parkland ecosystems

into to states.

Since cumulative impacts alter the landscape and can affect restoration efforts, an

assessment the cumulative impacts of wetland loss and degradation on landscape and

ecosystem functions on a watershed or subwatershed scale is needed (Bedford & Preston,

1988).


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3 Battle River and Sounding Creek Wetlands

In this section, the geographic and wetland context for the Battle River and Sounding

Creek watersheds are discussed.

3.1 Prairie Pothole Region

The Prairie Pothole Region (PPR) of North America is the core of what used to be the

largest expanse of grassland in the world, the Great Plains of North America, extending

over approximately 800,000 km2 (Badiou et al., 2011) (Figure 7). The name comes from

the geological phenomenon that left its mark beginning 10,000 years ago. When the

glaciers from the last ice age receded, millions of shallow depressions were left behind

that are now wetlands, known as prairie potholes (Ducks Unlimited, 2015). They are

generally small, less than 50 hectares (AESRD, 2009) with an average size is about 4

acres (Dahl, 2014), and abundant. Due to the prevalence of these depressions on the

landscape, much of the drainage is into these depressions rather that into streams of

rivers. As a result, this area is designated as non-contributing (Shook & Pomeroy, 2011).

Figure 7. Prairie Pothole Region (PPR) in Canada and the United States (from

Wrubleski & Ross, 2011).


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These potholes are rich in plant and aquatic life, and support globally significant

populations of breeding waterfowl and other wildlife (Johnson et al., 2005). However,

agricultural development has caused considerable wetland drainage in the area (Ducks

Unlimited, 2015).

The majority of the area of the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds is located

within the PPR, with a few exceptions.

3.2 Wetlands of the Battle River & Sounding Creek Watersheds

The majority of wetlands in the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds are mineral-

based marsh wetlands associated with the Aspen Parkland ecoregion (Figure 8).

However, the western portion of the watershed is located in the Boreal Transition Zone,

which includes a mixture of mineral and peat based wetland types. This area contains the

Cooking Lake moraine (and Miquelon Lake Provincial Park). The land in the moraine is

characterized by hummocky “knob and kettle” terrain that forms a mixture of depression

areas, many of which contain small lakes and wetlands (Ambrose, 2010). There are also

fens in the eastern portion of the watershed in the Parkland Dunes Environmentally

Significant Areas.

Figure 8. Wetland type distribution in Alberta (from AESRD, 2009).


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The Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds are located primarily within the Prairie

Pothole Region. Since wetlands are a common feature on the local landscape, human

activities often interact with wetlands. As of 2011, wetlands accounted for approximately

1.8% and 4% of the total land cover Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds

(respectively). This, however, does not account lost and drained wetlands. Data from the

Atlas of Canada (Natural Resources Canada, 2015) indicates that in the Battle River and

Sounding Creek watersheds, area of pre-settlement wetlands would comprise 5-10% of

the land (Figure 9).

Figure 9. The proportion of land in Alberta classified as wetland (AESRD, 2009).

A comprehensive regional wetland change detection study done in Alberta was the

Environment Canada’s Prairie and Northern Region Habitat Monitoring Program Phase

II (Watmough et al., 2007). This study assessed wetland change between 1985 and 2001

and indicated that for this area (including the Battle River and Sounding Creek

watersheds) the following trends were observed (Barr, 2011)

gross wetland area loss is significant and higher in Alberta than the prairie

regional average;

gross wetland area loss in the North Saskatchewan Region (i.e., Aspen Parkland

ecoregion) is very significant and substantially higher than the prairie regional

average;

mean size of lost wetlands is very small; and

the number of wetland losses (i.e. basins) is very high.


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Comparing the current area of wetland land cover to the estimated pre-settlement area of

wetland land cover, the Battle River watershed has lost more wetland area than the

Sounding Creek watershed. The details of where losses and impacts have occurred were

identified, in part, with wetland inventory techniques.

3.2.1 Wetland Inventories

The Government of Alberta, under the direction of Water for Life: Alberta’s Strategy for

Sustainability, has identified the need to develop a comprehensive wetland inventory for

the province. Two distinct inventory methodologies have been developed for use in the

White Area and the Green Area of Alberta (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Green and White Management Areas in Alberta.


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In the White Zone (where Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds are located), high

resolution, historic, and current aerial photography is typically used to determine the

change in wetland area over time. Commonly referred to as the “Comprehensive” or

“Drained” wetland inventory, this differs from previous inventory methods in that it can

accurately capture drained and altered wetlands, thereby accurately measuring wetland

loss. This method does not typically classify wetlands remotely, but classification data

can be added through inclusion of field observations.

The 2005 wetland inventory of the Iron Creek sub-watershed is an example of this

method. The resulting data was utilized to develop a cartographic representation of

wetland impacts and a wetland impact model as a product of the broader Water for Life

Inventory. The model incorporated baseline wetland inventory collected for the entire

sub-watershed based on 1963 photography. The inventory methodology was then

repeated for the recent time period using 2005 photography. With two temporal

representations of the abundance and distribution of wetland features in hand, a

geoprocessing model was developed that would assign impact categories to each wetland

basin. The model output characterizes the current state of wetland resources and the

distribution of wetland impacts across the entire sub-watershed.

This data provide a valuable resource for targeting wetland conservation and restoration

initiatives, and support further research into the hydrologic and ecological consequences

of the impacts. According to this inventory, two-thirds of the wetlands in the Iron Creek

sub-watershed have been drained, lost, or altered (Figure 11). This accounts for

approximately 43 million m3 of water (for explanation on estimating prairie pothole

volume, see Hayashi & van der Kamp, 2000; Minke et al., 2010). Full wetland

inventories have not yet been completed for much of the Battle River and Sounding

Creek areas, though a few are complete and underway (Figure 12). The information for

the Iron Creek sub-watershed, as well as other Water for Life inventories completed in the

Battle River watershed is located in Appendix A.

The level of wetland inventory and mapping found in the Iron Creek study is useful to

help determine type and extent of wetland loss, and is fundamental to planning, decision-

making, objective setting and implementation in watershed and other planning initiatives.

Setting appropriate wetland retention and restoration objectives greatly depends on the

development of these high-resolution inventories.


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Figure 11. Iron Creek subwatershed wetland inventory. Pink – Altered (outlet drain added); Green – consolidated

(inlet drain added); Red – Lost (outlet drain added, wetland plants absent); Yellow – Altered (wetland plants

absent/disturbed); Blue – Intact (wetland plants present).


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Figure 12. Battle River and Sounding Creek wetland inventories as of 2009.


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4 Land Use

Wetlands are an integral part of the landscape. Due to the nature of wetland hydrology

and functions, significant interactions and influences exist between wetlands and their

wider landscapes (Maltby & Acreman, 2011). Thus, how the land is used affects

wetlands. Quality, functionality, and quantity of wetlands are all impacted. Some land

uses allow wetlands to co-exist with human uses, but due to poor policy oversight, and

societal norms, wetlands are often destroyed or altered for convenience and economic

benefit. The Federal Policy on Wetland Conservation reinforces the importance of

interconnections of wetlands and the landscape, and should be reflected in the

management strategies that are pursued:

Wetlands and wetland functions are inextricably linked to their

surroundings, particularly aquatic ecosystems, and therefore wetland

conservation must be pursued in the context of an integrated systems

approach to environmental conservation and sustainable development

(Government of Canada, 1991, p.6)

Despite this, few wetland policies developed at any level of government or organization

stipulate or mention management of surrounding land use. Some land use practices have

larger impacts, and can be detected up to 4 km away (Houlahan & Findlay, 2003). As a

result, small-scale buffers may not be effective.

Another challenge in managing wetlands and land use and development is the issue of

wetland permanence and area. Wetlands can have catchment areas 3 to 20 times the size

of those wetlands (varies with climatic and geologic conditions). Understanding this may

help understand how land management may affect certain wetlands (Hayashi et al.,

2016). As mentioned earlier in this report, wetlands have varying pond permanence.

Whether industrial, commercial, residential, or general infrastructure development,

assessing permanence is important in regards to provincial approvals for development

and municipal planning. Alberta Environment and Parks have developed guidelines on

assessing and determining wetland pond permanence (AEP, 2014).

4.1 Agriculture

Throughout Alberta, there has been a long history of destroying or altering wetlands for

agricultural purposes to increase area of arable land. Policies promoting drainage were

common in the mid-1900s (i.e. Korven & Heinrichs, 1971). Now, with the change in

policy and increased societal value on wetland services, including water quality

improvement, flood control, wildlife habitat, and recreation. Landowners are often not

able to profit from these services because the benefits are freely enjoyed by many


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(Heimlich et al., 1998). As a result, the agriculture community is facing the brunt of the

impact and cost through pressure to reduce area of farmable land for restoring wetlands,

as well as potential reduced re-sale value for lands where wetlands are identified. Since

wetland restoration and conservation benefits society, a system where taxpayers

compensate farmers for wetland restoration and conservation on their land seems

justifiable (Zedler, 2003).

Many challenges remain pertaining to how landowners, crop producers, and livestock

producers perceive and manage wetlands. Much of this has to do with access for crop

planting and management and the additional costs with farming around wetlands (Cortus

et al., 2010). With increasing size of farm machinery and implements, maneuvering

around or between wetland areas, and ensuring overspray does not impact wetlands, is

difficult. There are some new and emerging technologies and practices on the horizon,

such as sectional and spot application spraying, along with GPS navigation, which could

ease some maneuvering issues. Such methods would also reduce input costs. Wetter areas

also require delayed seeding (Cortus et al., 2010).

As well, many landowners may be unaware that most wetlands (with the exception

ephemeral, temporary and seasonal wetlands) (and all other waterbodies and

watercourses) are owned and governed by the Government of Alberta (Alberta

Environment and Parks, 2016c). Alteration to any wetland (including ephemeral,

temporary and seasonal wetlands) and other waterbodies and watercourses falls under the

Water Act, requires a permit through the Government of Alberta, even those on private

property (Government of Alberta, 2015c). This lack of awareness is a fundamental issue

in wetland management in Alberta that needs to be addressed. In addition, many

landowners are unaware that they have wetlands on their property, especially seasonal

ones, or wetlands that have been previously altered or drained.

Wetlands can be very beneficial for both crop and livestock producers. They help prevent

flooding and maintain water tables and water availability during droughts through water

storage, provide shelter, forage, and water for livestock, absorb excess nutrients and

potential contaminants from runoff and the air, and on a local scale contribute to cloud

and rain formation (Alberta Conservation Association, 2011; Alberta Environment,

2003). Such benefits can be incorporated into grazing management plans and

environmental farm plans to maximize outputs.

There is increasing concern over the use of pesticides, especially the family of

neonicotinoids (or neonics). Though wetlands can remove/process many pesticides

(Gabor et al., 2004; Kao et al., 2002), neonicotinoid pesticides “exhibit chemical

properties that enhance environmental persistence and susceptibility to transport into

aquatic ecosystems through runoff and drainage of agricultural areas” (Morrissey et al,


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2015, p.292). As a result, they have been found in studies across the PPR in

concentrations that suggest high persistence and transport of these chemicals on the

agricultural landscape (Main et al., 2014). These pesticides can harm non-target aquatic

insects (Morrissey et al, 2015), thus they affect wetland aquatic ecosystems functions

(Main et al., 2015). The longevity of neonics is unknown, and with possibility for high

toxicity to aquatic insects in water, some scientists warn against the large-scale use of

these pesticides as impacts to aquatic invertebrates and cascading food webs could be

substantial (Morrissey et al, 2015). Many jurisdictions, such as several nations in the

European Union (European Commission, 2013), most of the United Kingdom, the

Province of Ontario, and several major Canadian cities, have banned the use of

neonicotinoid pesticides because of their persistence and other issues. The United States

still allows the use of most neonicotinoid pesticides.

Damage to wetland riparian areas by cattle is also a pervasive issue. Many technologies

and management systems exist to reduce or eliminate damage to wetlands and riparian

areas while increasing cattle condition. Offsite watering systems, or providing a non-

erodible ramp allows livestock access to cleaner water and improves animal overall

performance. Adoption of a controlled grazing and a rotational grazing system effectively

utilizing rangeland can be used while protecting wetland and riparian habitats (Fitch et

al., 2003). Programs to offset costs are available through Growing Forward 2 and other

provincial/regional programs.

Other impacts of agriculture and upland management involve how different vegetation

types and their management influence hydrologic processes, such as the amount and

quality of water entering wetlands (Haak, 2015; Renton et al., 2015). Cultivated fields

with shorter stubble allow for more surface runoff (van der Kamp et al., 2003) and snow

transport (Fang & Pomeroy, 2008), increasing water volume in wetlands. Wetlands

surrounded by undisturbed grassland, especially with non-native species such as smooth

brome grass (Bromus inermis) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa), tend to dry up (van der

Kamp et al., 2003). These species of plants use a lot moisture, have a large root system.

In restoration projects, they were used to create nesting cover for wetland birds. As well,

undisturbed grasslands trap more snow, and allow for more infiltration (van der Kamp et

al., 2003).

Additionally, agriculture and other forms of upland management also affect waterfowl

and other wildlife that rely on the area surrounding wetlands for breeding and raising

young (Whited et al., 2000). These impacts are influenced not just by type of crop or

vegetation, but the way it is managed, and timing of that management. Fall seeded,

delayed cut hay, and grazed pasture, and perennial crops range from least to most,

respectively, disruptive (Haak, 2015). The Western Winter Wheat Initiative, a


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collaboration between Bayer CropScience, Ducks Unlimited Canada (DUC), the Mosaic

Company Foundation, and Richardson International Limited, was designed to build

awareness and credibility of winter wheat as a highly productive crop option for western

Canadian farmers, while also promoting waterfowl and upland game bird habitat

(Western Winter Wheat Initiative, n.d.).

Wetland Management Districts (WMDs) in the U.S. allow and utilize agriculture as a

land use tool through the administration of a Special Use Permit (SUP) or a Habitat

Management Agreement (HMA). The WMD provides direction to the crop farmers on

the types of crops that can be planted, crop shares or cash payments for farming

privileges, use of pesticides, use of best management practices, timing of disturbances,

and any other special conditions to ensure the farming program is conducted properly

(United States Fish & Wildlife Service [FWS], 2014). This process permits farming

(though in a more limited capacity) to occur, as well as promoting wildlife use of

wetlands and surrounding uplands.

4.2 Urban and Rural Development

Though most historical wetland loss in Alberta was caused by agricultural practices and

policies, more recent wetland loss is the result of industrial development, and urban

development and sprawl (Boyer & Polasky, 2004). When urban developers remove

wetlands, they are able to pay the replacement costs with lower cost rural land.

In 2013, the Alberta Urban Municipality Association (AUMA) and Alberta Association

of Municipal Districts and Counties (AAMDC) developed a Municipal Water Policy on

Wetlands. This policy was developed to provide a municipal perspective on the

implementation of the new Alberta wetland policy, and help enable municipalities and

their partners to conserve and restore wetlands (Alberta Urban Municipality Association

[AUMA], 2013).

4.2.1 Naturalized Stormwater and Wastewater Ponds

The water filtering and storage function of wetlands is being utilized by many

municipalities and organizations through the creation of naturalized stormwater and

wastewater ponds. The purpose for constructed wetlands is to retain runoff (whether from

urban or rural areas) for a prolonged period of time to allow for the uptake and storing on

pollutants from the runoff (Alberta Environmental Protection, 1999). The question of

whether or not restored and created wetlands are structurally and functionally equivalent

to natural wetlands has been the focus of extensive research, with varied results (i.e.

Kayranli et al., 2009; Rooney et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2014).


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As these naturalized stormwater management facilities (NSWMFs) are human-made and

their primary function is stormwater collection, their shoreline slopes are often much

steeper than natural wetlands, resulting in fewer, narrower wetland vegetation zones. This

would have impacts on water filtration, as well as biodiversity (Forrest, 2010).

Improvements on the design by integrating ecological principles have led to better and

more functional NSWMFs (i.e. Forrest, 2010; Lilley & Labatiuk, 2001; Ross & Martz,

2013) that also benefit the community (Native Plant Solutions, 2012). Criteria for

stormwater wetland design and other BMPs has been laid out by the Government of

Alberta (Alberta Environmental Protection, 1999).

Under the new Alberta wetland policy, there is allowance for the construction of

stormwater wetlands for partial credit of wetland replacement requirements (Government

of Alberta, 2015b). No matter the design, some wetland ecosystem services stormwater

management facilities are unable to provide due to conflicting goals (Rooney et al.,

2015). As well, education and engagement is in need of to change public perception of

urban wetlands, identify key wetland traits, and understand the implications of wetland

compensation, and not focus solely on the aesthetics of stormwater wetlands.

Similar to stormwater management facilities, wetlands are also created to naturalize

wastewater management. Research has been done internationally to look into how

constructed wetlands could help municipalities, industries, as well as rural areas deal with

wastewater. Such innovations could be of great benefit in developing world where

inadequate access to clean water and sanitation have become the most pervasive

problems afflicting people (Zhang et al., 2014).

In Canada, there have been studies pertaining to the use of wastewater wetlands to treat

municipal (Anderson et al., 2013), industrial (Rozema et al., 2016), and agricultural

(Kinsley, 2015) wastewater. Agricultural and municipal wastewater has also been used to

restore a prairie wetland (White & Bayley, 1999). Though initial results are promising for

wastewater treatment, some wetland wastewater systems have shown declines in nutrient

removal after 4–5 years of continuous loadings, depending on rate of loading. This may

result in eutrophication of the wetland, and degrade water quality downstream White et

al., 1999).

4.3 Industry

Industrial development can have many impacts on wetlands and the landscape. One

persistent issue across many industries is the matter of access roads. Several documents

created by Ducks Unlimited Canada and their industry partners address how best to plan

and manage access roads in relation to a variety of wetlands (Ducks Unlimited Canada et

al., 2014; Partington et al., 2016).


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4.3.1 Gravel Mining

Currently, more than 20 municipal, provincial, and federal acts, policies, and regulations

govern gravel and other aggregate extraction activities in Alberta (Alberta Sand & Gravel

Association [ASGA], 2015). For applications under both provincial (Alberta

Environment, 2004) and municipal (i.e. Camrose County, 2014), wetlands and riparian

areas are treated similarly, and encourage consideration of using naturally vegetated

buffers for water quality and wildlife habitat. Erosion control (recommended as

vegetation), in regards to preventing siltation of water bodies, is a required part of all

plans (Alberta Environment, 2004). It is generally recommended, however, wetlands be

avoided (Alberta Environment, 2004).

4.3.2 Oil and Gas

The Alberta Energy Regulator (AER) (2013) sets out approval standards and setbacks for

the various classes of wetlands, as well as for a variety of pond permanence wetlands.

These can pertain to types of industrial activity, as well as suggested setbacks for various

animal types that may be of interest in the area. Applicants are also responsible for

identifying potential waterbodies that may not be wet at the time of application due to

climatic reason. Overall the AER supports best management practices for industrial

activities that minimize “disturbance and adverse environmental effects” (Alberta Energy

Regulator [AER], 2013, p.23) to environmentally sensitive areas. Any industrial activities

that require disturbance or alteration of wetlands requires a Water Act licence.

Specifically for well pads, AER requires that the center of a well must be a minimum of

100 m from a waterbody. Any closer than the 100 m setback and special conditions must

be met. Any disturbance or alteration of wetlands requires a Water Act licence (AER,

2011).

There are specific requirements on Tier 1 land around Battle Lake including stringent

spill and contaminated runoff mitigation measures and total avoidance of wetlands.

Proponents are also responsible to identify and protect any unmapped water features in

these areas (AER, 2011).

4.4 Land Use Planning

Land use planning, whether on a regional or municipal scale, is a crucial piece of wetland

management. This not only includes understanding how different land uses will affect

wetlands or how wetlands (or removal of) affect land use, but also incorporates

stakeholder establishment of wetland objectives and the identification of strategically

important wetlands at a local and regional level.


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4.4.1 Land Use Framework and Regional Plans

As a major regional directive in regards to land use planning, the land use regional plans

being developed in Alberta are ideal opportunities to develop wetland management on a

regional/watershed scale. To date, only two have been approved in Alberta, the Lower

Athabasca Regional Plan (LARP) in 2012, and the South Saskatchewan Regional Plan

(SSRP) in 2014. In the LARP, wetlands are mentioned only briefly in relation to the

implementation of a progressive reclamation strategy which includes tools “to measure

and report on the return of equivalent capability” (Government of Alberta, 2012, p.46) of

various land uses, including wetlands.

The SSRP incorporates wetlands throughout of the document, and in detail. The overall

importance of key wetland and riparian areas as part of an integrated approach to

watershed management and health is recognized and emphasized in many of the sections,

such as outdoor recreation, and sustainable municipal development (Government of

Alberta, 2014). As the Alberta Wetland Policy was approved since the competition of the

SSRP, provincial wetlands management implementation is just beginning.

The North Saskatchewan Regional Plan (NSRP), in which the majority of the Battle

River watershed is located, is still underway. It is unknown how wetlands will be dealt

with in light of the Alberta Wetland Policy. Work is underway to incorporate wetlands

into the Biodiversity Management Framework of the NSRP. The forthcoming Red Deer

Regional Plan will also influence land use and wetlands in the Battle River and Sounding

Creek watersheds.

The North Saskatchewan Regional Plan presents several opportunities in regards to

wetlands. These include improving knowledge and understanding about wetlands, to

ensure wetlands are properly represented in the planning process, and to facilitate

pertinent environmental, social and economic information is consolidated. Together,

these actions could establish wetlands as integral to the regional plan, and ensure the

services they provide are recognized (Barr, 2011).

As part of the Government of Alberta ecosystem services (ES) pilot study (Government

of Alberta, 2011b), researchers suggest that there is an important link between ES

assessments and regional planning. Ensuring ES assessments are nested within other

planning and policy work of the regions, regional planners could apply some of an ES

approach at the outset of regional plan development. This would help ensure that

consideration of multi-scale services and benefits of wetlands is explicit in regional plan

design, thus incorporating the ES that contribute to the quality of life for people

(Government of Alberta, 2011b). Including wetlands as an essential component in

planning processes and application of available methods would be useful to establish

thresholds and cumulative impact management objectives, and help make trade-off


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decisions when other values compete with maintaining wetlands (Maltby & Acreman,

2011).

4.4.2 Municipal

Municipalities have a large role to play in land use management. Cities, towns, and

counties each have a municipal development plan and/or land use bylaws. These

important tools can be used to help manage wetlands on private and municipal lands. The

Environmental Law Institute (2008) developed a planner’s guide on wetlands. Though

based on the U.S. system, this document compiles scientific literature on wetland buffers

and identified some techniques used and legislative choices made by various local

governments to design, manage, and monitor local wetlands and associated buffers.

Several towns and cities throughout Alberta have developed wetland conservation and

management plans, and some have done it combination with riparian plans. These

include Town of Cochrane, City of Calgary, Rocky View County, and City of Edmonton

(list not exhaustive). Many towns and cities, including City of Camrose and City of

Wetaskiwin, have bylaws regarding wetland and lake setbacks. Others group them in

with environmentally sensitive areas, which often have pertinent bylaws in the form of

setback requirements.

4.5 Buffers

Land use plays a role in the biodiversity of wetlands. Many land uses can negatively

affect wildlife species that rely on the wetlands, such as birds (Forcey et al., 2007;

Shutler et al., 2000; White & Bayley, 1999) and amphibians (Baldwin, et al., 2006; Gray

et al., 2004; Houlahan & Findlay, 2003; Kolozsvary & Swihart, 1999; Lehtinen, et al.,

1999; Semlitsch, 1998; Semlitsch & Bodie, 2003). The purpose of buffers (flexible, area-

specific) and setbacks (usually statutory) from water bodies is to create areas that

separate important remnant or wetland habitat from incompatible land uses. These area

usually control development or alterations, allowing natural vegetation and processes

near water bodies to remain as healthy and functional as possible, as well as to protect

private property from possible flooding and loss of land due to stream erosion and bank

instability. From the biological perspective, buffers provide additional habitat for wetland

species, and act as corridors for wildlife movement. More importantly buffers may

reduce disturbance (behavioural or physiological response of an animal to a stimulus)

(Weston et al., 2009), such as from agricultural or urban activities. Development of

effective buffers must consider several elements that can influence effectiveness and

impact wetland function.


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Size is an important element of buffers. Some policies, regulations, and bylaws stipulate

buffer width and the type of setbacks required in relation to waterbody type, geology and

geography, industry type and land use purposes. However, buffer size, enforcement, and

application of these bylaws are not uniform.

In conjunction with buffers, considering the Critical Function Zones (CFZ) of a wetland

will expand the wetland functions area (Figure 13). The CFZ is used to define the “non-

wetland areas within which biophysical functions or attributes directly related to the

wetland occur” or the “functional extension of the wetland in to the upland”

(Environment Canada, 2013a, p.25). This could include the upland waterfowl nesting

habitat, or the foraging habitat for amphibians and insects around a wetland.

Figure 13. Critical Function and Protection Zones. Copyright Environment Canada,

2013a.

Riparian areas, buffers, and Protection Zones (PZ) (Environment Canada, 2013a) can

assist in the maintenance of the function of wetlands by protecting the wetland and its

functions from stressors related to surrounding land use change. Width of these areas will

vary, and depends on the surrounding land use, what function(s) will be preserved, and

the degree to which wildlife habitat is considered (Environment Canada, 2013a).


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Buffer width varies according to the extent to which the buffer is designed to protect and

maintain wildlife habitat. Different wildlife groups have different habitat requirements

that dictate the size of the buffer. The common 20m or 30m setbacks contributes

minimally to wildlife habitat, except for small rodents and shrews. Most amphibians

ideally require at least 50 m (Hannon et al., 2002) though, for the Northern Leopard Frog

(Lithobates pipiens), it extends to 100m (Government of Alberta, 2011c). Songbirds,

avian raptors, ungulates, and mammalian carnivores (species ranging in size from cougar

to weasel) all require much larger buffers, ranging between 100-400m (AESRD, 2012b;

Environment Canada, 2013a; Hannon et al., 2002). Species at risk and other sensitive

species may have specific recommendations. Other setback and buffer guidelines for

wildlife and hydrologic function can be found in in Stepping Back from the Water

(AESRD, 2012b).

Various methods for determining buffers or setbacks are site-specific and land-use

specific, making them inappropriate to apply on a more regional or watershed scale.

Setbacks or buffer on a broader scale can be delineated using aerial videography as

described previously. Riparian assessments such as those provided by Cows and Fish

would be more localized. As well, the field manual created by Agriculture and Agri-Food

Canada on buffer designs (Stewart et al., 2010) is more site-specific, but is designed for

landowners to do their own assessment.

The Riparian Setback Matrix Model (RSMM) (White & Gray, 2007) has been utilized as

a planning tool by a handful of municipalities in Alberta to establish policies for

wetlands. Town of Strathmore, Rocky View County, and Lakeland County all have

policies for protection of riparian and/or wetlands based on this model. The RSMM

delineates the width of an environmental reserve(ER) based on the slope of the land,

height of banks, groundwater influence, soil type, and vegetative cover. If no vegetation

exists, the ER is determined from the edge of water (White & Gray, 2007).

Alberta Riparian Habitat Management Society, known as Cows and Fish, also has

produced wetland assessment tools used to evaluate the health of wetlands and their

surrounding riparian areas (Ambrose et al., 2009). These tools were designed to assist in

training people, such as farmers, ranchers, lakeshore residents, landowners, land and

resource managers, to assess quickly riparian health for water bodies and interpret the

results of a health evaluation. This guide is often used in conjunction with the Alberta

Lentic Wetland Inventory and Alberta Lentic Wetland Health Assessment (Survey)

documents.

In addition to the size of buffers, vegetation composition is also important. As with any

healthy riparian area, vegetation in a variety of sizes, growth habits, and types are

important. In addition to this, a diversity of native vegetation (versus non-native species)

http://cowsandfish.org/riparian/secure/ALBLenticInventoryManual_000.pdf

http://cowsandfish.org/riparian/secure/ALBLenticInventoryManual_000.pdf

http://cowsandfish.org/riparian/documents/ALBLenticSurveyManual_000.pdf


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is ideal, both in regards to conservation and restoration. Some non-native grasses

commonly used in wetland restoration are water-intensive and can negatively affect water

levels in wetlands. In addition, native vegetation, especially the aquatic and semi-aquatic

types, reduce the amount of pesticides present in wetlands (Main et al., 2015).


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5 Ecosystem Functions

As mentioned earlier in this report, wetlands provide many important ecosystem

functions. Ecosystem functions are actions that occurs naturally in ecosystems because of

the interactions between the ecosystem structure and its physical, biological, and

chemical processes. Wetlands in the PPR are disproportionately abundant in ecosystem

function and goods & services, especially in regards to waterfowl and other migratory

birds (Gren et al., 1994; Johnson et al., 2005). As a result, management decisions need to

incorporate the preservation of a mixture of land-use types to ensure a mix of services

and multiple benefits, including social, economic, and ecological to ensure the continued

healthy functioning of wetland ecosystems.

Natural and undisturbed wetlands generally have a greater ability to sustain these

functions than restored wetlands, including supporting biodiversity. Better wetland and

riparian restoration and construction techniques and design, together with time, can

restore many natural functions to some degree, providing the landscape with functional

wetlands again (Gleason et al., 2008).

5.1 Biodiversity and Habitat

As one of the hallmark characteristics of healthy wetlands, habitat for a diverse and

abundant group of species and phyla of organisms in healthy wetlands is an important

rationale for conservation and beneficial management practices. It also provides a basis

for establishing regional wetland objectives, connectivity, and networks. Maintaining

hydrodiversity helps maintains biodiversity (van der Kamp & Hayashi, 2009). Globally,

many species of concern are associated with or dependant upon wetlands (Millennium

Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). In Canada, wetlands provide habitat to over 600 species

of plants and animals, and globally are second only to rainforests in the level of

biodiversity (Ducks Unlimited Canada, 2006). In Alberta, about 80% of all wildlife use

riparian areas for all or part of their lifecycle (Fitch et al., 2003). Riparian areas and

associated upland forests are also important corridors and provide connectivity on the

landscape for many wetland fauna species in fragmented landscapes (Nelner & Hood,

2011).

Loss of wetlands can lead to increases in habitat fragmentation (Johnson, 2001), affecting

bird, mammal, and amphibian species. Many birds rely on wetlands for various stages of

their life cycle. The wetlands of the PPR are, globally, the most productive habitat for

waterfowl (Johnson et al., 2005). Annually, potholes produce almost half of North

America’s waterfowl (Batt et al., 1989; Smith et al., 1964). Aside from waterfowl, many

other groups of birds rely on wetlands for breeding and food, including various raptor

species and upland birds, shorebirds, colonial species, bitterns, herons, grebes, and rails


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(Naugle, 1997; Shutler et al., 2000; White & Bayley, 1999; Whited et al., 2000).

Approximately 250 bird species depend on wetland environments in Alberta for some

part of their life cycle, or use wetland areas for feeding, nesting or cover (Alberta

Environment, 2003). Habitats with wetlands nearby have higher diversity and quantity of

raptors and other upland birds than those that do not (Shutler et al., 2000; White &

Bayley, 1999).

Wetlands provide important habitat for other animal groups such as amphibians, reptiles,

and mammals. Reptiles often forage in aquatic or semi-aquatic habitats, but migrate

upland for nests, basking, and hibernating (Semlitsch & Bodie, 2003). In Alberta, about

15 species of amphibians and reptiles rely on wetland habitat to survive (Alberta

Environment, 2003). The provincially and nationally listed northern leopard frog

(Lithobates pipiens) is found in the Battle River watershed (AESRD, 2012a), and utilizes

a few wetlands at CFB Wainwright (S. Mascarin, personal communication, September

15, 2016). As this species requires three different habitats in close proximity to carry out

its lifecycle, land use changes have resulted in large decreases in populations across the

country, including Alberta (AESRD, 2012a, Environment Canada, 2013b; Pope et al.,

2000). Other species of amphibians, including wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) (Baldwin et

al., 2006) and tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) (Semlitsch, 1998), require healthy

wetland and well as surrounding riparian areas.

Prairie potholes also play an important role in the life cycles of many mammals.

Mammal species that utilize wetlands are quite diverse. Though there are few wetland

obligate species, many forage and seek shelter in wetland and riparian areas, and thus are

impacted by wetland health and functions. In Alberta, 17 species of mammals depend on

wetland habitat to survive, with around 44 fur-bearing mammals that use wetlands

(Alberta Environment, 2003). In the Miquelon Lake Provincial Park area, at the edge of

the Battle River watershed, beaver-modified wetlands foster high biodiversity among

many types of mammals, even in winter (Nelner & Hood, 2011). These include deer,

weasel species, moose, coyote, pine marten, snowshoe hare, red squirrel, red-back vole,

and various shrew species. The muskrat is an example of an animal found throughout the

PPR. Muskrats inhabit all types of wetlands (at least temporarily), but only thrive in

wetlands deep enough to allow for activity under the ice throughout the winter (Fritzell,

1989).

Small, isolated, restored wetlands can also be important mammal habitat. Work done to

study the role of mammals as bioindicators for restored wetlands suggests that species

richness and composition does not differ largely between natural and restored wetlands

(Kurz et al., 2013). Well-designed and maintained restored wetlands with forested areas


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may be a feasible solution for at least some of the ecological impacts associated with

wetland loss (Kurz et al., 2013).

5.2 Water Quality

Water quality in wetlands is determined and influenced by many factors. Surrounding

land use, vegetation (amount and type), type of wetland, pond permanence, landscape

position, hydrogeologic characteristics, flood and drought cycles, as well as temporal

factors such as season all influence the chemical, physical, and biological processes that

influence wetland water quality (Brunet, 2011; Gabor et al., 2004). Surface water runoff

can be a large contributor to varying water quality depending on the surrounding land

use. It is important to remember that many of the elements that contribute to water

quality challenges, such as nitrogen and phosphorous, are essential elements of living

systems. It is the quantity of these substances, and where they are ending up that

contribute to challenges.

Wetlands have different combinations of salts, often related to location of the wetlands,

groundwater inputs, or soil characteristics (van der Kamp & Hayashi, 2009; Brunet,

2011). Concentration of these salts varies seasonally as evaporation exceeds precipitation

(Brunet, 2011). Variations in salts and dissolved organic carbon in wetlands are linked to

hydrological processes, such as runoff, evaporation, and shallow groundwater

interactions (Brunet, 2011).

Much of the excess nutrient run off, and accompanying sediment and pesticides, from

surrounding urban and agricultural land use can be stored in wetlands (up to around 98%

of sediment) (Gabor et al., 2004). Wetlands convert and store much of the nitrogen and

phosphorous in sediments, in the water column, in organic material, or is given off into

the atmosphere (Brunet, 2011; Gabor et al., 2004). Studies have suggested that in a

wetland, there can be a reduction of nitrogen and phosphorus by 91% and 94%,

respectively (Gabor et al., 2004). As a result of biological processes, dissolved oxygen

content in wetlands vary with type, size, temperature, and depth of the wetland (Brunet,

2011).

Coliforms occur naturally in soil and water systems. Snowmelt and large precipitation

events can cause large amounts to enter waterbodies. Populations of semi-aquatic

mammals and waterfowl also produce coliforms. Large quantities of animal waste

coliforms could also come from cattle operations or through use of manure in field

fertilization (Brunet & Westbrook, 2012). Wetlands manage the levels of coliforms, as

well as nitrogen and phosphorous, through biological, sorption, and hydrological

processes (Brunet, 2011). Some studies have suggested that natural wetlands can reduce

coliforms up to 99% (Gabor et al., 2004).


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High levels of biological productivity in wetlands, especially the abundance of

submerged and emergent plants, aids in the dissipation of pesticides (Kao et al., 2002).

The aquatic and hydrophilic vegetation increases the available surface area for pesticide

adsorption, plant sequestration, microbial degradation, and exposure to light (Gabor et al.

2004). In addition, the generally shallow character of wetlands allows for further light

penetration, allowing some chemicals to be broken down by the light (photolysis) (Gabor

et al. 2004). In general, common pesticides of surface and groundwater tend to disappear

rapidly from wetlands (Gabor et al. 2004), though whether this is true for neonics is still

being studied.

Drainage of wetlands, rural and urban, reduces water quality on a watershed scale.

Drainage not only allows excess nutrients and other pollutants from the current year to

flow freely off the landscape, but excess nutrients and potential contaminants stored in

the soils of the former wetland also leech out during runoff and heavy precipitation

events. This has implications for nutrient loading and eutrophication in watercourses and

waterbodies downstream (Venterink et al., 2002; Brunet, 2011; T. Scott, personal

communication, October 31, 2016). With increased drainage also comes increased soil

erosion and more inputs from surface water runoff.

Wetlands play a key role in capturing surface water runoff and filtering out harmful

contaminants. By providing and maintaining multiple natural barriers to contaminants

and excess nutrients, we can help ensure a safe, clean and reliable supply of water.

Wetlands are an essential component of this “multi-barrier” approach to source water

protection. Many source water protection plans, including the Camrose Source Water

Protection Plan (City of Camrose & Camrose County, 2016) and the North

Saskatchewan River Source Water Protection Plan in Saskatchewan (North

Saskatchewan River Basin Council, 2008), incorporate wetland conservation and

management to minimize certain risks pertaining to water quality.

5.3 Water Quantity

Since most wetlands are replenished from snowmelt and runoff, changes in the quantity

of precipitation affect wetlands, including water quality. By their nature, wetlands help

mitigate extreme events such as flood and drought. As most prairie potholes typically

lack surface connections to streams at average water levels, this makes them effective at

flood mitigation (Hubbard & Linder, 1986; Murkin, 1998). During higher than average

precipitation years, some wetlands may join and form stream channels, temporarily

increasing the drainage area (Shook & Pomeroy, 2011) (Figure 14). When ditches are

created and wetlands are drained, this artificially increases the contributing area of the

new channels, increases the likelihood of ongoing downstream flooding (Gabor et al.,

2004; McCauley et al., 2015).


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Figure 14. Diagram of the water balance components of a prairie wetland. Dashed

arrows indicate the exchange of groundwater with surface water. The pond is a wet

area within the wetland. Adapted from “Hydrology of Prairie Wetlands:

Understanding the Integrated Surface-Water and Groundwater Processes” by M.

Hayashi, G. van der Kamp, & D.O. Rosenberry, Wetlands, 36 (Suppl.2), p. 245.

Copyright 2016 by Springer. Reprinted with permission.

Periodic drying of wetlands is also to be expected. Drought years where potholes dry up

or partially dry are important for cycling within the wetland, allowing oxygen to re-enter

the system, organic matter to break down and release nutrients, and reinvigorate the plant

communities by allowing new seeds to germinate (Brakhage, n.d.; Zenner & Hancock,

2012.). Overall, periodic drying leads to increased wetland productivity when water

returns (Brakhage, n.d.). Groundwater infiltration functions are not greatly impacted by

drought (Fang & Pomeroy, 2008).

Shook and Pomeroy (2011) described hysteresis, or a memory effect, in wetland systems

in the Canadian prairies. Wetland complexes ‘remember’ their initial conditions, where

the storage of water may cause ‘memory’ in the system, where the response of the system

at any time depends on the history of inputs and outputs. This has implication in terms of

wetland hydrological resiliency to drought events and keeping water on the landscape.

5.3.1 Wetland Drainage, Consolidation, and Surface water

Connectivity

With the interim Alberta wetland policy (Alberta Water Resources Commission, 1993),

destroyed wetlands were compensated for based on acreage. As a result, fewer larger

wetlands were constructed in the place of several small wetlands. Drainage and ditching

of small rural wetlands resulted in much the same conditions. However, whether through

drainage or as compensation, consolidation of wetland area became standard practice

(Rooney, 2014), which reduces the perimeter to area ratios (larger wetlands), and their

associated functions. This includes decreased habitat for all species, such as aquatic


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invertebrates and waterfowl (and other migratory birds) by reduced spatial variability in

wetland conditions (McCauley et al., 2015; Wiltermuth, 2014).

The preferential loss of small upland wetlands, especially seasonal and temporary ones,

has led to the homogenization in the size of wetlands. This has negative repercussions for

ecosystem services. Decreases in the perimeter to area ratio reduces biochemical

processes and groundwater exchange (Van Meter & Basu, 2015). In addition, these losses

isolate remaining small wetlands, with distances almost double from historic distribution.

This has implications for dispersal and migration of wetland species, as well as in terms

of wetland connectivity. Migratory birds often overlook landscapes with low wetland

density as potential habitat (Van Meter & Basu, 2015).

As mentioned earlier, increasing consolidation and surface water connections limits the

ability of wetlands store water and increases the likelihood of ongoing downstream

flooding (Gabor et al., 2004; McCauley et al., 2015). These impacts, in addition to

warming temperatures, increased rainfall fraction, earlier snowmelt, and more multiple

day rainfall events as impacts of climate change, could result in an overall dramatic

increase in flows generated from snowmelt, rain-on-snowmelt, and rainfall runoff

processes (DeBeer et al., 2016).

In short, wetland drainage and consolidation causes significant changes in wetland and

watershed hydrology, as well as associated functions and ecological services. The

Watershed Resiliency and Restoration Program (WRRP) (Alberta Environment and

Parks, 2015) works to address issues of natural watershed functions in Alberta through

restoration of natural/green infrastructure (riparian areas and wetlands). The primary

objective of the WRRP is to “increase the natural ability of the province’s watersheds to

reduce the intensity, magnitude, duration and effects of flooding and drought through

watershed mitigation measures” (Alberta Environment and Parks, 2015, para. 6) by

promoting natural infrastructure on a watershed scale. Additionally, the program

addresses the impacts of past flooding and/or droughts through the restoration of

degraded priority areas of watersheds (Alberta Environment and Parks, 2015). Though

the program is voluntary, grants are available, especially for designated priority areas.

5.4 Groundwater Connectivity

Recharge of groundwater is an extremely important function of some wetlands. Prairie

wetland hydrology is extremely complex (Woo & Rowsell, 1993; Hayashi et al., 1998b;

van der Kamp et al., 2003; Fang et al., 2010; Pomeroy et al., 2010) with multiple factors

and connections involved. Depending on the landscape position of wetlands, variations in

climate, configuration of water tables, and the hydraulic conductivity of the underlying

substrate, the amount of groundwater recharge and hydrologic connectivity varies


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(Hayashi et al., 2016; van der Kamp & Hayashi, 1998). As a result, prairie potholes can

have either groundwater recharge, flow-through, or discharge function (Hayashi et al.,

2016; van der Kamp & Hayashi, 1998) (Figure 15).

Figure 15. Diagram of groundwater flow under wetlands. Dashed lines indicate the

boundary between sediments with high and low hydraulic conductivity. Solid

arrows indicate the water table, stippled area indicate the effective zone of

groundwater flow, and the size of arrows of arrows indicate relative magnitude of

flow. An inter-till sand aquifer underlays the wetland complex. Adapted from

“Hydrology of Prairie Wetlands: Understanding the Integrated Surface-Water and

Groundwater Processes” by M. Hayashi, G. van der Kamp, & D.O. Rosenberry,

Wetlands, 36 (Suppl.2), p. 245. Copyright 2016 by Springer. Reprinted with

permission.

Research conducted by Hayashi et al. (2003) determined that ephemeral wetlands in

small closed depressional areas could play an important role in the hydrology and

ecology of many landscapes, by storing runoff water, recharging soil moisture and

shallow groundwater, and by providing food and habitat for many organisms. The clay-

rich soils of the prairies have low hydraulic conductivity, and they are even lower when

they are frozen. Water in most small prairie pothole wetlands readily, but slowly,

percolates to shallow groundwater, but deep aquifer recharge is negligible because of

clay-rich soils throughout much of the PPR (van der Kamp & Hayashi, 2009). Prairie

wetland groundwater recharge rate to shallow aquifers range from 5-40 mm/year (van der

Kamp & Hayashi, 1998; Hayashi et al. 1998a).

As a result of significant snowmelt runoff occurring over the frozen soil in early spring,

small (<1000 m2) depressions can store a large portion, or all, of snowmelt runoff in their

respective watersheds (Hayashi et al., 2003). Each depression has a small storage

capacity, but they collectively provide significant retention capacity, which adds up to

significant water storage, flood attenuation and groundwater recharge capacity. Most of

these wetlands only have out flows when their storage capacity is exceeded through

heavy rainfall events (van der Kamp and Hayashi, 1998). Ultimately, Hayashi et al.

(2003) demonstrated that ephemeral wetlands have several important functions including


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the retention of snowmelt runoff, soil moisture replenishment, and shallow groundwater

recharge providing a cumulative benefit to the watershed.

Diversity in wetland hydrology is important for maintaining biodiversity (Hayashi et al.,

2003). As such, the wetland complex and their drainage basins in a given area (i.e. local

watersheds) should be approached as an interconnected hydrologic unit crucial for

integrated wetland ecosystem management (Hayashi et al., 2016; van der Kamp &

Hayashi, 2009).

5.5 Carbon Storage

Globally, wetlands account for 20-30% of total terrestrial carbon storage in soils (Mitsch

& Gosselink, 2007), with North American freshwater mineral soil wetlands holding

around 18% of that (Bridgham et al., 2006). The high productivity of prairie pothole

wetlands enables them to accumulate organic carbon faster than some other types of

wetlands (i.e. peatlands) (Badiou et al., 2011), making them net carbon sinks for carbon

despite some methane emissions. In a study done in the Broughton Creek watershed in

Manitoba, it was suggested that wetlands store the equivalent of 4 tons of CO2 per year

(Yang et al., 2008).

Carbon, along with oxygen and hydrogen, form the base of life, and contributes to the

biodiversity in wetlands. Organic carbon in the water column is exchanged with air,

sediment interstitial water, and biomass through biological processes. It can also settle

out of the water column. Prairie potholes tend to be naturally high in dissolved organic

carbon (DOC), though amounts can vary temporally with evaporation. Seasonal wetlands

also tend to higher concentrations of DOC (Brunet, 2011). It is also important to note that

natural wetlands have higher carbon sequestration capacity than constructed wetlands,

and it may take several decades for restored and constructed wetlands to reach

comparable levels (Kayranli et al., 2010).


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6 Ecosystem Services

Ecosystem services provided by wetlands are important elements to include in education

and societal understanding of the value of wetlands. Ecosystem services (ES) are defined

as “the benefits people obtain from ecosystems” (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,

2005, p. v). They can further be distinguished as provisioning, regulating, cultural, or

supporting services. Wetlands are important areas for the provision of ecosystem

services. Within the wetland complex, different wetlands have different functions and

values. To maintain these functions, ecosystem services, and values, wetland polices need

to consider the integrated value of wetland diversity (Hayashi et al., 2016). No net loss

policies should not only pertain to acreage or wetlands, but also to ecosystem functions,

values, and services.

Stakeholders at different spatial scales can have very different interests in ecosystem

services. A study conducted by Hein et al. (2006) suggests that ecosystem services such

as fishing and hunting are important at the municipal level, while recreation is most

relevant at the municipal and provincial level. However, nature conservation is often only

important in particular at the national and international level, though there are exceptions.

This scale differential in valuation of ecosystem services is important to consider in

application of support for the formulation or implementation of ecosystem management

plans (Hein et al., 2006).

In the United States, the Wetland Ecosystem Services Protocol for the United States

(WESPUS) was developed as a standardized method for use in rapid assessments of

ecosystem services (functions and values) of all wetland types throughout temperate

North America. It assesses services at the individual wetland scale, rather than across

large landscapes. However, WESPUS incorporates many landscape factors, especially as

they relate to the values of a wetland’s functions (Adamus, 2011). It is intended to

provide wetland managers with “consistent and accurate numeric estimates of the relative

ability of a wetland to support a wide variety of functions and values important to

society) (Adamus, 2011, p.1). WESPUS was used to develop a similar method for

Alberta, the Wetland Ecosystem Services Protocol for Southern Alberta (WESPAB)

(Adamus, 2013), currently known as ABWRET-A (Government of Alberta, 2015d).

6.1 Valuation and Ecological Services

The value of ecological areas in terms of ecological services (ES) and the valuation of

those services have been heavily studied since the 1970s. However, the value of

ecological goods and services has not been fully developed for wetlands, primarily as


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land value changes, societal norms and values vary, and services are varied for wetlands

types.

Wetlands supply a variety of services. Some values are more quantifiable, and some are

not as quantifiable but may be more important on a larger scale (Mitsch & Gosselink,

2000). Often, primary consideration is given to the value of the provisioning services

(natural resources i.e. fiber, peat, growing food, animal meat) and the regulating services

done by natural systems (filtering, producing oxygen, flood protection, etc.). Odum

(1979) discussed how this might look in terms of types of wetland functions or values,

and how well their value can be quantified (i.e. monetarily). At the local and population

level, fish & wildlife, land value, and other component values are easily accounted for,

yet make up a relatively small part of the total value. At the ecosystem level, hydrologic

and biological productivity functions/values are hard to quantify, but increasing research

in this area has led to progress. Lastly, global scale functions and values, such as waste

and pollution assimilation, chemical cycling, and atmospheric stability have primarily

externalized economic value (Odum, 1979).

However, there are also the health, well-being, and cultural services (i.e. inspiration for

art, recreation, aesthetics, etc.) provided by wetlands. Cultural and non-use values have

traditionally been difficult in the economic valuation of ecosystem services and are often

excluded. In 2011, the Government of Alberta conducted a pilot study on ecosystem

services approaches for wetlands east of the City of Calgary. Several reports were

written, each focusing on different types of ES assessment approaches and values

(Government of Alberta, 2011b). The purpose of the study was to develop and

operationalize an ES approach as a tool to enhance wetland management decision-

making to include a variety of ES values, including cultural and non-use ecosystem

services.

6.2 Human Health and Wellbeing

In many countries around the world, wetlands are involved in complicated situations of

water safety, and perceptions as sources for vector-borne illness (Horwitz & Finlayson,

2011). In Canada, these worries are minimal due to our water treatment facilities and our

relative distance from wetlands in most cases. Interactions with wetlands and shallow

groundwater stores would be the exception.

However, as more work is done on how to manage and live with wetlands, as well as

understanding and appreciating their value, this work is incorporated into the movement

towards a wider recognition of the meaningful relationships that exist between the well-

being of people and the state of the environment they live in (Horwitz & Finlayson,

2011). This suggests that values attributed to wetlands (as well as other ecosystems)

http://environment.gov.ab.ca/info/listing.asp?txtsearch=ecosystem+services&searchtype=asset&audience


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ought to incorporate overall human well-being. One aspect includes the psychosocial

well-being and mental health impact. For many, especially landowners or those who visit

particular wetlands regularly, wetlands are a part of their sense of place, and a change in

these wetlands can have a strong impact of mental health (Higginbotham et al., 2007;

Horwitz & Finlayson, 2011). Factors of lifestyle are also related to the ecosystem

services, such as leisure, recreation and sporting activities, and education, provide both

physical and mental health, given natural affinities for wetlands, lakes, and watercourses

(Horwitz & Finlayson, 2011).

6.3 Cultural Values

As part of the human well-being aspect of wetlands, cultural and spiritual values are also

important to consider as these can be linked to mental well-being. Many individuals and

cultures hold a spiritual significance of water (Horwitz & Finlayson, 2011) and the

natural systems in general. Spiritual, inspirational, and place values are not products of

one kind of experience, but result from different kinds of experiences associated with

ecosystems (Chan et al., 2012), including wetlands. Specifically, for many cultures and

individuals, water has a spiritual significance (Horwitz & Finlayson, 2011).

Social and economic wetland values are often intertwined, or at least overlap, especially

in the agricultural context (Graymore & McBride, 2013). Some farmers already

understand the benefits of wetlands and already implement conservation measures to

enhance those benefits. As a result, natural resource management organizations involved

in wetland management should develop stronger relationships with landowners. In

conjunction with adaptive management strategies that acknowledge existing conservation

measures being implemented, integrating the knowledge of these other stakeholders

keeps them as allies and important resources.

As part of the ES pilot study, (Government of Alberta, 2011b), discussion was given to

cultural services and benefits associated with wetlands as “long term consequences for

cultural benefits are greater than the loss of individual wetlands” (Government of

Alberta, 2011b, p.71). These losses are not directly compensated for through the creation

of another wetland in another location.

The cultural services and benefits of wetlands and the experiences they provide come

from single wetlands, as well as from the wetland landscape. As a result, these cultural

perspectives help people, and decision makers, consider the cumulative and long-term

effects on wetlands. Loss of and impacts to wetlands influence people’s ability to use and

appreciate wetlands and wetland landscapes locally and regionally, and over the long

term. Understanding more about cultural services also adds support to avoidance,

mitigation and compensation decisions (Government of Alberta, 2011a).


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6.3.1 Recreation

Recreation and aesthetic values of wetlands, and their associated activities are often

undervalued in management plans and policies. Public wetlands are often important sites

for other tourism and recreation activities, such as fishing, canoeing, photography,

hiking, bird watching, nature study, cross-country skiing, scientific study, camping, and

picnicking. Private and public wetlands can also be a significant source of revenue

regionally, especially from hunters (Johnson, 1984). As the net economic benefits

associated with wetlands-based recreation may be substantial, recreational functions

provided by wetlands must be considered for wetlands policy and management

(Bergström et al., 1990).

Though many recreational uses of wetlands exist because of high biodiversity at

wetlands, some recreational activities can foster conflicts between wildlife and human

use. Some types of recreation disturb wildlife and water bird nests (i.e. water-based

activities), while other types of recreation can negatively influence and degrade buffers,

altering the function of buffers. This can be especially true for urban wetlands where

trails and paths are often placed within the buffers/riparian areas (Weston et al., 2009).

A growing area of concern is the use of off-highway vehicle (OHV) in wetlands. Aside

from the impacts on vegetation and disruption of wildlife, OHV use in wetlands can

increase sedimentation and turbidity, altering the hydrology of the wetland (Ouren et al.,

2007). Contaminants could also enter wetlands through direct flushing of exposed

contaminants from fuel, oil, and emissions. There is also a concern about the potential for

adsorbed contaminants to be transported with precipitation runoff and into wetlands,

along with absorbed contaminants in plant materials. Erosion from riparian and upland

use of OHVs can also occur (Ouren et al., 2007).

Few regulations exist pertaining to OHV use in wetlands. Though the Alberta

government encourages OHV operators to avoid wetlands and cross only at bridges and

other designated crossings (Alberta Environment and Parks, 2016b; Alberta

Transportation, 2010), only the SSRP (Government of Alberta, 2014) has regulatory

details outlining OHV use on various public lands.

Nova Scotia, under its Off-highway Vehicles Act (2010), does not permit the operation of

off-highway vehicles in or on wetlands, swamps, or marshes unless they have a permit to

do so, or unless the wetland is covered by compacted or groomed snow of at least thirty

centimetres deep. This is the only Canadian example of strict prohibition of OHVs from

wetlands.


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Management of wetlands through a management framework and process could help to

alleviate conflict and maximise the value of a site for wildlife and human recreation

interests as much as possible (Kirby et al., 2004). However, it is important to

acknowledge that in some cases this may not be possible.

6.4 Payment for Ecosystem Services

Many studies have been conducted to identify, examine, and approximate monetary

values for the spectrum of wetland services (i.e. Boyer & Polasky, 2004; Brander et al.,

2013; Cai et al., 2013; Gascoigne et al., 2011; Gren et al, 1994; Grygoruk et al., 2013;

Mann et al., 2014; Musamba et al., 2012; Pattison et al., 2011; Rafiq et al., 2014;

Söderqvist et al., 2000; Thompson & Young, 1992; Turner et al, 2000;). Of all the

ecosystems, wetlands seem to have attracted most of the attention of this approach, more

than riparian areas or even uplands (though past programs have targeted uplands and

native prairie), especially in the Prairie provinces. Though some studies can approximate

the value of the land plus the multitude of functions and their value, wetlands are

complex systems and likely have synergistic relationships that are almost impossible to

reduce to their components. In addition, there are the non-use and cultural/spiritual values

and functions that are arguably invaluable.

There are several reasons research into the valuation of ecosystem services began. First, it

was done to have a way to get those who destroy ecosystem services to pay compensation

and/or restoration. Secondly, it was to create a business case for conservation and

protection to society in general or for a certain sector, but also to create a basis for the

idea of compensating landowners to protect or manage the ecosystem services (i.e.

riparian areas, wetlands) for the rest of society. As well, it was important for regulators in

order to implement better regulation around wetland removal and compensation.

Though the services and functions of wetland ecosystems are increasingly recognized as

important from policy and management perspective, they are still considerably under-

valued by society (Badiou et al., 2011). Some of this may be due to the perceived

negative aspects of wetlands and the management of those challenges.


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7 Additional Challenges in Wetland Management

Though wetlands provide many important benefits, functions, and services, there are

some additional significant challenges pertaining to wetland management. Whether they

are based on perceptions, human interference, or changing climate, these topics deserve

attention, and need to be understood in light of managing wetlands.

7.1 Beavers

Beavers, as a keystone species, modify the habitat of wetlands (or create wetlands) to

make them more beneficial for beavers, as well as for other species. Though beavers are

much maligned by some for the flooding effects of beaver ponds, appropriate land use for

long-term benefit can allow for co-existence and is essential for sustainability. Cows and

Fish (2013) developed a tool for decision-making about potential concerns and

opportunities developed a beaver management matrix for agricultural producers

regarding beavers on their land.

Beavers, through their channeling, dredging, and damming activities in wetlands,

increase the amount, and duration, of water storage in wetlands with implications for

drought and climate instability (Hood & Bayley, 2008). As well, beaver ponds tend to

have higher biodiversity the wetlands without beavers. This is true for invertebrates Hood

& Larson, 2014a), amphibians (Anderson, 2013; Anderson et al., 2014; Stevens et al.,

2007), waterfowl (Bromley & Hood, 2013; Shutler et al., 2000), and mammals (Nelner &

Hood, 2011). Beaver channels increase the complexity of the bed and shore, increasing

habitat for invertebrates at the base of the food chain. Increased complexity created by

beavers increases perimeter length, leading to higher perimeter to area ratios. In the

Miquelon Lake Provincial Park area, at the edge of the Battle River watershed, beaver-

modified wetlands foster higher levels biodiversity among many types of mammals than

at non-beaver-modified wetlands, both in the protected area and in an agricultural setting

(Nelner & Hood, 2011).

Despite their benefits, living with beavers can be challenging. Many areas have

recognized the place of beavers in maintaining ecosystems, and have developed ways on

working with them. Multiple states in the U.S. have seen the value of beavers, and have

developed different management techniques to achieve their desired results (see

Needham & Morzillo, 2011; Pollock et al., 2015; Tippie, 2010; Utah Division of Wildlife

Resources, 2010). Similar management efforts are beginning in Alberta. The Miistakis

Institute (Haddock, 2015), and Beaver County in collaboration with University of Alberta

(Hood & Yarmey, 2015), have been working on strategies on how to incorporate the use

of beavers in watershed stewardship and climate change adaptation.


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There have also been discussions about implementing beaver restoration in some

location. This is often connected with the desire of wetland restoration and restoring the

species dependant upon wetland habitat. Though restoring wetlands and riparian areas

may bring beavers through migration, the idea of translocating beaver to assist with

wetland restoration has been proposed. Though some American jurisdictions allow (or at

least do not regulate) beaver translocation, it will be important to understand how beaver

restoration could fit into Alberta’s Wetland Policy and wetland restoration, especially

from a wetland replacement perspective (Haddock, 2015). It is also extremely important

to consult with all stakeholders who would be affected by such measures. Currently, it is

prohibited to have possession of a wild animal without a permit, or to release an animal

from captivity (Wildlife Act, 2000), as well as regulations on trapping beavers. No

guidelines exist on trapping and relocation of beavers, such as holding requirements,

suitable release habitat, and minimum distance from source location, or follow-up

monitoring (Specht, 2015).

7.2 Mosquitoes and Wetlands

Aside from beavers, the other type of organism commonly associated with wetlands that

can foster hostility and annoyance is the mosquito. Though mosquitos are vectors for

diseases, such as the West Nile virus in Canada (and many other countries around the

world), several studies suggest that mosquito control has primarily been needed in

constructed wetlands or stormwater ponds (i.e. Jackson et al., 2009). This is likely due to

several factors. Firstly, these waterbodies are where humans are most concentrated and

where a lot of recreation occurs, unlike in the remote peatlands or other natural wetlands.

Secondly, most naturally occurring wetlands have established ecosystems with well-

developed natural feedback mechanisms, such as predator-prey interactions, which tend

to keep opportunistic species (i.e. mosquitoes) in check (Chase & Shulman, 2009;

Greenway, 2005; Jackson et al., 2009). These natural checks and balances are not easily

duplicated in artificial systems. Most natural wetlands, especially beaver-modified

wetlands (Butts, 2001, 2004; Hood & Larson, 2014a), have fewer larval mosquitoes. This

may be due to healthy populations of predators (Chase & Shulman, 2009), or

unfavourable habitat characteristics (Hood & Larson, 2014a).

7.3 Invasive Species

Over the years, invasive species have become an issue in many altered or disturbed

wetlands, as well as those that are used as recreation sites in Alberta and throughout

North America. As defined in a report by Skinner (forthcoming), invasive species are

non-native species “whose introduction and spread causes or may cause harm to the local

environment, human health, society, and economic activity” (p.8). They often are able to


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spread rapidly with few or no natural predators, and limited control mechanisms for them

exist. Though no records of invasive aquatic plants or animals have been reported in

wetlands of our watersheds, they may be there already, or could appear at any time.

Appropriate prevention and management actions are required at all times to ensure these

species do not gain a foothold in our watershed.

Invasive species are problematic biologically as they often out-compete native species,

leading to a decline in biodiversity an ecosystem function. They can also damage or

overtake the land and substrate. Up until recently, most of the recognized problematic

species have been plant species. Some of the more common/problematic invasive aquatic

plants in wetlands and riparian plants are (Alberta Invasive Plants Council, 2012):

Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) (shore)

Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) (aquatic)

Flowering-rush (Butomus umbellatus) (shore)

Yellow flag Iris (Iris pseudacorus) (shore)

Curly leaf pondweed (Potamogeton crispus) (aquatic)

Himalayan Balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) (shore)

Didymo (Didymosphenia geminate) (aquatic)

European common reed (Phragmites australis australis) (shore/aquatic)

Salt Cedar (Tamarix spp.) (shore)

Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) (aquatic), and

Brazilian Elodea (Egeria densa)

Within the last decade, fish species, such as goldfish and Prussian carp (Carassius

gibelio), and bullhead catfish have become greater concerns, and are some of the

prohibited species in Alberta. Aquarium owners often release these fish species (as well

as some of the invasive aquatic plants) into ponds, wetlands, and lakes. In the past,

triploid (sterile) grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) were used for weed control in

urban waterbodies and rural dugouts and ponds in Alberta. Though this species is now

prohibited across Canada (Skinner, 2016), remnant populations may still persist.

The presence of zebra mussels in Lake Winnipeg has become a concern for Alberta. As

this species is now present in the watershed we are connected to, zebra mussels could

travel to our reaches through water connectivity, as well as via their most common mode

of transport – hitchhiking. These mussels, along with many invasive aquatic plant

species, can attach to boats, fishing gear, or caught in propellers. The Fisheries (Alberta)

Act (2015) has a list of 52 prohibited aquatic species, many of which could pose a threat

to wetlands.

Wild boar has become an issue in the Prairies. They damage upland habitat, and could be

potentially quite destructive for wetlands. Wild boars often make nests from cattails and


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other wetland grasses. As they root and dig, they eat large amounts of native vegetation,

and even eat nesting waterfowl (Nature Conservancy of Canada, 2015). No reports of

wild board have been issued within the Battle River or Sounding Creek watersheds, but

as this species expands its range, it may enter our area.

Stormwater wetlands (and ponds) have recently become sites of concern for

invasive/exotic species through the intentional release of aquarium pets. This has led to

goldfish infestations of stormwater sites in various locations throughout Alberta (K.

Wilson, personal communication, December 8, 2016). Though this has not yet been an

issue in the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds, the potential exists. It is illegal

to intentionally release aquarium pets into the wild (Alberta Environment and Parks,

2016a; Fisheries (Alberta) Act, 2000). Some aquarium plant and fish/animal species are

invasive and can become a threat to natural aquatic ecosystems.

Though invasive species have found niches in some of our wetlands, some management

is possible, such as killing any non-native fish you find. Ensuring these species do not

spread is crucial to maintain wetland health and biodiversity. Increased management of

invasive species will be essential to reduce stress on wetlands in a changing climate

(Erwin, 2009).

7.4 Wetlands and Climate Change

As climate change progresses, the role of and impact on wetlands is uncertain. How

wetlands respond to climate change will vary depending on factors such as geographic

location, hydrology, morphology, vulnerability, and current & future socio-economic

effects (Cox & Campbell, 1997). Erwin (2009) suggested that climate change with

impact wetlands directly and indirectly in two major ways through the effects of

temperature changes, changes in hydrology and land use. There will be an overall decline

in the number of functioning wetlands and their functional capacity and shifts in

geographic location of wetland types. Wetland habitats will be impacted climate change

differently on a regional and watershed level, so it is important to recognize specific

management and restoration issues will require examination by habitat (Erwin, 2009).

Based on climate modelling done by Johnson et al. (2005) (see also Mitsch and

Hernandez, 2013), the western portion of the PPR (Alberta and Saskatchewan) will likely

see a drying trend, whereas the more eastern and southern parts will likely get wetter.

This drying, compounded by any continual loss, will reduce both the number and quality

of wetlands in the Alberta portion of the PPR. Shorter pond permanence, change in

permanence, increase in frost-free days, and the resulting less dynamic vegetation cycles

will further reduce productivity in much of Canada’s western PPR wetlands that have

may have already showed a decline due to climate change (Johnson et al., 2010; Renton


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et al., 2015; Werner et al., 2013). These changes will influence biological,

biogeochemical, and hydrological functions in wetland ecosystems, as well as the

associated socio-economic benefits (Cox & Campbell, 1997).

The climate and wetlands of the PPR should be monitored closely in the future to look

for signs of higher evaporative demand and reduced pond permanence to prepare for with

less-productive wetlands, especially in western Canada (Millett et al., 2009; Mitsch and

Hernandez 2013). More long-term wetland monitoring sites in the PPR that could better

detect early signs of warming on water levels and pond permanence would greatly benefit

adaptive management efforts (Conley & van der Kamp, 2001).

As wetlands are important areas for net in carbon storage (Badiou et al 2011; Mitsch &

Gosselink, 2000), wetland restoration could be a potential climate change mitigation tool

(Badiou et al., 2011). Constructed wetlands are higher emitters of carbon dioxide and

methane than natural wetlands, so these should to be designed and managed properly

(Kayranli et al., 2010).

With their ability to store water, wetlands help manage extremes in water quantity.

Wetlands that have been altered by beaver activity by the creation of channels that

distribute water far beyond the waterbody’s edge, dams that hold water and sediment, and

have increased depth and complexity, foster the creation of healthy wetland and riparian

areas and are more resistant to disturbance in climate (Hood & Bayley, 2008; Hood &

Larson, 2014b). This applies not only to natural cycles of drought, but also to increased

climatic variability, loss of hydrostationarity (the previously used water management

approaches based on precipitation patterns of the past expected to remain stable into the

future), and extreme weather events that are likely to accompany climate change and

disruption.


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8 Governance and Legislation

Many North American jurisdictions have adopted the hierarchical mitigation direction of

1) avoidance, 2) minimize impacts, and 3) compensation in wetland management (Clare

et al., 2011). Complimenting this, the no net loss policy has also frequently been used.

However, operationally, compensation has become the preferred mechanism in many

jurisdictions.

In this section, various policies, legislation, and other governance tools that have been

developed are discussed. Though these samples are North American, various European

and Asian countries have also developed policies regarding wetland management.

8.1 Federal

Formal federal legislation does not exist in Canada for the protection and conservation of

wetlands. Canada does have a national wetland policy. The objective of the Federal

Policy on Wetland Conservation put out by the Government of Canada (1991) is to

“promote the conservation of Canada's wetlands to sustain their ecological and socio-

economic functions, now and in the future” (p.5). Wetland conservation is supported

throughout the full extent of federal decisions and responsibilities. The Policy is not a

regulatory document, though the federal Cabinet “directed that it should be applied to all

policies, plans, programs, projects, and activities carried out by the federal government”

(Lynch-Stewart et al, 1996, p.7).

By working in cooperation with provinces and territories, the Federal Government of

Canada strives to achieve the several goals:

maintenance of the functions and values derived from wetlands throughout

Canada;

no net loss of wetland functions on all federal lands and waters;

enhancement and rehabilitation of wetlands in areas where the continuing loss or

degradation of wetlands or their functions have reached critical levels;

recognition of wetland functions in resource planning, management and economic

decision-making with regard to all federal programs, policies and activities;

securement of wetlands of significance to Canadians;

recognition of sound, sustainable management practices in sectors such as forestry

and agriculture that make a positive contribution to wetland conservation while

also achieving wise use of wetland resources; and

utilization of wetlands in a manner that enhances prospects for their sustained and

productive use by future generations (Government of Canada, 1991, p.5-6).

In conjunction with the Policy, the Government of Canada also released an

implementation guide (Lynch-Stewart et al., 1996). This guide was designed to “assist


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federal land managers when making decisions that may affect wetlands”, as well as to

“assist departmental policy makers in developing "customized" departmental plans and

directives for implementing the Policy” (Lynch-Stewart et al., 1996, p.7), by providing

a reference on policy interpretation, explaining the wording and intent of Policy

statements;

practical information on the roles and responsibilities of federal land managers

and the Canadian Wildlife Service, as well as on the processes and tools for

implementing those responsibilities; and,

references and resources available to assist land managers in carrying out their

wetland conservation responsibilities. (Lynch-Stewart et al., 1996, p.7).

There is federal legislation that indirectly addresses wetland conservation and

compensation. Under the Migratory Bird Convention Act, no disturbance to nests or

nesting birds is permitted during breeding and nesting periods (approx. early April to late

August in most parts of Canada). Some bird species have more specific legislation

requirements under the Species at Risk Act. Industrial activities can affect migratory birds

by disturbing land (i.e. road construction, clearing trees), sensory disturbance (i.e. noise,

light), and through emergencies (i.e. fires, spills) (Alberta Wetland Policy, 2016)

In addition, the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, the Fisheries Act, the

Navigable Waters Protection Act, and the Convention on Biological Diversity

(Convention on Biological Diversity Secretariat, n.d.) may have implications for projects

that impact wetlands or wetland species in Alberta, and for Alberta wetlands in general.

The extent to which these requirements are applied and enforced is a topic of much

controversy, and further discussions about collaborative management are needed.

The lands of CFB Wainwright, located within the Battle River watershed, is owned by

the Department of Defence. Like other federal ministries, it adheres to the Federal Policy

on Wetland Conservation (Government of Canada, 1991). Additionally, as a leaseholder

of Alberta Public lands, they are also must the objective of Provincial and Federal Acts,

policies, and regulations regarding wetlands. CFB Wainwright is developing the

strategies to protect wetlands, including use and development of an environmental

awareness map, oil & gas management and development, grazing agreements, managing

beaver activity, and designated fording sites (CFB/ASU Wainwright – Base

Environment, 2013). The aim is to effectively and sustainably manage land use and

natural resources while providing realistic military training (CFB/ASU Wainwright –

Base Environment, 2013).


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8.2 Provincial

Aside from Alberta, several provinces in Canada, including Ontario (Ministry of Natural

Resources and Forestry, 2016), British Columbia (Wetland Stewardship Partnership,

2010), Nova Scotia (Nova Scotia Environment, 2011), and P.E.I. (P.E.I. Fisheries,

Aquaculture and Environment, 2007), have developed wetland strategies, policies, and

other management tools that influence wetland governance. To maintain a regional

context for the purpose of this report, this section will focus on the Prairie Provinces, as

they are all part of the PPR.

8.2.1 Alberta

8.2.1.1 Provincial-level policy

The Water Act is the primary legislation in Alberta that works to protect watercourses

and waterbodies on private and public lands, including wetlands. Unlike the Alberta

Wetland Policy (AESRD, 2013), the Water Act protects ephemeral waterbodies. Other

pieces of legislation, such as Municipal Government Act, Environmental Protection and

Enhancement Act, and the Public Lands Act all contain different aspects of wetland

management. For a summary of how these acts are involved, please refer to the Alberta

Water Council’s Recommendations for a New Alberta Wetland Policy (Alberta Water

Council, 2008a).

The Water Act is the primary legislation in Alberta that enables management and

protection of water and waterbodies on private and public lands. The Water Act is the

enabling legislation for the Alberta Wetland Policy (AESRD, 2013), as wetlands are

considered waterbodies under the act. Other pieces of legislation, such as Municipal

Government Act, Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act, and the Public Lands

Act are also relevant for wetland management.

Alberta’s Wetland Management in the Settled Area of Alberta: An Interim Policy

(Alberta Water Resources Commission, 1993b) was developed in response to increased

public awareness about wetland values and the need for wetland management in the

White Area of Alberta. This policy, along with Beyond Prairie Potholes (Alberta Water

Resources Commission, 1993a), were created in response to increased public awareness

about wetland values and the need for wetland management. The stated goal of the

interim policy was to “sustain the social, economic and environmental benefits that

functioning wetlands provide, now and in the future” (Alberta Water Resources

Commission, 1993b, p.1). It was in this document that the mitigation hierarchy was

introduced with preference given to conserving sloughs/marshes in their natural state,

then mitigating degradation or loss at or near the site of disturbance, then lastly


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enhancing, restoring, or creating sloughs/marshes in other areas where wetlands have

been lost or degraded (Alberta Water Resources Commission, 1993b).

In 2013, the Alberta Wetland Policy (AESRD, 2013) replaced the interim policy, with

full implementation in both the Green and White areas of Alberta in 2016, and provides

policy, direction, and tools to support wetland management in the province. Wetlands are

a key component of watershed health in and the Alberta Wetland Policy is integral to the

achievement of all three goals of Water for Life. The Alberta Wetland Policy “provides

the strategic direction and tools required to make informed management decisions in the

long-term interest of Albertans” (AESRD, 2013, p.2), with the goal of conserving,

restoring, protecting, and managing Alberta’s wetlands “to sustain the benefits they

provide to the environment, society, and economy” (AESRD, 2013, p.2). The Alberta

Wetland Policy is supported by a number of tools and directives, including the Wetland

Identification and Delineation Directive, the Wetland Assessment and Impact Report

Directive, the Wetland Mitigation Directive, the Alberta Wetland Restoration Directive,

the Guide for Assessing Permanence of Wetland Basins, the Alberta Merged Wetland

Inventory (AMWI), the Alberta Wetland Classification System, and the Alberta Wetland

Rapid Evaluation Tool (ABWRET).

The Alberta Wetland Policy addresses wetland values and functions by using a relative

wetland value based on the following functions: biodiversity and ecological health, water

quality improvement, hydrologic function, and human uses. Value categories of A to D

are based on criteria related to these functions, as well as in consideration of the relative

abundance wetlands in a given region of the province. The value categories are used to

determine replacement values, in the case that wetland impacts are unavoidable. The

Alberta Wetland Mitigation Directive (Government of Alberta, 2015b) is a key

component of the Alberta Wetland Policy. The stated goal of the directive is to “inform

decision making to avoid and minimize negative impacts to wetlands and, where

necessary, replace lost wetland area and value”. The Alberta Wetland Restoration

Directive guides the process for replacement of wetlands and wetland values.

If there is a proposed direct or indirect impact to a wetland, an application for an approval

under the Water Act must be submitted; the requirements in the Alberta Wetland Policy

directives are administered through the approvals process. Submission of regulatory

documents in support of an application to cause impacts to a wetland must be

authenticated by a qualified individual. Alberta Environment and Parks has collaborated

with ten professional organizations in the province to develop the Practice Standard for

Wetland Science, Design, and Engineering. In addition to holding a designation with a

professional organization, a practitioner must meet specific competency and professional

experience requirements in order to authenticate regulatory documents. Under this

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system, the professional organization evaluates their members for competency and scope

of practice in the fields of wetland science, design and engineering.

The applicant must demonstrate sufficient consideration of the mitigation hierarchy

avoid, minimize, and in the case of unavoidable impacts, meet the requirements for

replacement.

The priority is to replace wetlands near the point of original wetland loss. Wetland

restoration on private land is voluntary. As defined in the Wetland Restoration Directive,

there are three options for restorative replacement: payment to the in-lieu fee program

allocated to restorative replacement with wetland restoration completed by a Wetland

Replacement Agent, purchase of credits from a third-party wetland bank, or permitee-

responsible replacement. It is anticipated that municipalities, environmental non-

governmental organizations, consultants, and other organizations will be able to deliver

wetland replacement services.

\Wetland conservation and restoration goals are supported by various tools enabled under

the Policy but stewardship is also recognized in the Policy as an important component of

effective wetland management. Stewardship will be advanced through education and

awareness, voluntary programs, and/or incentives to encourage wetland conservation,

restoration, and protection. Alberta Environment and Parks is currently working with

stakeholders to explore opportunities for enhanced wetland stewardship, including the

creation of a wetland banking program.

Several grants are currently available for creating and restoring wetlands. For example,

Watershed Resiliency and Restoration Program (WRRP), through Alberta Environment

and Parks (AEP), and the Growing Forward 2 program, though Alberta Agriculture and

Forestry (AAF), provide financial assistance for restoration or creation of wetlands.

Replacement agents like DUC may also pay landowners for voluntary restoration (T.

Scott, personal communication, October 17, 2016).

Another joint program through Growing Forward 2 and Government of Alberta is the

Agricultural Watershed Enhancement (AWE) Program. AWE aims to promote wetland

restoration and riparian health BMPs by producers within the agricultural sectors

(AESRD, 2014a).

Accompanying the new wetland policy are several directives. The Alberta Wetland

Identification and Delineation Directive (Government of Alberta, 2015a) is to improves

both the accuracy and consistency of delineating wetlands using standardized

identification and delineation methods. The directive can also be used for other related

initiatives such as creating wetland inventories, land use planning, and establishing

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setbacks (Government of Alberta, 2015a). The Alberta Wetland Mitigation Directive

(Government of Alberta, 2015b) informs “decision making to avoid and minimize

negative impacts to wetlands and, where necessary, replace lost wetland area and value”

(p.2). This directive lays out how proponents should proceed in avoiding and minimizing

impacts, as well as what must be included in a Wetland Minimization Proposal, and how

they plan to address reclamation where needed. The Wetland Replacement Matrix,

replacements proposals and conditions, and replacement fees are also discussed.

In 2016, the Canadian Institute of Resources Law, with Alberta NAWMP Partnership,

released the revised Alberta Wetlands: A Law and Policy Guide (Kwasniak, 2016)

developed a document outlining the legal and policy status of wetlands in Alberta. This

document outlining the legal and policy status of wetlands in Alberta, and provides an in-

depth look at wetland and riparian areas within the international, federal, and Alberta

legal framework.

8.2.1.2 Regional

Within Alberta, several regional approaches influence the management of wetlands

within the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds. Some pertain specifically to the

Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds, and some are regional initiatives or

organizations that operate within the watersheds.

The Approved Water Management Plan for the Battle River Basin (Alberta) (AESRD,

2014b) outlines that maintenance and restoration of wetlands is preferred to drainage. It

also stipulates that wetland compensation for drainage within the basin must be applied

within the Battle River Basin, and be located as near as is practical to the wetland where

impact occurred. Other guidelines with respect to expansion of drainage infrastructure are

included.

Though they do not cover all of the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds, the

drainage districts also play an important role in managing wetlands. The Drainage

District Act allows the district to enforce the closure or removal of any unauthorised

works including existing ditch modification, culvert installation or new construction.

Though previously involved in wetland drainage, drainage districts could provide a

mechanism and opportunity to control wetland modification, especially in coordination

with the new Alberta Wetland Policy. Districts have been able to enforce the reduction of

wetland removal by refusal to improve ditches that would allow work, and by restricting

outflow with smaller diameter culverts. If the districts are able to modify their assessment

format in the future, there could be opportunities to directly fund wetland retention or

increase assessments for wetland removal (A. Corbett, personal communication,

November 19, 2016).


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Work has also begun by North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP) in

collaboration with other regional planning bodies (Land Use Framework, Alberta

Environment and Parks, WPACs, and municipalities) to develop regional wetland

management objectives. Though this work is still in the preliminary stages, setting

regional wetland objectives would support the work of the Wetland Policy by setting

recommendations for how the wetland policy outcomes could be accomplished in a given

region. This approach would take regional context and values into account, and ensure

wetland planning occurs across the province at appropriate scales. As a tool to ensure key

wetlands and wetland habitats are conserved, it would also help ensure all stakeholders

are involved to help make trade-off decisions as needed in regards to wetland restoration,

conservation, and disturbance.

8.2.1.3 Municipal

The 2013 Municipal Water Policy on Wetlands by AUMA (2013) developed to provide a

municipal perspective on the implementation the new Alberta wetland policy laid out

several policy direction statements suggesting how municipalities and their partners can

work towards conserving and restoring wetlands. The implementation of this policy will

be ongoing as the provincial partners roll out the wetland policy.

Municipalities also have some control through the Municipal Government Act over

waterbodies and land use in their jurisdiction. Land use bylaws and municipal develops

plans are a couple of these tools that can be used to manage upland land use,

buffers/setbacks, associated riparian areas, and other land management aspects of

wetland management. Several municipalities within the Battle River Watershed suggest

setbacks from wetlands and other environmentally sensitive/significant areas within their

land use bylaws, area structure plans, and municipal development plans (i.e. County of

Wetaskiwin, Leduc County, City of Camrose & Camrose County).

Other municipalities have developed stand-alone wetland policies/plans regarding the

management and conservation of wetlands. The Town of Strathmore’s Wetland

Conservation Plan was created primarily to “identify, map, and classify all of the

wetlands located within the current boundaries of the Town of Strathmore and within the

proposed expansion area” (Sadler, 2005, p.3), including those of environmental

significance. Strathmore’s Wetland Conservation Policy (Town of Strathmore, 2007)

outlines principles and strategies for a Wetland Policy Implementation Plan, including

setbacks, development directions, and staff resources.

The purpose of the Rocky View County’s Wetland Conservation and Management Policy

is to provide polices and procedures to help Rocky View County conserve and manage

wetlands while adopting or amending other municipal bylaws and operating polices and


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plans. This policy will also provide the County, the development industry, and all other

stakeholders “with clear direction for the use and development of all municipal and

private lands in proximity to wetlands” (Rocky View County, 2010, p. 1).

The role of Calgary’s Wetland Conservation Plan is to “provide policies and procedures

for the conservation of wetlands within the city of Calgary (City of Calgary, 2004, p.30),

and to help Calgarians gain an awareness, understanding, and appreciation of the benefits

of wetlands.

Edmonton’s Wetland Strategy was created to unite “efforts to conserve wetlands into a

single document, in order to strengthen and coordinate the City’s wetland conservation

approach, raise the profile of the City’s work in this area, and help to identify areas for

improvement in current wetland conservation efforts” (City of Edmonton, 2012, p.1). Its

major goals include “secure Edmonton’s wetlands as part of the city’s ecological

network, manage Edmonton’s wetlands to maximize their ecological function, and

engage Edmontonians to support wetland conservation” (City of Edmonton, 2012, p.1).

8.2.2 Saskatchewan

Currently, no provincial wetland policy or legislation has been approved in

Saskatchewan, though new regulations regarding agricultural drainage were recently

updated. The Agricultural Water Management Strategy (Water Security Agency, 2015)

considers the protection and retention of wetlands when granting approvals, with the

possibility of need for compensation or complete retention of the wetland.

Some sources have suggested the development and implementation of individual wetland

management plans by landowners (Huel et al., 2000). This idea could be more easily

implemented when combined with potential support from the provincial Farm

Stewardship Program (FSP) that could provide Saskatchewan producers with financial

assistance to implement BMPs to “help maintain or improve the quality of soil, water, air,

or biodiversity resources” (Government of Saskatchewan, n.d., para. 1).

The City of Saskatoon developed a wetland policy (City of Saskatoon, 2013b) to support

stated wetland conservation and management objectives (City of Saskatoon, 2013a).

These objectives include the responsible stewardship of wetland resources as part of a

holistic approach to urban development, and “to ensure that natural and constructed

wetland resources are integrated into the urban environment, and to conserve the

biodiversity and function of significant wetland resources prior to, during, and after land

development” (City of Saskatoon, 2013a, section 9.5.1).


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8.2.3 Manitoba

Currently, no provincial wetland policy or legislation has been approved in Manitoba,

though a policy framework for wetlands has been proposed (R. McDougal, personal

communication, April 8, 2016). Under the proposed policy framework, larger class 3, 4,

and 5 wetlands (as classified by Stewart & Kantrud, 1971) would be protected from

drainage by regulation. This framework will also utilize the no net loss approach with the

mitigation hierarchy of avoidance, minimization, and compensation (R. McDougal,

personal communication, April 8, 2016).

Under The Water Rights Act, there is a draft concept of the Drainage, Retention, and

Water Control Works Regulation. The goal is to create a regulatory approach to manage

surface water, drainage, and water retention to “reduce the risks to property from excess

water, safeguard human health, conserve and protect wetlands and other sensitive habitat,

provide resilience to droughts, reduce the risk of flooding by retaining water within the

watershed, and minimize the loss of nutrients from the landscape and provide a

mitigation framework for appropriate compensation for unavoidable wetland drainage”

(Government of Manitoba, 2014a, p.12). Ideally, this will be achieved by implementing a

watershed-based planning framework that incorporates the concept of ‘no net increase in

water export’, a concept that suggests that the current total volume of water leaving the

watershed will not increase as a result of human activities such as drainage (Government

of Manitoba, 2014b)

One aspect of this new approach is to regulate the protection of wetlands from on-going

losses with the goal of no-net loss of wetland benefits. This would include protection for

all Class III, IV, and V wetlands (as defined by Stewart and Kantrud (1971)) and

requiring licences for all works impacting these wetlands, and cost and tools for

compensation including direct restoration or purchase of wetland credits (Government of

Manitoba, 2014b).

Winnipeg itself manages wetlands within the context of ecologically significant natural

lands (City of Winnipeg, 2007). Theses are sensitive lands and natural heritage sites,

which the City of Winnipeg has identified as being important to create a vibrant and

healthy city that prioritizes a high quality of life for all its citizens (City of Winnipeg,

2007). The City of Winnipeg aims to be a city “which has protected important pockets of

natural flora and fauna representative of the original natural ecosystems and lands

susceptible to damage from flooding or erosion for the enrichment of the quality of life of

the citizens of Winnipeg” (City of Winnipeg, 2007, p.4).


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8.3 International

Many other nations experience challenges when dealing with wetland management,

especially in growing agricultural nations. To maintain a regional context, focus will be

given to our neighbouring nations in North America.

8.3.1 North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP)

The North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP) is an international

partnership between Canada, the United States, and Mexico created in 1986 that focuses

on habitat conservation to sustain waterfowl and other water and shore bird populations

(Alberta NAWMP Partnership, 2015). The NAWMP also aims to provide a strategy for

the long-term protection of wetlands and associated uplands habitats needed by

waterfowl and other migratory birds in North America (FWS, 2016b). They work with

local regional joint ventures to facilitate local actions.

NAWMP, in conjunction with the Prairie Habitat Joint Venture, works to facilitate

educational opportunities and stewardship actions throughout the Canadian Prairies, as

well as assisting in the role-out of the new Alberta Wetland Policy implementation

(Prairie Habitat Joint Venture, 2014). In the U.S., the Prairie Pothole Joint Venture

includes all the U.S. states part of the PPR.

8.3.2 United States

As a neighbour and a NAWMP partner, understanding the legislation and policies that

the United States have in place is important, especially in terms of future collaboration.

Many states have experienced significant wetland loss post-European settlement. Some

have worked to protect remaining wetlands, and worked to restore some of what was lost.

Like Canada, the U.S. has adopted the no net loss policy (Clare et al., 2011, Hough &

Robertson, 2009). In the United States, five federal agencies share the responsibility for

protecting and managing wetlands. These include the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

(Corps), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

(FWS), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (primarily coastal

wetlands), and Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). Additionally,

Department of Commerce, Department of Agriculture, the Department of Defense, and

the Department of the Interior also have some responsibility, along with state

governments, in managing wetlands.

Clean Water Act

The primary legislation concerning the management of wetlands in the U.S. is the

Federal Water Pollution Control Act (more commonly known as the Clean Water Act)

http://www.phjv.ca/index.html

http://ppjv.org/


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(Environmental Protection Agency [EPA] 2015b). The Clean Water Act (CWA) regulates

discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States, and water quality standards

for all contaminants in surface water (EPA, 2015b), and specifically, Section 404 was

intended to “restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the

Nation's waters, including wetlands” (EPA, 2016b, para.1).

Within the Clean Water Act is the Clean Water Rule. Broadly, the “Clean Water Rule

ensures that waters protected under the Clean Water Act are more precisely defined,

more predictably determined, and easier for businesses and industry to understand”

(EPA, 2015c, para.1). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Army Corps

of Engineers administers and enforces the Clean Water Rule. The “Clean Water Rule

protects streams and wetlands that are scientifically shown to have the greatest impact on

downstream water quality and form the foundation of our nation’s water resources”

(EPA, 2015a, p.1). Activities such as planting, harvesting, and moving livestock are

exempt from Clean Water Act regulation, therefore Clean Water Rule does not apply to

those areas. Only waters that were historically covered by the Clean Water Act are

protected. However, “[I]t does not interfere with or change private property rights, or

address land use” (EPA, 2015a, p.1).

The North American Wetlands Conservation Act (NAWCA) was passed in 1989 by the

United States Congress to conserve North American wetland ecosystems and waterfowl

and the other migratory birds and other fish and wildlife that depend on these habitats

(North American Wetlands Conservation Council (Canada), n.d.). The NAWCA grant

program provides funding grants to wetlands conservation projects in the United States,

Canada, and Mexico through (FWS, 2016b). Projects are approved through Migratory

Bird Conservation Commission (established under the Migratory Bird Conservation Act),

all aimed at carrying out the NAWMP objectives (FWS, 2016a).

The Farm Bill, introduced in 1985 (amended in 1990, 1996, and 2002), contains the

Highly Erodible Land Conservation and Wetland Conservation Compliance provisions

(also known as Swampbuster). These provisions were put in place to “remove certain

incentives to produce agricultural commodities on converted wetlands or highly erodible

land” (United States Department of Agriculture [USDA], n.d.d, para.1).

Like in Canada, other legislation may also affect wetland management such as

Endangered Species Act, National Environmental Policy Act, North American Wetlands

Conservation Act, and other legislation that impacts land use, water, sensitive areas, and

wildlife. There also many other regulations and executive orders that impact wetland

management on a federal level.

There are also several federal programs to aid agricultural landowners and managers with

sensitive lands and wetland management. The Conservation Reserve Program creates an

https://www.epa.gov/cwa-404/laws-regulations-executive-orders


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agreement to pay farmers to take environmentally sensitive land out of agricultural

production and plant species that will improve environmental health and quality (USDA,

n.d.b). Under the CRP, the Farmable Wetland Program (FWP) aims to restore previously

farmed wetlands and wetland buffers. The FWP is a voluntary program, and participants

must agree to restore the wetlands, establish plant cover, and not use the land enrolled in

the program for commercial purposes (USDA, n.d.c).

The Agricultural Conservation Easement Program provides financial and technical

assistance to aid in the conservation of agricultural lands, wetlands, and their related

benefits and functions (USDA, n.d.a). Under the Agricultural Land Easements

component of this program, Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) helps First

Nations, state and local governments, and non-governmental organizations protect

agricultural lands in production and limit non-agricultural uses of the land. Under the

Wetlands Reserve Easements component, NRCS works to restore, protect and enhance

wetlands enrolled in the program (USDA, n.d.a).

The National Wetland Condition Assessment (NWCA) (EPA, 2016a) was done to answer

questions about how well wetlands in the U.S. support healthy ecological conditions, and

to document the prevalence of key stressors at the national and regional scale. With

ongoing status and trend reports every 5 years, this program aims to (EPA, 2016a;

Hoeven & Dwelle, 2014):

Collaborate with states and tribes to develop and build capacity for

complementary monitoring and assessment tools, analytical approaches, and data

management technology to aid wetland protection and restoration programs;

Create a robust, statistically-valid set of wetland data; and

Develop baseline information to evaluate progress made with wetland protection

and restoration programs.

Some states have wetland monitoring programs that support and participate in the

NWCA, including some mentioned in the next section, many of which have experienced

substantial wetland losses over their history post-European settlement.

8.3.2.1 State-level policy

Several states in the U.S. are also part of the PPR. These include Montana, North Dakota,

South Dakota, Minnesota, and Iowa (and a very small piece in Nebraska). Understanding

what state-specific policies and legislation exist in these states is valuable in

understanding how we might work in tandem to address issues specific to this region.

Since 2012, Ducks Unlimited (and Ducks Unlimited Canada) have been working on a

cross-border initiative Preserving Our Prairies. The aim of the initiative is to protect and

restore grasslands and wetlands in the Prairie Pothole Region by working with


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landowners and managers to protect wetlands and grasslands, and encouraging them to

plant waterfowl-friendly crops such as winter wheat (Ducks Unlimited, n.d.). This

initiative in focused on habitat throughout North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana,

Wyoming, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. Though Wyoming is not part of the

PPR, it spans the area between Montana and the Dakotas.

Each state also has one or more Wetland Management Districts (WMDs) (Figure 16). In

most states, these WMDs cover the majority of the PPR within that state, except

Nebraska. WMDs are units by which the National Wildlife Refuge System acquires

wetlands and grasslands to manage as Waterfowl Production Areas (FWS, 2014). Most

WMDs have completed comprehensive conservation plans. These 15-year plans provide

long-term guidance for management decisions for wetlands, set goals, objectives, and

strategies to accomplish refuge purposes, and identify future needs of the area. Within

these districts, land management tools and methods are utilized to manage wetlands.

Figure 16. Wetland Management Districts of states in the PPR (from FWS, 2014).

8.3.2.1.1 Montana As our closest American neighbour Montana should be considered an important partner

in wetland management. Extensive work has been done in Montana evaluating impacts of

hydrologic changes on different species (Vance et al., 2013) and developing

recommended limits to the amount of hydrologic alteration to reduce negative impacts on

the dependent biology and associated management actions (Phelan, et al., 2013).

Montana’s overarching wetland goal is no net loss of the state’s remaining wetland

resource base, and facilitate an increase in the quality and quantity of wetlands in

Montana. The Montana Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) coordinates and

provides state direction to protect wetlands and riparian areas for their water quality,


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water quantity, habitat, and flood control functions. The DEQ and the Montana Wetland

Council (MWC) developed, and implements, the state’s wetland and riparian plan

(Montana Wetland Council, 2013). The strategic framework list several strategic

directions, including (Montana Wetland Council, 2013, p. v-vi)

support and participate in on-the-ground projects and practices that foster wetland

and riparian restoration, protection, and management and net gain of wetlands;

support the completion, maintenance, and dissemination of statewide digital

wetland and riparian mapping information, and provide training and support to

use the data in planning, protection, and restoration decision-making;

collection, integration, and use of monitoring and assessment data to inform local

planning, protection, restoration, and landscape-level decision-making;

help local, state, tribal, and federal governments to plan, implement, and manage

information, resources, and tools needed to protect wetland and riparian areas for

their water quality, water quantity, habitat, and flood control benefits;

contribute understanding and knowledge regarding the impacts of energy

development, climate change, limited water resources, and invasive aquatic

species on wetlands and riparian resources, and promote approaches to minimize

harmful impacts; and

foster public awareness and understanding of the valuable ecologic, economic,

and public safety functions of wetlands and riparian, and encourage and support

public and private actions.

The Montana Natural Heritage Program (MTNHP) is the primary public source for

wetland and riparian mapping, and monitoring and assessment tools in Montana. Science-

based information on the distribution, extent, condition and biodiversity significance of

the state’s wetlands and riparian areas is all publically available (Vance & Chutz, 2016).

The MTNHP collaborate with the Wetland Program at Montana DEQ on research

projects and development of database tools, designing workshop and course content for

training, and teaching wetland plant identification workshops provided. The strategic

actions outlined in the Wetland Program Plan (Vance & Chutz, 2016) address all seven

of the current Five-Year Strategic Directions set out in the Montana Wetland Council’s

(2013) strategic framework.

8.3.2.1.2 North Dakota North Dakota does not have any current wetland regulations, policies, or legislation for a

wetland mitigation or conservation plan. At one time the state had adopted an overall no

net loss goal, but it was repealed in 1997 (Association of State Wetland Managers, 2015).

Aside from the federal legislation, wetlands are managed (to a certain degree) under

North Dakota’s Water Quality Monitoring Strategy (Hoeven & Dwelle, 2014). As a part

of this strategy, the Wetland Monitoring and Assessment Program develops biological

indicators and assessment methodologies for wetlands and use these indicators and


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methods to monitor and assess wetland condition at varying spatial scales. The program

also develops spatial analysis methods and tools to identify potential sites for wetland

restoration and creation, and apply these methods in a watershed planning and restoration

context (Hoeven & Dwelle, 2014). The North Dakota Department of Health participated

in the NWCA as part of the wetland monitoring program.

8.3.2.1.3 South Dakota South Dakota does not have any wetland regulations, policies, or legislation for a wetland

mitigation or conservation plan. Though out of date, the work done by the South Dakota

Interagency Wetlands Working Group (2001) examined wetland conservation and

management guidelines for state agencies in South Dakota. These guidelines were

designed to provide state natural resource agencies with an overall view of wetland issues

for their use and a summary of programs available to encourage wetland conservation

and management. The hope was these programs would provide voluntary, incentive-

based options for landowners to maintain the multiple benefits wetlands provide to all

South Dakota residents. As well, the programs would encourage state government

agencies involved with projects involving wetlands to consider wetland impacts in their

policy and project development.

8.3.2.1.4 Minnesota Wetlands in Minnesota are regulated under the Wetland Conservation Act (WCA) of

1991 to protect wetlands not protected under Department of Natural Resources’ public

waters permit program, and provide no net loss of Minnesota’s remaining wetlands.

Under the WCA, wetlands “must not be drained or filled, wholly or partially, unless

replaced by restoring or creating wetland areas of at least equal public value under an

approved replacement plan” (Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources, 2003, p.11).

WCA does not apply to public waters wetlands, which are regulated by the Minnesota

Department of Natural Resources (Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources, 2004).

Public waters wetlands are all 3, 4, and 5-type wetlands [as defined by United States Fish

and Wildlife Service (FWS)] not included within the definition of public waters, that are

ten (10) or more acres in size in unincorporated areas or 2.5 acres or more in incorporated

areas (Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 2016).

In Minnesota, wetlands are regulated under several agencies. The WCA does not

supersede other regulations by other agencies, such as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, watershed

districts, and local governments (Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources 2004).

The local government unit (LGU) is the primary agency responsible for administering

WCA. The LGU is generally the city or county, but may be another entity such as a

watershed district or soil and water conservation district (Minnesota Board of Water and

http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/waters/watermgmt_section/pwpermits/pw_definition.html


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Soil Resources 2004). A LGU may develop a comprehensive wetland protection and

management plan. The purpose of this kind of plan is to provide for alternative standards

for management of wetland resources, based on the needs and priorities of the LGU.

While local plans can adopt alternative standards for greater flexibility, there is also the

opportunity within these plans for the LGU to create additional requirements that are

more restrictive than WCA (Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources 2004).

The State of Minnesota developed a wetlands restoration strategy to provide a statewide

perspective and approach for restoration of wetlands. This framework encourages state

and federal agencies, local government units, and non-governmental organizations to

combine and coordinate efforts to achieve the shared goal of net gains in wetland

functional benefits (Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources 2009). The vision is

that “Minnesotans will enjoy significant improvements in habitat, water quality, surface

water flows, and ground water interactions that are attributable to wetlands restoration”

(Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources 2009, p.1).

8.3.2.1.5 Iowa As with several of the states examined in this report, Iowa has no state wetland policy,

act, or related legislation, aside from federal regulations. Unlike other states, the Iowa

Wetland Management District (WMD) encompasses the full extent of the PPR in Iowa.

The Iowa WMD was developed in partnership with the Iowa Department of Natural

Resources. The Iowa WMD aims to conserve, restore, and expand grassland and wetland

habitat to manage a natural biodiversity of native flora and abundance of waterfowl,

migratory birds, and other native fauna, as well as promote understanding, appreciation,

and support for the Iowa WMD. Stewardship and understanding of the southern PPR and

its native ecosystems to visitors and local residents is also involved (FWS, 2014).

8.3.3 Ramsar Convention

The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, commonly referred to as the

Ramsar Convention, of February 2, 1971 is an international treaty with 163 member

nations (as of 2013). The mission of the Ramsar Convention “is the conservation and

wise use of all wetlands through local, regional and national actions and international

cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the

world” (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2013, p.2). There are six Ramsar sites within the

PPR, with only one in the U.S., and one in Alberta (Beaverhill Lake). Though no Ramsar

sites are present in the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds, it is an important

international agreement to recognize in terms of wetland conservation. February 2nd has

also become World Wetlands Day, a day we can celebrate and help raise public

awareness about the importance and value of wetlands. Each year since 1997, the Ramsar


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Secretariat provides materials for those interested in hosting activities and providing

educational material on World Wetlands Day.


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9 Conservation and Restoration

Wetland conservation is always preferred over replacement or restoration. Conservation

and restoration of wetlands and surrounding uplands is a crucial part of wetland

management (Whited et al., 2000). A number of organizations have developed programs

and initiatives to help with both of these important aspects of wetland management across

Alberta and within the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds.

9.1 Wetland Restoration in Battle River and Sound Creek

Watersheds

Many programs exist that can be used individually and in concert to help conserve and

restore wetlands within the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds, such as ALUS

and DUC programs. There are also some opportunities in the new economy that could

provide incentive for landowners and managers.

Over 100 licensed wetland projects were licensed in the Battle River Basin in 2011,

including 27 structures in the Ribstone Creek subwatershed. Varieties of structures, such

as ditch plugs, were used to restore wetlands, and flood hay meadows for agriculture and

habitat improvement. These wetland projects will also aid groundwater recharge, and

river and creek flow augmentation during low flow (AESRD, 2014b).

A few agencies that facilitate wetland (and upland) restoration and conservation projects

within Alberta. Ducks Unlimited Canada, as a wetland restoration agent (WRA), delivers

wetland restoration opportunities and several incentive programs to landowners in the

Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds. They have been active very in the Battle

River and Sounding Creek watersheds for many years, and have done many projects

throughout each of the watersheds (Figure 17a and b).

Within the Battle River watershed, Ducks Unlimited Canada has undertaken 452 projects,

securing over 137, 300 acres (including wetlands, surrounding upland, and other upland

habitat) (M. Simikian, personal communication, January 15, 2016). In Sounding Creek

watershed, 111 projects have been done, securing almost 34,000 acres (M. Simikian,

personal communication, January 19, 2016).


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a)


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b)

Figure 17. Ducks Unlimited Canada projects in the a) Battle River and b) Sounding

Creek watersheds. Blue ducks represent DUC habitat projects, Red flags represent

DUC funding events, and Orange duck feet represent education programs. The

green stippled areas are DUC/NAWMP priority areas. Maps provided by Ducks

Unlimited Canada, 2016.


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DUC works with landowners to restore or conserve wetland and upland habitat through

several other programs. In addition to the Western Winter Wheat Initiative and Forage

Program, DUC offers several programs for landowners, including conservation

agreements, Wetland Restoration Lease program, and the Revolving Land Purchase

program. With the Wetland Restoration Lease program, DUC compensates landowners

for restored wetland areas under a 10-year lease based on current fair market value. As

part of DUC's program, the restored wetland areas stay under the management of the

landowner, where these areas can be hayed or grazed but cannot be drained, altered or

tilled during the term of the agreement. Through the Revolving Land Purchase program,

DUC purchases a piece of land, restores its wetlands and grasslands, and then makes it

available to potential land buyers on the real estate market after placing a conservation

easement (CE) on the title. The RLP program often works well with livestock producers.

As well, the Forage Program helps create critical habitat while converting cultivated

acres to perennial cover.

County of Vermillion River also a designated wetland restoration agent, and has

facilitated several wetland projects within the Battle River watershed with their

relationship with ALUS. In their part of the watershed, they have restored over 7 acres of

wetland, 202 acres of upland, and conserved 228 acres of wetland (C. Elder, personal

communication, April 12, 2016). Additional counties and organization within the Battle

River and Sounding Creek watersheds have the potential to become wetland restoration

agents, as well as continue the possibilities of wetland conservation and restoration

throughout the watershed.

9.2 Reverse Auctions

Most program options for restoring wetlands include conservation easements, land trusts,

enhanced forage conversion programs, and land purchases or donations. Though not

currently widely used in Canada, reverse auctions, or conservation auctions, have been

successfully used in Australia, Europe, and the United States for habitat conservation

(Latacz-Lohmann & Hodge 2003; Reichelderfer & Boggess, 1988; Selman et al 2008;

Stoneham et al 2003; White & Burton 2005). A couple pilot programs have been done, or

are being done, in Canada, notably in Saskatchewan (Hill et al., 2011) and Alberta

(Alberta Land Institute, 2015) to determine the best approach in using this tool

specifically for wetland restoration in the Canadian Prairies.

9.3 Prioritising Wetlands and Regional Wetland Objectives

Each type of wetland has different hydrological and ecological functions (Stewart &

Kantrud, 1971). As such, “ecological integrity of the prairie landscape needs to be

http://www.ducks.ca/resources/landowners/

http://www.ducks.ca/resources/landowners/forage-program/


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understood in the context of a wetland complex, rather than individual wetlands (Winter,

1989; Euliss et al., 2004)” (Hayashi et al., 2016, p. 8). Maintaining this regional

perspective will not only help conserve a diversity of wetlands and habitats, but also

hydrological and ecological connectivity (Amezaga et al., 2002).

As development continues, an important element of wetland management is development

of proactive regional and watershed-based wetland management objectives, and

determining which wetlands are vital to meet those objectives. These objectives would

help inform protection, conservation, and restoration activities based on a combination of

acreage and ecosystem function and services that address ecological, social and economic

values (Alberta Water Council, 2008b). Regional wetland objectives should provide

“steps toward identifying and acting on opportunities to protect wetlands of exceptional

value; identifying areas suitable for wetland restoration, construction, or enhancement;

and managing impacts to existing wetlands” (Alberta Water Council, 2008b, p.13) and be

integrated into watershed and land use planning, policy, and management processes. In

agricultural watersheds, such as the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds,

identifying wetlands or restoration sites to address certain functions on a sub-watershed

scale may be a valuable approach (Zedler, 2003).

As mentioned in Section 8.2.1.2, NAWMP has begun work in Alberta to develop

regional wetland management objectives, though how regions are to be delineated is still

to be decided. As a leader in wetland education, science, and management across North

America, NAWMP is well positioned to start addressing inter-provincial and

international regional wetland objectives. WPACs, municipalities, academia, utility

companies, transportation and infrastructure representatives, and tourism representatives

should all be involved in the development of any wetland objectives to ensure ecological,

social, and economic viability of goals.

Recently, the EPA has developed a tool for decision-makers in the United States using

the Rapid Benefits Indicators (RBI) approach. This is a process for assessing wetland

restoration using non-monetary/social benefits indicators of ecosystem restoration

(Mazzotta et al., 2016). This approach, among other uses, helps to prioritize restoration

projects and sites, especially in urban areas.

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9.4 Wetland Mapping

Some mapping of wetlands has been completed for the Battle River and Sounding Creek

basins, but it is not complete. As the basis on much wetland management planning,

having accurate and current data and maps is crucial. However, these are often hard to

obtain due to financial and time constraints. Though ground-truthing is an essential

aspect of all wetland research and fundamental in wetland management, this method is

time and labour intensive. Studies suggest that the use of small, unmanned aerial vehicles

(UAVs) may be effective tools to gather data and map wetlands (O’Brien, 2016). Using

UAVs with near infrared light remote sensing, this approach can advance landscape

understanding, and could provide a precise, accessible, and affordable wetland data

collection method (O’Brien, 2016). Additional application of this technique at a more

local level should be considered as a part of wetland management moving forward.

9.5 Carbon offset credits

New market-based tools are increasingly used to integrate costs associated with decreases

in ecosystem services into decision-making and influencing behaviour of citizens (The

Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity [TEEB], 2011), and many have been

discusses in this report. There is work being done regarding carbon-offset credits for

wetland conservation and restoration. Since wetlands are generally considered carbon

sinks (see section 5.5), carbon offsetting schemes represent an interesting option to find

additional financing for wetland conservation or enhancement (Russi et al., 2013).

Most existing research and methodology for carbon offsets and wetlands is focused on

creation (Hansen, 2009) or restoration (Gardner & Fox, 2013; Louisiana Coastal

Protection and Restoration Authority, 2014; Tierra Resources, 2013; UNEP & CIFOR,

2014) of wetlands, and do not include conservation. All resources focused on coastal

wetlands and estuaries. Since it is difficult to quantify carbon sequestration services for

restored wetlands, as this function develops over time, carbon credits for wetland

conservation may be more feasible in the near future.


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10 Conclusion

With the development of the Alberta Wetland Policy implementation and work done

through NAWMP, municipalities, and other wetland partners, new strategies for

managing wetlands in the Battle River and Sounding Creek watersheds are forthcoming.

All watershed stakeholders need to be involved to ensure the sustainable wetland

management now and for the future.

10.1 Data Gaps and Future Directions

10.1.1 Wetland Inventories

Without accurate inventory data, the wetland component of watershed planning is

hindered, and the setting of wetland objectives, targets and thresholds more difficult.

Wetlands inventories should be completed for all areas of the Battle River and Sounding

Creek watersheds. In Alberta’s White Zone, high resolution, historic and current aerial

photography is typically used to determine the change in wetland area over time.

Commonly referred to as the “Comprehensive” or “Drained” wetland inventory, this

product differs from previous inventory methods in that it can accurately capture drained

and altered wetlands, thereby accurately measuring wetland loss. This method does not

typically classify wetlands remotely, but classification data can be added through

inclusion of field observations.

As an example of this inventory methodology and its application, the Iron Creek sub-

watershed was inventoried in 2005. The resulting data was utilized to develop a

cartographic representation of wetland impacts and a wetland impact model as a product

of the broader Water for Life Inventory. The model incorporated baseline wetland

inventory collected for the entire sub-watershed based on 1963 photography, and the

process repeated for current conditions using 2005 photography. With representations of

the abundance and distribution of wetland features from the two time periods, a

geoprocessing model was developed that would assign impact categories to each wetland

basin. The model output characterizes the current state of wetland resources and the

distribution of wetland impacts across the entire sub-watershed. These data provide a

valuable resource for targeting wetland conservation and restoration initiatives, and

support further research into the hydrologic and ecological consequences of the impacts.

This level of wetland inventory and mapping is fundamental to planning, decision-

making, objective setting, and implementation in watershed and land use planning

initiatives. Setting appropriate wetland retention and restoration objectives depend on

development of these high-resolution inventories.


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The Alberta Water Research Institute (AWRI) Wetland Health team was developing

wetland condition/ health assessment methods and tools in the Beaver Hills watershed,

within the NSRP area. Wetlands along a disturbance gradient (including pristine

wetlands, natural wetlands in agriculture and other human affected landscapes, restored

wetlands, stormwater treatment ponds) were surveyed. Work is being done on scaling

this information to the regional level using GIS that could be used to inform wetland

assessment methods in the NSRP, including the Battle River watershed (Barr, 2011).

10.1.2 Land Use Planning

A no-net-loss objective for the basin should be adopted as a sustainable approach. This

should be incorporated into all planning initiatives including municipal plans and the

North Saskatchewan Regional Plan (and the forthcoming Red Deer Regional Plan) to be

developed under the Land Use Framework.

Regardless of the level land use planning occurs at, ensuring land use planning

safeguards the ecological, societal, and economic value and function of wetlands and is

considerate of the key functions and strategically important location of wetlands is

imperative.

10.1.3 Restoration and Conservation

In regards to overall for restoration, conservation, and compensation, there are some

overall BMPs that should be considered in all projects, and in wetland alteration

approvals:

Due to the cost impact and social expectations of farmers regarding wetlands,

agricultural crop producers would like more discussion pertaining to

compensation for retaining and replacing wetlands and subsequent reduced land

values (Graymore & McBride, 2013)

Stronger and less lenient wetland alteration approvals at the provincial

government level (Clare et al., 2011)

Stricter enforcement of rural impacts to wetlands.

Systematic and systemic planning for wetland conservation in advance of

development

Avoid or minimize impacts on ephemeral and temporary wetlands so as to

maintain the important functions they provide, in particular those relating to

wildlife habitat (Hayashi et al., 2003)

Restoration and conservation actions need to capture the full range of wetland

types, areas, pond permanence, and other wetland values that occurred historically

within the watershed. Maintaining hydrodiversity also maintains biodiversity

(van der Kamp & Hayashi, 2009).


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Future compensation for wetland impacts accrued within the watershed should be

applied within the basin (preference given to biogeographically similar areas) and

be located as near as is practical to the wetland where impact occurred.

Compensation criteria should be based on the landowners’ ability to recoup costs.

Emphasis on conservation and avoidance over minimizing impact or replacement.

Encourage conservation of existing wetland complexes including associated

upland areas and ephemeral wetlands are kept intact or restored, ecologically

functional, appreciated, and valued (Amezaga et al., 2002; Whited et al., 2000).

Additional restoration agents should be created throughout the province.

Other policy advice and management guidelines are discussed in the accompanying

documents Wetlands Management: Policy Advice, and Wetland Management:

Implementation Guidelines.

10.2 Summary

Over the next century, wetlands and their riparian and upland ecosystems will play

crucial roles in determining the vulnerability and resilience of natural and human systems

to climate change, as well as capacity of these systems to adapt. Additionally, wetland

ecosystems themselves are likely to become more vulnerable to climate change and land

use impacts. However, given the critical role of wetland ecosystem functions on the

landscape, as well as the strong links between wetland ecosystems and human well-

being, change in how we view and live with wetlands is needed. The need for planned

adaptation and management of and for wetlands in the landscape mosaic will be

strengthened as the importance of many wetland ecosystem functions, goods and services

grows in social values, and with a changing climate. Consequently, wetland ecosystems

have become the focus of significant adaptation worldwide.

It is in the best interest of all watershed stakeholders to be proactive in managing the use

of and impacts to our wetlands. Dialogue about challenges, mitigation, and adaptation

must be undertaken to ensure wetlands are able to maintain their function and value for

generations to come.


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Appendix A

Summary of Wetland Inventories in the Battle River and Sounding Creek Watersheds

Impact Basin

Count

% Count Hectares % Area

Roundhill

(1962-2003)

Parkland

51323 Ha

Altered

(Cultivation/Dugout)

4,896

46.58%

805.42

13.37%

Drained (Lost,

Altered,

Consolidated)

2,367

22.52%

3730.3

61.94%

Intact

3,248

30.90%

1486.4

24.68%

Total

10,511

100.00%

6022.12

100.00%

Wetaskiwin

(1962-2003)

Parkland

9979 Ha Altered


941

35.82%

88.95

4.80%

Drained (Lost,

Altered,

Consolidated)

1,233

46.94%

1677.11

90.45%

Intact

453

17.24%

88.19

4.76%

Total

2,627

100.00%

1854.25

100.00%


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Altered = no drain with riparian and aquatic vegetation absent or disturbed

Drained Altered = outlet drain with riparian and aquatic vegetation present

Consolidated = inlet drain with riparian and aquatic vegetation present

Lost = outlet drain riparian and aquatic vegetation absent

Intact = no drain with riparian and aquatic vegetation present.

Impact Basin

Count

% Count Hectares % Area

Iron Creek

(1963-2005)

Parkland

567479 Ha Altered


129,949

61%

27,318.04

44%

Drained (Lost,

Altered,

Consolidated)

8,737

4%

14,289.65

23%

Intact

73,914

35%

20,842.09

33%

Total

212,600

100%

62,449.78

100%

Camrose

(1962-2003)

Parkland

32000 Ha Altered


2,464

35.49%

239.47

6.50%

Drained (Lost,

Altered,

Consolidated)

2,222

32.01%

2960.51

80.30%

Intact

2,256

32.50%

486.63

13.20%

Total

6,942

100.00%

3686.61

100.00%


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This is our battle: the

watershed we all share, and

the fight to maintain a healthy

environment, vibrant

communities and a stable

economy.

Battle River Watershed Alliance

Gateway Centre

4825 51 Street (2nd floor)

Camrose, Alberta T4V 1R9

1 888 672 0276

www.battleriverwatershed.ca

Connecting People to Place for Action

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