Western CivilizationsTheir History

& Their Culture

Sixteenth EditionVolume 1

Norton Media Library

byJudith G. Coffin Robert C. Stacey

I. Introduction

A. Rome as bridge between Mediterranean and Ancient Near East

B. A distinctive civilization

C. The “mission” of the Romans

II. Early Italy and the Roman Monarchy

A. Geographical influences1. Rich enough to be attractive

2. Difficult to defend

B. The Etruscans 1. Non-Indo-Europeans

2. Etruscan Confederacy

3. The Etruscan legacy

a. The arch and vault

b. A religion based on the worship of gods in human form

c. Women participated in public life

d. Gladiatorial combat

e. Centered urban life around massive stone temples

II. Early Italy and the Roman Monarchy (cont’d)

C. Greek settlements and influences 1. Greeks arrive as early as 8th century B.C.E.

2. Greek alphabet

3. The pantheon of the gods

C. The Rise of Rome1. Entered Italy between 2000 and 1000 B.C.E.

2. Rome “founded” as early as the 10th century B.C.E.

3. The Tiber River

4. The “Latin Right”

a. Commercium (regarding contracts)

b. Connubium (regarding intermarriage)

c. Migratio (regarding migration) and transfer of citizenship

5. Early Government

6. The Rape of Lucretia

7. The Etruscan king Tarquin the Proud is overthrown (510 B.C.E.)

III. The Early Republic

A. Constant warfare1. Etruscan territories to the north

2. Greek poleis in the south

B. Accommodating conquered populations 1. Did not impose heavy burdens on conquered peoples

2. Conquered people had to contribute soldiers to the Roman army

3. Extending the “Latin Right”

C. The government of the early Republic 1. Slow political evolution

2. Substituted two consuls for the king

a. Consuls had full executive and judicial authority

b. Each consul could veto the other

3. Senate had control over public funds

III. The Early Republic (cont’d)

D. Patricians and Plebeians 1. Patrician wealth, power and influence

2. Plebeian grievances

3. The “Struggle of the Orders”

a. The Tribunes

b. The “Law of the Twelve Tables”

i. Published the laws

ii. Perpetuated ancient customs

c. The concilium plebis

4. Slow shift to an aristocracy of wealth rather than birth

5. The equestrians

a. Men who had wealth and influence but chose business over politics

b. Some became equestrians but underwrote political careers of relatives

6. Was the Roman Republic democratic?

III. The Early Republic (cont’d)

E. Culture, religion, and morality1. Limited education – fathers taught sons (sports, practical arts,

military virtue)

2. Chief occupations – war and agriculture

3. Religion

a. Roman gods – Greek gods

i. Jupiter/Zeus, Neptune/Poseidon, Venus/Aphrodite

b. Reverence of ancestors

c. “Household gods”

d. Religion tied up with political life

e. The Roman priesthood

i. Served as priests and politicians

4. Roman morality: patriotism, duty, masculine self-control, respect for authority

5. Primary duty to Rome and to family

IV. The Fateful Wars with Carthage

A. The Punic Wars1. The First Punic War (264-241 B.C.E.)

a. Roman fear of Carthaginian expansion

b. Carthage cedes Sicily to Rome

c. Rome seizes Corsica and Sardinia

2. The Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.E.)

a. Carthaginian expansion in Spain

b. Rome declares war

c. Hannibal (247-182 B.C.E.)

d. The victory of Scipio Africanus

e. Carthage abandons all territory save Carthage

3. The Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.E.) a. “Carthage must be destroyed”

b. Romans massacre Carthaginians

IV. The Fateful Wars with Carthage (cont’d)

B. Territorial expansion1. Increase in Roman territory (Sicily, North Africa, and Spain)

2. Policy of westward expansion

3. Greece and Macedon become Roman provinces (146 B.C.E.)

V. Society and Culture in the Late Republic

A. Transformations1. New wealth poured into Rome

2. Increasing social and economic inequality

3. Small farmers leave the land for the cities

B. Economic and social changes1. Slavery

a. Increase in slave population

b. 200,000 Greek and Carthaginian slaves by end of 2nd century B.C.E.

c. Using slaves as agricultural laborers

2. No transition to industrialism

3. No incentive for technological initiative

4. Equestrians make contact with Eastern markets

a. Operated mines, built roads, collected taxes, principal moneylenders

V. Society and Culture in the Late Republic (cont’d)

C. Family Life and the Status of Women 1. Introduction of “free marriage”2. New rules for divorce3. Wives gained greater legal independence4. Upper class Romans adopt Greek customs5. Latin and Greek language

D. Epicureanism and Stoicism 1. Lucretius (98-55 B.C.E.)

a. On the Nature of Things b. Removing the fear of the supernaturalc. Matter is a combination of atomsd. Everything is a product of mechanical evolutione. “Peace and a pure heart”

V. Society and Culture in the Late Republic (cont’d)

D. Epicureanism and Stoicism (cont’d)2. Stoicism

a. Introduced around 140 B.C.E. b. Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.)

i. “Father of Roman eloquence” ii. Tranquility of the mind is the highest goodiii. Indifference to pain and sorrowiv. Bringing the best of Greek philosophy to Rome

E. Religion1. Spread of Eastern mystery cults2. A more emotional religion3. Egyptian cult of Osiris (Serapis) 4. Great Mother (Egypt) 5. Mithraism (Persia)

VI. The Social Struggles of the Late Republic (146-30 B.C.E.)

A. Disorder, war, assassinations, and insurrections

B. Spartacus slave uprising (73-71 B.C.E.)

C. Tiberius Graachus (168-133 B.C.E.) 1. Proposed land grants to landless

2. Proposed law restricting size of estate to be owned by each citizen

3. The murder of Tiberius

D. Gaius Graachus (159-123 B.C.E.) 1. Enacted laws for the less-privileged

2. Stabilized price of grain in Rome

3. Suggested full citizenship to Italian allies

4. The murder of Gaius

VI. The Social Struggles of the Late Republic (146-30 B.C.E.) (cont’d)

E. The Aristocratic reaction1. Marius (157-86 B.C.E.)

a. Elected consul in 107 BCE, re-elected six times

b. Abolished property qualification for the army

c. Army became more loyal to him than to the Republic

2. Sulla (138-78 B.C.E.)

a. Appointed dictator (82 B.C.E.)

b. Exterminated his opponents

c. Extended the power of the Senate

E. Pompey (106-48 B.C.E.) 1. Espoused cause of the people

2. Elected consul (52) by the Senate

VI. The Social Struggles of the Late Republic (146-30 B.C.E.) (cont’d)

G. Julius Caesar (c. 100-44 B.C.E.)1. The Rubicon

2. Destroys the forces of Pompey at Pharselus (48)

3. Cleopatra and Egypt

4. Dictator for ten years (46) – then declares himself dictator for life

5. Death of Caesar – Ides of March (44 B.C.E.)

6. Treated the Republic with contempt

7. The “Julian” calendar

8. Realized the importance of territory in northern Europe (Gaul, Britain)

VII. The Principate and Early Empire (27 B.C.E.-180 C.E.)

A. Octavian (64 B.C.E.-14 C.E.) 1. Joined forces with Marc Antony and Marcus Ledipus

2. Murder of Cicero

3. Crushing the “republican” opposition

4. Brutus and Cassius punished

5. The Battle of Actium (31 B.C.E.)

VII. The Principate and Early Empire (27 B.C.E.-180 C.E.) (cont’d)

B. The Augustan system of government1. Senate votes (27) Octavian as emperor – calls him Augustus

(“worthy of honor”)

2. Augustus rules as princeps (“first citizen”)

3. Republican institutions intact but power resides with Augustus

4. Controls the army, freely determined all government policy

5. Achievements

a. New coinage system

b. Public services

c. Abolished the “farming out” of the collection of taxes

d. Defender of traditional values

VII. The Principate and Early Empire (27 B.C.E.-180 C.E.) (cont’d)

B. The Augustan system of government (cont’d)6. Augustus to Trajan

a. Continued expansion

b. Holds northern border at the Rhine and Danube

c. The Roman Peace (Pax Romana)

d. Tiberius (14-37) and Claudius (41-54)

e. Nero (54-68) and Domitian (81-96)

f. The "Five Good Emperors"

i. Nerva (96-98)

ii. Trajan (98-117)

iii. Hadrian (117-138)

iv. Antoninus Pious (136-171)

v. Marcus Aurelius (161-180)

VII. The Principate and Early Empire (27 B.C.E.-180 C.E.) (cont’d)

C. Romanization and assimilation1. Pax Romana was not universal

a. Roman massacres in Britain and Judea

2. Assimilating the residents of conquered territories

3. The spread of Roman cultural forms (amphitheaters, baths, paved roads)

4. Rights of citizenship

5. Borders and frontiers

VIII. Culture and Life in the period of the Principate

A. Exponents of Stoicism1. Seneca (4 B.C.E.-65 C.E.) and Epictetus (c. 60-120 C.E.)

a. True happiness can be found by surrendering to the benevolent order of the cosmos

b. Preached the ideal of virtue for virtue's sake

c. Urged obedience to conscience

d. The cosmos was divine – ruled by Providence

2. Marcus Aurelius (121-180 C.E.)

a. More fatalistic, less hopeful

b. Immortality was not peace

c. People should live nobly

d. Resign yourself with dignity to suffering and pain

VIII. Culture and Life in the period of the Principate (cont’d)

B. Literature1. The Golden Age – extolling the virtues of Rome

a. Virgil (70-19 B.C.E.) – the Ecologues and the Aeneid

b. Horace (65-8 B.C.E.) – the Odes

c. Livy (59 B.C.E.-17 C.E.) – History of Rome

d. Ovid (43 B.C.E.-17 C.E.) – the Metamorphosis

2. The Silver Age – self-conscious artifice

a. Petronius (fl. 1st century C.E.)

b. Apuleius (fl. 2nd century C.E.) – The Golden Ass

c. Juvenal (c. 55-140 C.E.) – the Satires

d. Tacitus (c. 55-120 C.E.) – Germania and Historiae

VIII. Culture and Life in the period of the Principate (cont’d)

C. Art and architecture1. Art imported from conquered territories

2. The wealthy wanted art for their homes – as the demand increased, the Romans relied on copies

3. Grand public architecture to delicate wall paintings

4. The Pantheon and the Colosseum

5. Engineering feats

a. Roads and bridges

b. Aqueducts

c. Sewage systems

VIII. Culture and Life in the period of the Principate (cont’d)

D. Aristocratic Women Under the Principiate 1. Important roles played by upper-class women

2. Independent status from their husbands

3. The very wealthy

a. Could own property

b. Invest in commercial ventures

c. They could not hold public office

d. They could act as priestesses and civic patrons

4. Some were educated in the liberal arts

5. Sexual freedom

D. Gladiatorial combats1. Most visible sign of Rome, yet the most distasteful

2. The “Circus”

3. Attended by commoners and aristocrats

VIII. Culture and Life in the period of the Principiate (cont’d)

F. Roman law1. Product of the Principiate

2. Wider field of jurisdiction

3. Augustus appoints eminent jurists to deliver opinions on certain legal issues

4. Three branches

a. Civil law – the law of Rome and its citizens (both written and unwritten)

b. Law of the peoples – early international law

c. Natural law – a product of nature and of philosophy

VIII. Culture and Life in the period of the Principiate (cont’d)

G. The economy of Italy during the Principiate1. Manufacturing increased

2. Mass production of pottery, textiles, metal and glassware

3. Merchants carried goods throughout the empire

4. Sings of strain

a. Upper class luxury

b. Diminishing number of slaves

c. Labor shortages on the latifundia

d. Small farmers (colonni) tied to large agricultural estates

e. Unfavorable balance of trade

IX. The Crisis of the Third Century (180-284)

A. Commodus (161-192) 1. Both accommodated and terrified the Senate

2. Few men of talent would work for him

3. Alienated the army and the Senate

4. Fought as a gladiator in the Colosseum

5. Strangled by his wrestling coach

B. The Severan Dynasty1. Septimius Severus (145-211)

a. Controlled the army

b. Eliminated the rights of the Senate

c. Ruled as a military dictator

d. Cheapened Roman citizenship

2. Imperial women keep the dynasty and empire together

IX. The Crisis of the Third Century (180-284) (cont’d)

C. The “barracks emperors” 1. 26 emperors between 235 and 284

C. The height of the third-century crisis 1. Political chaos and civil wars

2. Interruption of agriculture and trade

3. Nearly confiscatory taxation of civilians

4. Advance of Rome's external enemies: Germans, Persians and Goths

IX. The Crisis of the Third Century (180-284) (cont’d)

E. Neoplatanism1. The third century produced an overwhelming sense of anxiety

2. Plotinus (204-270)

a. Everything that exists proceeds from the divine

b. The stream of emanations

c. Matter is despised as the symbol of evil and darkness

d. Mysticism

i. Human soul through its union with matter is separated from its divine source

ii. Highest goal is the mystical reunion with the divine

e. Asceticism

X. The Roman Rule in the West: A Balance Sheet

A. Explaining the decline and fall of Rome

B. Political failures1. Lack of a clear law of succession

2. Civil war

3. Lack of constitutional means of reform

4. Violence

C. Economic crisis1. Slavery and manpower shortage

2. Little technological advance

3. Wealth concentrated in the hands of few families

4. Undermining of civic ideals

X. The Roman Rule in the West: A Balance Sheet (cont’d)

D. Roman achievements1. A long-lasting empire

2. Created systems of communication, trade, and travel

3. The Roman economy

4. The Roman political system

5. Extending the franchise to outsiders

XI. Conclusion

A. A standard of comparison: ancient and modern

B. Architecture

C. Roman law

D. Sculpture

E. The transmission of Greek civilization to the West

F. The cultural inheritance

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