west virginia songbird jones - williams college, ma kathy leo - west virginia division of natural...
TRANSCRIPT
T his publication had its genesis with the West Virginia Partners in Flight (WV PIF) Working Group. This organization, part of an international conservation effort, works to identify songbirds and habitats of con-servation concern, facilitate collection of basic life history information of little known species, and promote
dissemination of educational and informational material to help the public better understand conservation issues. We would like to thank the contributors listed below as well as the scores of researchers, naturalists and citizen scientists who, through long hours in the field, have provided us with the information to produce this document.
Susan Olcott - West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, EditorNanci Bross-Fregonara - West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, Publication Design
Contributors:Jane Bard – USDA Forest Service
Barbara Breshock - West Virginia Division of ForestryMark Ford - USDA Forest Service
Jim Fregonara - West Virginia Division of Natural ResourcesBill Grafton - WVU Cooperative Extension Service
Drew Jones - Williams College, MAKathy Leo - West Virginia Division of Natural ResourcesPatty Morrison - USDI U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Kieran O’Malley - West Virginia Division of Natural ResourcesLynette Otto - USDA Forest Service
Allen Waldron - West Virginia Division of ForestryJo Wargo - USDA Forest Service
Petra Wood - WVU Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit
Cover forest images are by Elizabeth Byers, WVDNR; Cover inset photo of a scarlet tanager is a WVDNR archives image.
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West Virginia Songbird
Forest Management Guidelines
Table of ContentsPreface andIntroduction.............................................................................................................................2
A Primer on Habitat Alteration in West Virginia
BasicBirdEcology.........................................................................................................................6
ShortTermEffectsofaTimberHarvest............................................................................................8
Management Plans and Contracts
ProtectingandEnhancingYourWoodlot.....................................................................................11
Forest and Timber Harvesting Practices
Even-ageManagement...............................................................................................................13
Uneven-agedManagement.........................................................................................................14
IntermediateManagement.........................................................................................................14
Bird-friendlyTimber Harvesting Practices..........................................................................18
Management Guidelines For West Virginia Habitat Groupings............................................20
Appendices
I.WestVirginiaLoggingSedimentAct...................................................................................24
II.RoadsandReclamation...........................................................................................................25
III.TechnicalAssistance..............................................................................................................28
IV.WVPIFPrioritySpecies..........................................................................................................30
V.ExpectedResultsofForestManagementPractices.......................................................................32
VI.Glossary...............................................................................................................................33
VII.ChecklistofWestVirginia’sBreedingBirdSpecies..........................................................36
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WestVirginia,with78percentofitslandareacovered
byforests,isthethirdmostdenselywoodedstateinthenationbehindMaineandNewHampshire.Itstimber
resourcesarelargerinsizethantheyhavebeenforthepast100years.AlthoughWestVirginia’sforestsandforestproductshavegreateconomicimportance,theyalsoproviderecreationalop-portunities,scenicviews,freshairandcleanwater.Mostimportantly,theseforestsprovideinvaluablehabitat(for unfamiliar terms see Glossary starting on page 33) forthousandsofplantsandanimals.Seeingandconservingwildlifeareamongthemostcitedreasonslandownersgiveforowning,main-tainingandmanagingtheirland.
Realizingthattheirwoodlotsarematureandhavesubstantialvalue,manylandownersareconsid-eringaharvestbutareconcernedabouthowthehar-vestwillaffectwildlife.Thispublicationexaminestherelationshipbetweenharvestingintensityanditseffectprimarilyonsongbirds,althoughtheimpactsonotherwildlifeismentionedaswell.Wehopethatthisdocumentwillgivelandownersandlandmanag-erstheadditionalinformationtheyneedtodevelopcomprehensivelandmanagementplansthatmeetnotonlysilviculturalandaestheticexpectations,butalsoprovidehealthyanddiverseforeststobepassedontosucceedinggenerations.
Introduction: Songbirds and Population Declines
MostpeopledonotrealizethatthemajorityofbirdsinWestVirginiaaremigratory,spendingthewinterinthesouthernUnitedStates,theCarib-bean,CentralandSouthAmericaandraisingtheiryounghereduringthesummer.WestVirginiaisimportantintheconservationofmanyspeciesofsongbirdsthataredecliningelsewhere.Becauseofourextensiveforestlands,thosespeciesthatrequirelargetractsofforestsforbreedingfindhabitathere.WestVirginiahostssignificantbreedingpopulationsoftheceruleanwarbler(27percentoftheworld’sbreedingpopulation),worm-eatingwarbler(20percent)andLouisianawaterthrush(19percent).
WestVirginiaalsoservesasasourceofthesespeciesandothersthat,duetohabitatloss,havedecliningpopulations.Theseotherareasaretermedsinks;breedingpopulationsmayexistthere,buttheproductionofyoungissolowthatthepopulationsareunabletosustainthemselveswithouttheaddi-tionofindividualsfromtheoutside,suchasfromWestVirginia.
Populationdeclineshavebeennotedinmanyspeciesofbirdssincethe1960s.Althoughthereasonsbehindthedeclinesarenumerous,severalmajoronesstandout:
West Virginia is host to approximately 20 percent of the world’s breeding population of worm-eating warblers.
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Early days of logging in the Monongahela National Forest.
Preface and Introduction
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•Permanent or longterm destruction and degradation of habitat onbreeding,stopoverandwinteringareashascreatedthemostpressureonmigratorybirds.Onbreedinggrounds,roadconstructionandsurfaceminingcombinedwithcommercialandresidentialdevelopmenthasresultedinfewerplacesformanyspeciestoraisetheiryoung.Slashandburnagricultureandclearingforpas-turesandcom-mercialdevelop-mentintropicalwinteringareas,especiallyCen-tralAmerica,hasdiminishedtropicalrainforeststoafractionoftheirformerarea,relegatingmanyspeciesofreturningmigrantstomarginalhabitatandincreasedcompetitionwithresidenttropicalspecies.Coastaldevelopmentforresorts,secondhomesandindustryendangersmigratingbirdsbydecreasingrequiredstopoverareasforrestingandfeedingduringmigration.
•Fragmentation,thebreakingupoflargeblocksofcontinuoushabitatintosmallerones,hasmademanyareasunsuitableormarginalforspe-ciesthatrequirelargeexpansesofsimilarhabitat(area-sensitivespecies).Fragmentationcreatesedge,thetransitionzonebetweenonehabitattypeandanother.InWestVirginiathisedgeistypi-callybetweenaforestandafield.Thistransitionzonemaybesoftandconsistofwildflowers,shrubsandsmalltrees,oritmaybehardwithanabrupttransi-tionbetweengrasslandsnexttolargetrees.Softedgehabitatisvaluableformanyspeciesofbirdssuchassongsparrows,common
yellowthroatsandindigobuntings.Butbothsoftandhardedgesproviderichhuntinggroundsforavarietyofpredators,suchasraccoonsandcrows,becauseofthecloseproximityofthetwohabitattypes.Ifalandscapeishighlyfragmented(see photo below), forestpatchsizeissmall.Thesmallerthepatch,themoreitisinfluencedbyedgeef-fects.Manyinteriorforestspeciesarenotadaptedtopredatorsattheedgeandtheirnestsareeasilyfoundbypredators,resultinginverylowrepro-ductionandeventualpopulationdecline.Thisincreasedpredationisduetotheedge effect.Spe-cies,suchasthesongsparrow,thatareadaptedtotheedgehavenestingstrategiesthathindertheedgepredatorsenoughtobeinbalancewiththem.
Increasedpredationisn’ttheonlyresultofafragmentedlandscape.Warmeranddriercon-ditionsattheedgesupportstheformationofadifferentinsectcommunity,affectingthetypeoramountoffoodavailabletoaforestinteriorspe-cies.Inaddition,brown-headedcowbirds,whicharecommoninagriculturalareas,laytheireggsinotherbirds’neststohatchandberaisedbythehostbird,usuallyatthehostbrood’sexpense.Mostopenlandandedgespecieshavesomestrategiestocountercowbirds,butinteriorforestbirdsdonot.
•Vegetative successionisthenaturalgrowthofafieldintoaforest;fromgrassestoshrubstosaplingstomaturetrees.Abandonedfarmland
thatisnotmaintainedgoesthroughthisprocess,resultinginthelossofearlysuccessionalhabitatssuchasfields,oldfieldsandscrublands.Theseimpor-tanthabitatsareshort-lived,andthebirdspeciesthatneedthemforbreedingmustfindsuitable,andsometimesveryspecific,habitatatotherloca-tions.Althoughedgehabitatiscommon,itdoesn’toccurinlargetracts,buttypicallyinnar-rowbands.Withoutmanage-ment,earlysuccessionalhabitatgrowsintoforest-aboonforforestbreedingspecies,butalosstothosespeciesrequiringrelative
largeexpansesofopenland,suchasthegolden-wingedwarblerorprairiewarbler.
Aerial view of forest fragmentation.
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Coastal development impacts stop-over areas.
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•Theneedforfarmstomaximizeprofits,oftentostayinbusiness,hasaltered farming practices,resultinginmoreintensivemanagementoftheland.Thelossofhedgerowsandfallowfields,earlierhaying,increasedpesticideuse,theswitchtorowcropsandintensivegrazinghaveallseverelyaffectedthebreedingandsurvivalofbirdsthatnestinopenareas,suchasmeadowlarks,bobolinksandgrasshop-persparrows.
Humaninducedprocesses(habitatloss,fragmentationandalteredfarmingpractices)coupledwithsuccessionandothernaturalpres-suresonmigratorybirdssuchaspredation,highdeerpopulations,invasivespeciesanddisease,haveallcontributedtothedeclineofseveralspecies.Notallspeciesaredeclining,andthosethataredeclininglocallymaynotbedecliningthroughouttheirrange.Some,suchasrobinsandhousewrens,areincreasingtheirpopula-tionsand/orexpandingtheirrange.Butappro-priatemanagementchoicesneedtobemadetosloworhaltthedeclineofmanyspeciesinWestVirginia.
ThosespeciesofconservationconcerninWestVirginiahavebeenidentifiedbyWVPartnersinFlight(WVPIF),astatebirdconser-vationorganization,basedonacombinationoffactorsincludingpopulationsize,distribution,threatsandpopulationtrends.ThesespecieshavebeenidentifiedasofconcerninWestVir-ginia,inpart,becauseofsignificantlydecliningpopulationsandbecauseasignificantpercentageofthetotalglobalpopulationbreedsinthestate.
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As a field matures to a forest, or goes through vegetative succession, both plants and bird species change throughout the process.
Purple loosestrife infestation
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West Virginia Bird Species of Conservation Concern*Forest Species Early Successional SpeciesWhip-poor-will Blue-wingedwarblerEasternwood-pewee Golden-wingedwarblerAcadianflycatcher PrairiewarblerWoodthrush FieldsparrowCeruleanwarbler Worm-eatingwarbler LouisianawaterthrushKentuckywarbler
Otherspecieswithsignificantlydecliningpopulationsand/orotherconservationconcernsalsobreedinWestVirginia.Thefollowingspecies,however,haveamuchlowerpercentageoftheirpopula-tioninthestate.
Additional North American Species of Conservation ConcernForest Species Early Successional SpeciesBlack-throatedbluewarbler Red-headedwoodpeckerProthonotarywarbler LoggerheadshrikeSwainson’swarbler OrchardorioleCanadawarbler Olive-sidedflycatcherScarlettanager WillowflycatcherRose-breastedgrosbeak Chestnut-sidedwarbler Hoodedwarbler Grasshoppersparrow Henslow’ssparrow
Interestedlandownersmaywanttoenhancehabitatforthesevulnerablesongbirdsbyestablishinggoalsfortheirforestlandsandimplementingtheappropriateforestmanagementpractices.Notallprac-tices,ofcourse,willaffectall27speciesandsomecanhaveeitherpositiveornegativeimpactsonspecieshabitat.
Thefollowingmanagementguidelinesandtimberharvestinginformationaretoolsforinterestedlandownersandresourcemanagerstoaidtheminmakinginformeddecisionsabouthowtheirmanage-mentpracticesmayimpactsongbirduseofforestlandinWestVirginia.
Loggerhead shrike Louisiana waterthrush feeding young
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*The WVDNR’s strategic planning document, the West Virginia Wildlife Conservation Action Plan, has identified 74 bird species of conservation concern. The lists presented here represent those species most responsive to management actions described in this publication.
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Seventy-eightpercentofWestVirginia’slandareaiscoveredbytrees,animmenseandeconomicallyvaluableresource.Products
producedfromWestVirginiaforestsincludeeverythingfrompapertofinefurniture.Itisaresourcethatmustbemanagedwisely,frombothaconservationandeconomicviewpoint.Mostoftheforests(83percent)areownedbyprivateindividuals,notgovernmentalagenciesorcommercialtimbercompanies.ThemajorityofWestVirginia’sforestsarematureornearingmaturityand,asacommodity,havethepotentialtoimproveanindividual’sorfamily’seconomicresources.Butwhenshouldaforestbeharvested?Whyorwhenshoulditnotbeharvested?Howdoesharvestingfitinwithforestmanagement?Howcanlandownersmanagetheirpropertyforbotheconomicandconservationgoals?
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Mature West Virginia hardwood forest with complex vegetative structure
Basic Bird EcologyBirds,likeallwildlife,needfourbasicele-
mentstosurvive:food,water,shelterandspace.Thesearethefourcomponentsofhabitat.Innature,birdssatisfytheseneedsindiverseways.Somespeciesarespecialiststhatrequirespecifichabitatsforsurvival,likethebeltedkingfisherwhichneedsclean,shallowstreamrifflesforfeed-ingandverticalbaresoilbanksfornesting.Oth-ersaregeneralists,liketheAmericanrobin,thatadaptreadilytochangesintheenvironmentandusehabitatsfromremoteforeststosuburbanbackyards.Somebirdscanspendtheirentirelifetimeinasmallareafindingeverythingtheyneedandadaptingtoseasonalchanges,whileotherstravelthousandsofmilestoescapesevereweatheranditshardships.SomebirdsinWestVirginiaareadaptedtolifeinmoreopenareassuchaspasturesandoldfields.Mostbirdsthatliveinthestate,however,areforestbirdswitheachspeciesrequir-ingsomewhatdifferenttypesofforesthabitattosurvive.Survivalheremeansnotonlythecontin-uedlifeofanindividualbird,butalsotherepro-ductivesuccessofthatbird—raisingyoungtoindependence.
Birdsselecttheirhabitat,whetherforbreed-ing,winteringorduringmigrationstopovers,basedprimarilyontwocharacteristics:vegetativestructure(shelter)andfood.Vegetativestructurereferstothenumberofhorizontallayerspresent:aforesthasmorevegetativestructurethanagrass-land.Someforests,orpartsofforests,havemorestructurethanothers;fromdensestandsoftrees,shrubsandgroundcovers(see photo at left) topark-likestandsoftreeswithlittleundergrowth.Differ-entbirdspeciesareadaptedtodifferentamountsofstructureforcover,nestingandforaging.
Birdsalsoselecthabitatbasedontheabun-danceandonthevarietyortypeoffoodresourcespresentinanarea.Forexample,grasslandareaswillhavedifferenttypesandnumbersofinsectsthanaforestedarea.Birdspreferareaswheretheycanfindfamiliartypesoffoodstheyknowhowtoforageforandinsufficientabundancetofeedthemselvesand(ifduringbreedingseason)their
A Primer on Habitat Alteration in West Virginia
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young.VirtuallyallsongbirdsinWestVirginiaprimarilyeatinsectsandotherinvertebratesdur-ingthesummer.Somespeciesspecializeincertainspeciesorgroupsofinsects.Cuckoosspecializeinhairycaterpillars,whicharerarelyeatenbyotherbirds.Theirnumbersmayincreaseinanareawithhighcaterpillardensity,suchasthesiteofagypsymothoutbreak.Manypermanentresidentsswitchtoseedsandothervegetationinthewinter.
Likeotherwildlife,differentspeciesofbirdsrequirevaryingamountsofspace.Somespecies,likethecommonyellowthroatorAmericanredstart,onlyneedafractionofanacretosuccessfullyraisetheiryoung.Otherspecies,liketheceruleanwarblerorpi-leatedwoodpecker,needtensorhundredsofacresofcontinuoushabitattomaintaintheirpopulations.
Theselatterspeciesaretermedarea sensitive.Thatis,theyaremorelikelytooccurinareaswithlargeblocksofpre-ferredhabitat.Butmorethanthat,theyaresensitivetoandimpactedbyareduc-tionintheselargeblocksofhabitat.Theeffectismarginalinsomespeciesandextremeinothers.Forexample,althoughtheymayphysicallyuseanddefendonly2to3acresofmatureforest,aceruleanwar-
Gle
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The scarlet tanager is a neotropical migrant found in West Virginia.
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blerpairneedsapproximately200acresofcontin-uousforestsurroundingthatterritorytoattempttobreed.Henslow’ssparrowsneedlargetractsofgrasslandsandprairiewarblersneedlargetractsofshrublands.Inordertosuccessfullyraiseyoung,theseandapproximately74otherspeciesinWestVirginiarequirelargetractsofunbrokenhabitat.
Breedingseasonforforestsongbirdstypicallylastsfrommid-Maythroughmid-August.Duringthistime,dependingonthespecies,birdswillraiseonetoseveralbroodsoftwototenyoung.Manylong-distancemigrantsraiseonlyonebroodoftwotofiveyoungandarefinishedbreedingbyearlyJuly.Ifthatnestisdestroyed,theyoftenwillnotattempttorenest.ResidentspeciestypicallyraisemultiplebroodsandmaycontinuenestingintoSeptember.Birdsbuildnestsfromgroundleveltohighintheforestcanopy,againdependingonthespecies.Alargenumberofsongbirdsaregroundnesters,placingtheirnestsundershelteringover-hangsofgroundcoversandwoodydebris.
Ofthe172speciesofbreedingbirdsinWestVirginia,87arelong-distancemigrants,travelingtwiceyearlybetweenthestateandwinteringareasinCentralandSouthAmericaandtheCaribbean.Another28speciesareshort-distancemigrants,movingonlyasfarasthesouthernUnitedStatesornorthernMexicoforthewinter.MigrantsleaveWestVirginiafromlateAugustthroughOctoberandreturninAprilandMay.Mostforestbreedingsongbirdsinthestatearelong-distancemigrants.
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Forestsarenotstatic,butareconstantlychanging,sometimesgradually,othertimesdra-matically.Thematureforestthatisdevelopingoldgrowthcharacteristicshasoldtreesthatdieandfall,creatingopeningsorwindthrows.Theseopeningsarecolonizedbyplantsfoundinmoreopenareas,suchasbrambles,andbyyoungtreeseedlings,creatingmini-habitatswithinthematureforestthatcanbeusedbyshrublovingbirdslikethehoodedwarbler,Carolinawrenandeasterntowhee.Overall,aforestthatsupportsthegreatestnumberofwildlifespeciesisonethatconsistsofalargediversityoftreespeciesandadiversityoftreeages,fromsaplingtodominantcanopytree.
Timbercuttingroughlymimicsthisdynamicaspectofamatureforest,creatingopen-ingsandearlysuccessionalhabitat,typicallybenefitingearlysuccessionalspecies.Thecreationofearlysuccessionalhabitatmeans,however,thatbirdsusingmaturehabitataredisplaced.Displacedbirdsoftenabandonnestingat-temptsthatyearandarealsoinitiallymoresusceptibletopredationandtherigorsoftheenvironmentbecauseoftheirunfamiliaritywiththeirnewhome.
Theshort-termposi-tiveandnegativeeffectsofatimberharvestarecomplexandvarywithmanyfactors,butdependlargelyontwovariables:theintensityoftheharvestandthesizeoftheharvestcomparedwiththesurroundinglandscape.
Light intensity:Forexample,ifalightthinningor
timberimprovementcutisdone,fewtreesarere-moved.Therewouldbelittlechangetotheforestenvironmentand,therefore,thespeciesandtotalnumberofbirdsorotherwildlifeusingtheareaswouldlikelybesimilar.
Small relative size: Similarly,ifthetractthatiscutissmallwhencomparedtotheforestcoverinthesurroundinglandscape(5-10acresina100acrelandscape),eveniftheharvestmethodismoreintense,thenumberofspecieswilllikelynot
Typical Songbird Community In A Mature WV Allegheny Hardwood Forest
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DOWNY WOODPECKER
RED-EYED VIREO
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KENTUCKY WARBLER
WOOD THRUSH
TUFTED TITMOUSE
PILEATED WOODPECKER
YELLOW-THROATED WARBLER
SCARLET TANAGER
REDSTART
CERULEAN WARBLER
Short-term Effects of a TimberHarvest
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GRAY CATBIRD
NORTHERN CARDINAL
SONG SPARROW
INDIGO BUNTING
FIELD SPARROW
COMMON YELLOWTHROAT
Typical Songbird Community In a 4 to 5-year old WV Clearcut
EASTERN TOWHEE
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changeandmayevenincrease.Mostofthesamespecieswillremainaftertheharvest.
High intensity and large relative size: Ontheotherhandifaclearcutisdone(alltreesarehar-vested),andifthecutislargecomparedtotheforestcoverinthesurroundinglandscape(30-40acresina100acrelandscape),thehabitatiscompletelyaltered.Thespeciesofbirdsandotherwildlifethatwilloccupythenewhabitatwillbeverydifferent.Thestructurewillchangedra-maticallyandtheclimateoftheareawillchangefromarelativelycool,moist,dimenvironmenttowarm,dryandbright.Thischangeofclimateandstructurewillchangetheinsectcommu-
nitytoonemoreadaptedtoanopenenvironment,andrequiredifferentforagingmethodsfrombirds
thatfeedonthem.Amaturefor-estspecieswillnotthriveinaclearcutbecausethehabitatanditssurvivalskillsdon’tmatch.
Birdsneedingamatureforesthabitatliketheeasternwood-pewee,Acadianflycatcherandceruleanwarblerwillbedisplaced.Inaddition,birdsthatareareasensitivemaybeaffected.Theageandtypeofvegetationcover-ingthelandscapesurroundingtheproposedcuttingareawillinflu-encethepresenceorabsenceofareasensitivespeciesafterthehar-vest.Ifnotenoughcontinuoushabitatremains,somespeciesliketheceruleanwarblerandscarlettanagerwilllikelyabandonsmallremnantforestedpatches.Overtime,astheclearcutregrows,birdsneedingearlysuccessionalhabitat,
Shrub loving hooded warblers prefer gaps in mature forests caused by tree falls or other disturbance.
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Turkey populations are impacted differently by different timber manage-ment practices.
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suchastheprairiewarbler,blue-wingedwarblerandfieldsparrow,willcolonizethearea.Earlysuccessionalspeciescanthrivetherebecausetheyareadaptedtoelementsofamoreopenhabitatintermsofvegetativestructure,foodresourcesandforagingmethods.
Othercharacteristicsthatwillaffecttheuseofthestandbyvariousbirdspeciesinclude:
• thesizeofthestandbeingmanaged• thetypesandareasofhabitat(s)surround-
ingthestand(forest,agricultural,devel-oped)
• theelevationandaspect(north-,east-,south-orwest-facing)ofthestand
These two landscape areas show the results of fragmentation by removing a portion of the forest cover. The interior area decreases by 50 acres or 30 percent with a subsequent increase in edge area and altered habitat. A timber harvest would continue to provide habitat to a different community of birds. Development, however, would permanently remove the altered habitat from use by all but a few species.
Total area = 200 acres (100%)Interior area = 166 acres (83%)Edge area = 34 acres (17%)
Total area = 200 acres (100%)Interior area = 116 acres (58%)Edge area and opening = 84 acres (42%)
• ifregenerationalreadyisestab-lishedinthestand
• white-taileddeermanagement•previouslanduse(forexample,
agricultural,stripmine)•currentorproposedlanduse
(forexample,livestock)ResearchinWestVirginia
indicatesthataclearcutwillsup-portforestinteriorspecies35to45yearsaftertheharvest,butthatolderstands(80to100yearsold)providesignificantlyhighernestingsuccessbecauseoflowerpredationratesonnests.Eventimberingthatisdoneoutsideof
thebreedingseasonmaydisruptanddisplacesomemigratorybirdsthefollowingbreedingseasonbecausesomespeciesreturntothesamestandyearafteryeartobreed.Mostresidentspecies,suchasthetuftedtitmouseandwildturkey,however,areusuallyabletoadapttoachangingenvironment,becausetheytypicallyuseavarietyofhabitatstosurvivethroughouttheyear.Theyareusuallyaf-fectedlessbyanintenseharvest(orcatastrophicnaturaldisturbancesuchasaseverewintericestorm)thantheoftenmorespecializedmigratorybirdsandwilloftenstillusetheharvestedareatosomeextentaswellasthematureforest.
Edge Area Interior Area Altered Habitat
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Examplesofactivitiesandusesthataland-ownermaydoontheirpropertycouldinclude:
•Recreationalactivities--hiking,hunting,fish-ing,birdwatching,naturestudyandmoun-tainbiking
•Wildlifeandbotanical--feehuntingand/orfishing,medicinalplants,watchablewildlife
•Spiritualfulfillmentandaestheticenjoyment•Harvestingwoodproducts--firewood,sawtim-
ber,chips,postsandveneer
Severalpublicationscitedonpage19givedetailedstep-by-stepinformationfordevelopingaforestmanagementplan.
Ifadecisionismadethatatimberharvestiscompat-iblewiththegoalsandobjectivesofthelandowner,heorsheshouldenlisttheser-vicesofaprofessionalforestertomonitoranddirectthehar-vest.Thebenefitsofusingaforestertypicallyincludeawell-planned,envi-
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Taking a diameter breast height (DBH) measurement.
Management Plans and Contracts:Protecting and Enhancing Your Woodlot
Anylandownerconsideringanytypeofforestryprac-ticeshouldfirstdevelop
acomprehensiveforestmanage-mentplan.Withinthisplanallgoalsandobjectivesarelistedalongwithdetailedinformationandproceduresthatwillbeusedtomeetthesegoalsandobjec-tives.Alargevarietyofmanage-mentpracticesandtechniquesareavailabletothelandownerfromprofessionalforesterstohelpmeetabroadarrayofobjectives.TheownershouldseekthehelpofprofessionalresourcemanagersattheWestVirginiaDivisionofForestryorDivisionofNaturalResourcesofficestodeveloptheirplan.
Consultingforestersandforestindustryforestersalsodevelopplans.Alloftheseindividu-alscanhelpdevelopplansthatarefeasible,com-patiblewiththelandowner’sinterestsandneedsandbeneficialtotheforestandwildlife.Oncethelandownerhasafinishedplan,heorshemaybeeligibleforfinancialassistancethroughfederallyfundedprogramsthatoffercost-sharingforspecificforestryandlandmanagementpractices.ContactyourlocalWVDivisionofForestry,UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture–FarmServicesAgencyorNaturalResourceConservationServiceformoreinformation.(See Appendix III, page 28).
Aforestmanagementplanisawritten,detaileddocumentthatincludesthreeimportantelements:
•Aspecificlistofthelandowner’sgoalsandobjectives,
•Athoroughdescriptionofthepropertyandthewildlife,timber,aquaticandculturalresourcesonit,and
•Ascheduleofactivitiestobeperformedonthepropertyifneededtohelpmeetgoalsandobjectives.
Skidder hauling logs to a log landing.
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Riparian zones protect waterways.
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ronmentallyfriendlyharvestingoperationthatmeetsorexceedsexpectations,andtypicallyreceivesahigherprice.Thelandownershouldasktoseewhatthepro-posedharvestpracticeactuallylookslike.Whatdoesitreallymeantoremove30percentoftheoakand50percentofthecherry?Ideally,thelandownershouldhaveaclearvisualizationofwhatheorshewouldlikethelandtolooklikeandtohavetheopportu-nitytoseewhatthesameharvestpracticeactuallylookslikeontheground.Asktoseeanexample.
Itisstronglyrecommendedthatawrittentimberharvestingcontractbeusedforthesaleoftimberandthatthecontractbeen-teredintoonlywiththeadviceofanattorneyandaforester.Thepurposeofthecontractistodetailtheresponsibilityofeachpartyinvolvedinthetimberharvest,thusprotectingboththelandownerandthetimberbuyer/logger.Thesedetailsshouldincludebutarenotlimitedto:
•paymentschedule•descriptionoftimberbeingsoldandhowitis
designated(marked,diameter,volume,etc.)•anticipatedstartingandcompletiondateand
timeperiodcoveredbythecontract•penaltiesforcuttingundesignatedtrees•provisionsprohibitingexcessivedamagetoun-
designatedtreesandimprovedproperty•assignmentofliabilityforlossesduetofire
causedbybuyer/loggerorhisagents•provisionsforprotectionofsoil,waterand
recreationalvalue(forexample,suspendingoperationsduringwetweather)
•owner’srighttoinspectsaleareaduringharvestoperations
•righttosuspendtheharvestoperationifthecontractisviolated
•provisionforarbitrationtoresolvedisagree-ments
•rightofingressandegressofthebuyer/logger•locationofroadsandlandingsagreedonbefore
harvestbegins•compliancewithallwaterqualitylawsandthe
LoggingSedimentControlAct(1992)•designationofseller’sagent•severancetaxliability•protectionfromworkers’compensationclaims,
liabilitysuitsandpropertydamageforthelandowner
•considerationforthreatenedandendangeredplantsandanimalsifpresent,andforhistori-callyandbiologicallysignificantsites
•stabilizationandrepairofloggingroadsandlandingstoaspecifiedconditionuponharvestcompletion
•handlingofloggingdebris(topsandslash)inrelationtoroads,landingsandstreams
•performanceofapost-harvestinspectiontoensurecompliancewiththecontract
•releaseofbuyer/logger,throughawrittenletter,fromfurtherobligations
Seller beware Never consider selling timber without a plan and con-tract or without advice from a lawyer and forester. To do so puts plans and desires at risk, could leave your land and its resources damaged and could drastically reduce present and future income and enjoyment.
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Landownersshouldneverconsidermanagingtheirforestresourceswithoutthebenefitsofaprofessionallyprepared,wellthoughtout
managementplanthatlaysoutspecificgoalsandobjectives.Notestablishingthesegoalscanleadtounwelcomeandpoorresultsifmanagementprac-ticesareperformedwithoutaplan.Iftheforestmanagementplanrecommendsatimberharvest,itcanbeimplementedusingeven-agedmanagement,uneven-agedmanagementand/oranintermediatemanagementpractice.Thechoiceofusingoneormoreofthesetechniquesdependsonthelandown-er’sgoalsandexpectationsandthecharacteristicsofthetimberandthesite.
Themanagementtypealandownerchooses,orthecombinationofseveral,basicallycontrolstheamountoflightreachingtheforestfloor,sinceremovingtreesremovescanopyandallowsdirectlightin.Morelightallowsforgrowthofsun-lovingtreespecies,likeoak,blackcherry,yellowpoplarandpine.Lesslightallowsforgrowthofspeciesthatrequirelesslightlikebeech,hemlockandsugarmaple.
Thefollowingvariablesaffectthepotentialquality,quantityandtreespeciescompositionofthefuturestand:presenceorabsenceofseedlingsand/orsaplingsofthedesiredspecies,highdensi-tiesofplantsthatmayinterferewiththegrowthofthenewstand(ferns,grass,grapevine,stripedmaple),sitelimitationssuchaswetorverystonysoilsandcurrentdeerdensitiesanddeermanage-ment.Aprofessionalforesterand/orwild-lifemanagercanevaluatethesefactors.Oncetheyhavethisinformation,theycanmakerecommendationsthatcandealwithpotentialchallengesthatwillallowthegrowthofanewstandcomposedofspeciesthatmeettheforestmanagementgoalsofthelandowner.
Decisionsastowhichpracticestoimplementinwhichspecificsituationsfromatimbermanagementviewpointarebeyondthescopeofthisguide.How-ever,theexpectedresultofthefollowingpracticesonsongbirdspeciesofconserva-
tionconcerncanbefoundinAppendix V, page 32.Avisualrepresentationofwhataharvestmaylooklikeatthetimeofthepracticeand10yearspost-harvestisonpage16.
Even-Aged Management Even-agedmanagementresultsintimberstandsconsistingoftreesthatareessentiallythesameage.Thispracticeisbestusedifthelandowner’sgoalistomaximizetheeconomicreturnofthetimberortoestablishand/ormaintainsun-loving(shadeintolerant)treessuchasoak,blackcherry,yellowpoplar,blacklocustorpine.Thesetreeswillnotgrowandthriveintheshadeofothertrees;theyneedfullsunlight.Clearcuttingandpartialcutpracticesarecuttingmethodstoestablishand/ormaintaineven-agedstands.
ClearcuttingAsthenameimplies,virtuallyallthetreesare
cutandremovedinoneoperation,resultinginafuturestandofoneage.Ifsufficientnumbersofseedlingsofthedesiredspeciesarealreadyinplaceandwellestablished,clearcuttingwillsatisfacto-rilyregrowanewstandwiththedesiredspeciescomposition.Stumpsproutsarealsoanimportantsupplementtoregrowthestand.InWestVirginia,clearcutsaretypicallybetween10and40acresinsize.
Partial Cuts – Seedtree and ShelterwoodThegoalofbothofthesepracticesisto
Shelterwood cuts are gaining acceptance for regenerating oak and cherry as prices for these species increase.
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The same clearcut six years later. Today it contains 50% black cherry.
produceseedlingsofthedesiredspe-ciesinordertoregrowanewstand.Thisisdonebypartiallycuttingthestandoneormoretimes,leavinggoodseedingtreestoproduceseedlingsandallowingtheresultingseedlingstogrowinunderhigherlightconditionsintothenewstand.Thispracticeisdonewhennotenoughseedlingsarecurrentlypresentintheuncutstandtoregrowitafterharvest.
Inaseedtreecut,thetreesleftstandingmayormaynotbecomepartofthepermanentstand.Inashelter-woodcut,moretreesareinitiallyleftstandingtosheltertheyoungseedlingsfromextremesofdirectsunlightandwind.Aftertheseedlingsbecomeestablished(approximately3–15years),oneormoreadditionalcutsaremadetoremovematuretrees.
Uneven-Aged ManagementUneven-agedmanagement
maybemostappropriatewhenthelandownerhasgoalsotherthantomaximizefinancialreturnandwishestomaintainanintacttreecanopy.Uneven-agedmanagementkeepsaforestcanopyontheareaatalltimesandavoidsthelargeopeningswithexposedstumps,slashandpossiblesoildisturbancethatarepresentaftereven-agedcuttings.Uneven-agedmanagementmaybeagoodchoicewhensiteandstandconditionsmakeeven-agedmanagementdifficultsuchasifthestandhasseveralageclassesinitorif,inareasofthestand,seedlingscan’tgrowbecauseofpoorsiteconditionssuchasverystonyorwetareas.Standsdominatedbyshadetolerantspecieslikehemlock,beechandsugarmaplearewell-suitedtouneven-agedmanagement.
Singletreeselectionisjustthat-selectingsingletreestobecutbasedoncriteriasetupaheadoftime(monetaryvalue,species,etc.)thatmeet
thelandowner’sgoals.Groupselectionischoosingagroupoftrees,typicallycovering½to1acre,basedonpredeterminedcriteria.
Seedlingandstumpsproutgrowthinun-even-agedstandsmustbeobtainedaftereachcut.Becauseconsiderableoverstoryisalwayspresent,growthwillbedominatedbyshadetolerantspecies.Toencouragefastergrowth,highertreespeciesdiver-
sity,thenumberoftreesleftstandinginacutareashouldbekeptlow.Smallopeningsof½to1acreshouldbecreatedtomeetlandownergoals.Forbothtimberproductionandthepersistenceofshadeintolerantspecies,thecombineduseofsingletreeandsmallgroupselectioncuttingpracticestendstobemostsuccessful.
Intermediate Management Thegoalsofintermediatemanagement
practices,insteadofregenerationofyoungtreesasineven-anduneven-agedmanage-ment,concentrateonmaximizinggrowthofyoungtreestoproducehighqualitysawandveneerlogsand/orhealthyanddiversewildlifehabitat.Thinned oak stand.
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Tolerant understory of beech that developed as a result of repeated single-tree selection cuts.
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Group selection can have minimal negative effects on existing forest bird communities.
Commercial thinningThismethodcullspoorlyformedorother-
wiseundesirabletreesfromastandsothatgrowthofselectedtreesismaximized.Thisisfirstdonewhenthestandisoldenoughandthetreesarelargeenough(usually20–40yearsold)tobesoldcommercially(oftenasposts,chipsorpulp)topayforthethinning.Standscanbethinnedmultipletimes(at15-20yearintervals).Laterthinningsharvestbothsmallandlargertrees,leavingsuperioractivelygrowingtreestoproduceseedandmain-tainthestand.
Crop tree managementInstandsmanagedusingthecroptreemeth-
od,individualtreesarechosenwhenapproximately20-40yearsoldtobereleased,ortohavecompet-ingtreesaroundthemremoved.Thisallowsmorelighttoreachthem,andtheytypicallygrowmorequicklywithbetterformandproducemoreseed.Thesecroptreesarechosenbasedontimbervalue,wildlifevalueand/oraestheticvalue,dependingonthegoalsofthelandowner.
Diameter Limit CuttingDiameterlimitcuttingisthemost
commonmethodofcuttingtimberinWestVirginiabecauseitiseasytoimplementandcheaptoapply.Becauseitiseasy,fastandcheap,limitingfactors(presenceofestablishedseedlings,seedsourcestoregrowthestand,treespeciesandsizetobeleft)tendtobeover-lookedorignored.
Inthismethod,thelandownerandpur-chaseragreeonastumpdiameteratorabovewhichalltreeswillbecut.Ifthediameter
selectedishigh(20ormoreinches),typicallyfewtreesarecutandtheeffectonthestandmaybesimilartoasingletreeorgroupselectioncut.Ifthiscriteriaisselectedevery10–20years,theresultingstandwillbeuneven-agedand,overtime,wouldmostlikelybecomposedofshadetoleranttrees(beech,sugarmaple,hemlock).Ifthediame-terselectedislow(10-12inches)mosttreeswouldbecut.Theeffectwouldbesimilartoaclearcutandamoreeven-agedstandwouldresult.
Diameterlimitcuttinghasseverallimitationsthatcan,overtime,negativelyimpactthehealthofthestand.Itdoesnotprovidecontroloverthenumberoftreesortheproportionofthespeciesoftreesthatremain,nordoesitimprovethequalityoftheremainingtrees.Standsrepeatedlyharvestedwiththismethodoftenregrowpoorly,andonlymarginalwildlifehabitatmaybepro-duced.Atitsworst,diam-eterlimitcuttingamountstohighgradinginwhichthebestofthetreesofthemostprofitablespeciesaretakenandthediseased,poorlygrownandundesirablespeciesareleft.
Beingabletocontrolandmanipulatetreedensity,speciescompositionandpotentialre-growthistheheartofanygoodmanagementplan.Diameterlimitcuttingremovesthisimportantcontrol.
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Selected timber harvests in a typical mature mixed hardwood forest at harvest and ten years post-harvest. Regeneration height in feet (scale on the right side of figures) will vary with aspect, light, moisture, soil type and browsing pressure.
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1. Harvest the timber outside of the breed-ing season of April 15-August 1. Sincemanyofthebirdsthatusematureforestsareeitherlongdistancemigrants(thered-eyedvireomigratesallthewaytotheAmazon)orshortdistancemigrants(mosthermitthrushesmigratetothesouthernstates)theyortheiryoungwillnotbeintheareaandthereforecannotbedisturbedorinjured.
2. Leave dead snags, cavity trees and live trees that have the potential of becoming cavity trees at the rate of at least five per acre. Standingdeadtreesanddeadpartsoflivetreesprovidefoodandshelterformanykindsofwildlife.Atleast35birdspeciesand20mammalsusetreecavitiesforshelterandtoraiseyoung.Snagsandrottedpartsoflivetreesarealsoexcellentplacesforbirdstofindinsectsandotherinvertebratesusedforfood.Thisfoodsourceisespeciallyimportantinwin-terforlocal,non-migratorybirds.Ifyourforestdoesnothaveenoughsnagsorcavitytrees,createsomebygirdling(killing)selectedlowvaluetreesthroughouttheforestattherateoffiveperacre(see Glossary, page 33).
3. Plan on leaving 100 foot buffers on either side of permanent streams and around natural
Bird-friendly Timber Harvesting Practices
seeps. Buffersareareasalongstreamsandseepswherefewornotreesarecutandnoroadsareallowed.TheseriparianareasareveryimportanttocertainsitesensitivebirdssuchastheLouisiana
waterthrush,Kentuckywarbler,Acadianflycatcherandbeltedkingfisher.Leavinganadequatebufferalsoprotectswaterqualityintheharvestareaandprotectsfishandotheraquaticorganismsintheharvestareaanddownstream.
4. Reclaim roads and landings with grasses, legumes, shrubs and trees that produce food and cover for wildlife. Trytousenativevarietiesthatbenefitbirdsandwildlifeinthewinterandearlyspring,themostdifficulttimeoftheyearforsur-vival.Avoidmowedorveryshortgrowinggrassesthatcanattractbrown-headedcowbirds.
5. If the border between open land and for-est is abrupt, practice forest edge cutting.Thispracticeinvolvescuttingand/orplantingtreesandshrubsalongtheedgeofaforest,fieldorroadinawaythatimproveswildlifehabitatbyincreasingthevarietyofvegetation,vegetativestructureandcreatingasoftedge.Improvedstructure(thelayersofvegetationfromtheshortestherbaceousplantuptothetallestcanopytree)increasesfoodandcoveravailabletowildlifebyprovidingmorelayerswhereanimalscanfeed,hideandnest.
6. If your property supports a high deer popu-lation, consider allowing hunters on your property to harvest deer, especially antlerless deer (does), if you don’t hunt yourself or if you hunt very little.Adeermanagementsection(deerhunting)canbeincludedinyourforestmanagementplan.Becausedeerarebrowsers(treeeaters),toomanydeercaneliminatesmalltreeseedlings(potentialregenera-
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Creating a soft edge improves wildlife habitat.
Additional habitat enhancement practices that can be part of a forest management plan:Construct or leave brush piles and windrows (great for attracting sparrows and other
ground dwelling birds).Construct and put up nesting structures.Preserve and plant conifers.Preserve, prune and release fruiting trees.
(For example, apple, serviceberry, crabapple, hawthorn and others.)
Control undesirable, non-native vegetation (Japanese knotweed, mile-a-minute weed, Japanese honeysuckle, Japanese stiltgrass, multiflora rose, tree-of-heaven) by disking, burning or judicious use of herbicides (spot treating).
Avoid insecticides and herbicides.Construction of ponds or water holes if appro-
priate sites are available.
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tion)andotherunderstoryvegetationonwhichmanywildlifespeciesdepend.Thereareseveralrecentstudiessuggestingthattheeliminationofunderstoryvegetationbydeerhashadsignificantadverseaffectsonbirdcommunitiesandotherwildlifespecies.ForadviceoneffectivedeermanagementcontactyourWVDivisionofNaturalResourcesdistrictwildlifebiologist.Overabun-danceofdeerisbestallevi-atedbyharvestingdoes.
Forestsoccupy78percentofthetotallandareainWestVirginia,withprivatelandownersowning83percentofthattotal(theforestindus-tryowns7percent,andfederalandstateagenciesown10percent).Inadditiontoprovidingvalu-ablesuppliesofwood,fiberandfuel,theseforests
Additional reading and websitesMaintaining Species Diversity in the Central
Appalachians byG.W.MillerandJ.N.Kochenderfer;JournalofForestry,July1998.
A Practical Alternative to Single Tree Selection?byG.W.MillerandH.C.Smith;NorthernJournalofAppliedForestry,1993.
The Land Manager’s Guide to Birds of the South byP.B.Hamel,TheNatureConservancy,Cha-pelHill,NC;1992.
Habitat Area Requirements of Breeding Forest Birds of the Middle Atlantic StatesbyC.Robbins,D.K.DawsonandB.A.Dowell;WildlifeMono-graphs;1989,volume103.
Neotropical Migratory Birds: Natural History, Distribution and Population Change byR.M.De-GraafandJ.H.Rappole;ComstockPublishingAssc.,Ithaca,NY;1995.
The Sibley Guide to Bird Life and BehaviorbyD.A.Sibley;AlfredA.Knopf,NY;2001.
The Birder’s Handbook: A Field Guide to the Natural History of North American BirdsbyP.R.Ehrlich,D.S.DobkinandD.Wheye;SimonandSchuster,Inc.,NY;1988.
Neotropical Migratory Birds of the Southern AppalachiansbyK.E.FranzebandR.A.Phillps;GeneralTechnicalReportSE-96;U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,SouthernResearchStation,Asheville,NC;1995.
2004 Partners in Flight North American Land-bird Conservation Plan byT.D.Rich,J.Pasdmere,H.Berlanga,P.J.Blancher,M.S.W.Bradstreet,G.S.
Butcher,D.W.Demarest,E.H.Dunn,W.C.Hunter,E.E.Inigo-Elias,J.A.Kennedy,A.M.Martell,A.O.Panjabi,N.Pasley,K.V.Rosenberg,C.M.Rustay,J.S.WendtandT.C.Will.CornellLabofOrnithology,Ithica,NY;2004.Website:http://www.partnersin-flight.org/cont_plan.(vers:March2005)
2003 Partners in Flight Landbird Conservation Plan: Physiographic Area 12: Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Valley byK.V.Rosenberg. CornellLabofOrnithol-ogy,Ithaca,NY;2004.Website:http://www.blm.gov/wildlife/plan/pl_12_10.pdf.
2004 Partners in Flight Conservation Plan: Physiographic Area 22: Ohio Hills byK.V.Rosen-berg.CornellLabofOrnithology,Ithaca,NY;2004.Website:http://www.blm.gov/wildlife/plan/pl_22_10.pdf.
Prescribing Silvicultural Treatments in Hard-wood Stands of the Alleghenies (revised) byD.A.Marquis,R.L.Earnst,andS.L.Stout.Gen.Tech.Rep.NE-96;U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,NortheasternForestExperimentStation,Radnor,PA;1992.
Pennsylvania State University School of Forest Resources:http://www.forestryexplorer.psu.edu/man-agement.
Partners in Flight-U.S.,servedbytheUSGSPatuxentWildlifeResearchCenter,Laurel,MD.http://www.partnersinflight.org.
West Virginia Wildlife Conservation Action Plan,http://www.wvdnr.gov/Wildlife/PDFFiles/wvwcap.pdf;2005.
providethenecessaryandindispensablehabitatforseveralhundredspeciesofanimalsandover2000speciesofplants.Anyusethataltersthestructureandcompositionoftheforesthasthepotentialtosignificantlyalterwildlifehabitatandwildlife
communitiesandpopulations.Whethertheseactivitiesresultingoodorbadwildlifeman-agementdependsontheland-owner’sforesightandabilitytoconsiderandplanforwildlife
needsheorsheisinterestedinpromoting.Hav-ingamanagedforestandabundantwildlifearetwoverycompatibleandachievablegoals—theyarenotmutuallyexclusive.Implementingthesuggestionspresentedherewillhelpyoutoenjoybetterbirding,abundantwildlifeandthemanybenefitsofawellmanagedforest.
Having a managed forest and abundant wildlife are two very compatible and achievable goals — they are not mutually exclusive.
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Thesehabitatgroupingscanbeusedtodeterminewhatgroupofbirdsmightbebestforthelandownertomanagefor
dependingonwhathabitatispresentanditscondi-tion.Forexample,choosingtomanageforspeciessuchasthescarlettanagerandceruleanwarblerthatrequirematureforestswhenalandowneronlyhasopenfieldstoworkwithwouldbefrustratingandhighlyunproductive.Managingforspeciesthatprefermoreopenareassuchastheprairiewarblerorgolden-wingedwarblerwouldbemorefulfill-ingandeffective.ThefollowinghabitatgroupingsdefinethebasichabitatsthatoccurinWestVirginiaandgivespecificsoneachgroups’habitatmanage-mentrequirements.Managementrecommenda-tionsarethosepracticesthatwillhelpmaintainorenhancethehabitatasitcurrentlyexists.
Certainbird-friendlymanagementpracticesarerecommendedacrossallhabitats.Thesein-clude:
• managingdeerandotherbrowserpopula-tionstopreventover-browsing
Golden-winged warblers prefer shrub and scrub habitat.
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•limitingmajormanagementandtimberhar-vestingoperationstothenon-breedingseason.
•practicingBestManagementPractices(BMPs)orbetterduringanytimberharvestingoperations(see Appendix I, page 24).
•maintainingatleast100footbuffersonbothsidesofstreamsandaroundseepsduringtimberharvestsandothermanagementoperationsthatdisturbthehabitat.
•limitingpesticideusetowhatisabsolutelynecessary.
AppendixVII(page 36)includesalistofWestVirginiabirdsandthenestingandfeedinghabitatsinwhichlandownersmaytypicallyseethem.
Closed Canopy Forestdefinition:closedcanopyoftreeswithgener-
allysparseunderstory,shrublayerandgroundcover(rhododendronmaybethickinwetareasandthebaseofledges);generallymoistmicrocli-mate.
management recommendations: • maintainclosedcanopy.• maintainlargetractsofcontinuousforest.• limitharvestoperationstosingletree,
groupselectionandsmallclearcuts(atotalof10percentofthecanopy)toprovidehabitatforspe-ciesrequiringamoreopenhabitat.
• maintainatleastfivesnags(atleast10-inchdiameteratbreastheightorDBH)peracrebyleavingdeadordyingtreesinplaceorbygir-dlinghealthyones.
Management Guidelines for West VirginiaHabitat Groupings
Indigo buntings nest and feed along forest edges.
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Riparian forests promote high water quality.
Edges and Forest Gapsdefinition:linearareaaroundtheperimeter
offorestsandtheareaswithinsmallopeningsinforestsconsistingofmoderatetodenseshruband/orsmalltreeandgroundcoverwithmatureforestononeormoresides.
management recommendations: • maintainareasofshrubgrowthalongexist-
ingedgesbymowing,cuttingorlightgrazingevery2-4years.
• encourageshrubgrowthbydisturbingthesoilalonghardedges(sharpboundariesbetweenfieldsandforest)bydisking,plowingorothersoildisturbance,orbyplanting.
• cutbackportionsofforestedgestoencour-ageshrubandsaplinggrowth.
• developforestgapseveryeighttotenyears(ifneeded)inforesttypesusinggroupselectionandsmallclear-cutstopromotehabitatdiversity.
Open Canopy Forestdefinition:mosaicofclosedtoopencanopy
forestwithsparsetowelldevelopedunderstory,shrublayerandgroundcover,oftenwithpines;drymicroclimatetypicallyfoundonridgetops,cedargladesandshalebarrens.
management recommendations: • maintainmatureforest-especiallytalltrees.
• usesingletree,groupselectionorsmallclearcutsfortimberharvesting.
• maintainamosaicofunderstoryandshrublayerdensitiesfromdensetosparse.
Riparian Forestdefinition: closedcanopyforestalongedges
ofpermanentstreams;denseunderstoryandshrubsalongpermanentstreams;largetractsofcontinuousforestinriverfloodplains.
management recommendations: • maintainforestcoveradjacenttostreams.• maintain
well-developedshrublayeralongstreams,usesingletreeandgroupselectionfortimberharvesting-cutatleast100feetfromstreams.
• promoteand/ormaintainhighwaterquality.
• retaintallesttreesfordiversityincanopystructure. The wood thrush is often
found in open canopy forests.
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Ripariandefinition:non-forestedareasadjacenttoriv-
ers,largerstreamsandwetlands.management recommendations: • promoteand/ormaintainwaterqualityto
supportahealthyaquaticcommunity.• maintainareasofpoolsandshallowriffles
(avoidchannelization).• maintainstable,vertical,sandynon-vegetat-
edbanks;maintainsnagsandtreesoverriffleareas.• fencestreambankstopreventoveruseby
domesticstock-developsmallstabilizedwateringareasinstreamsorwateringtroughsawayfromstreams.
Coniferous Forestdefinition: forestedstandsconsistingprimar-
ilyofconiferoustrees;sprucetypicallyfoundabove2500feetelevation;pineondrysitesatvariouselevations;hemlockincovesandalongstreams.
management recommendations: • maintainlargematureforesttracts.• usesingletree,groupselectionorclearcuts
toregeneratestands(dependingonthespecies)anddeveloppatchesofshrubbyhabitat.
• softenhardedgesbycuttingportionsofforestedgestoencouragesprouting.
Shrub/Scrubdefinition: earlysuccessionalareas;vegeta-
tionconsistingofvariousherbaceousvegetation
withshrubs,saplings,stumpsproutsincutareas,reclaimedsurfacemines,powerlineright-of-ways;sparsetodensevegetation.
management recommendations: • maintainoldfieldsandshrubbyareasby
selectivelycuttingoutlargersizedtrees(above4-to6-inchDBH)andstripmowing/brushhoggingeveryfivetotenyears
• encourageselectedareasofdensegrowthbycoppicingorstumpsprouts
• cutbackportionsofforestedgestoencour-ageshrubandsaplinggrowth
Old field habitat is used by a variety of songbirds and other wildlife.
Dense growth is encouraged by coppicing.
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Cliffsdefinition: areaswithvertical,generallylinear
seriesofcliffs;usuallyalongridges,riversorlargerstreams;littlevegetation.
management recommendations: • avoiddisturbing(typicallynoteconomically
feasiblefortimberoperations).• avoidextensiverecreationaluse,suchasrock
climbing.
Residential/Townsdefinition: areaswithhousesandother
buildings;maybedenselypopulatedwithhumans;variousvegetationincludingscatteredtrees,shrubsandlawns.
management recommendations:•avoiduseofinvasiveexoticplantspeciesfor
landscaping--usenativespecieswhenpossible.•provideavarietyofplanttypes:trees,
shrubs,groundcoverforshelterandfood.• providewaterthroughouttheyear.• avoidpesticideuseunlessabsolutelyneces-
sary–practiceintegratedpestmanagementstrategies.• keepcatsindoors--theykillverylargenum-
bersofbirds.
Grasslanddefinition:pastures,abandonedfields,
reclaimedsurfacemineswithprimarilygrassyveg-etationofvariousheights;mayhaveareasofdenseherbaceousgrowthand/orscatteredsmalltreesoroldfencepostsandadjacentshrubbyareas.
management recommendations: • maintaingrassyareasbygrazingormow-
ingtodiscourageextensivewoodyvegetation.•plantareasofmixednativewarmseason
grasses,legumesandwildflowers.Avoidplantinglargeareaswithjustonespecies.
• avoidhayingduringthebreedingseason-ifpossibledonotcutuntilafterJuly15.
• allowafewshrubsorsmalltreesinthefieldforsongperches.
• removeroadsideperchestoavoidvehiclecausedmortality.
• avoidovergrazing-rotatelivestockthroughpastures.
Wetlanddefinition:soilsaturatedformostoftheyear;
supportstypicalherbaceousand/orwoodywet-landvegetation;includesswamps,shrubswamps,marshes,fensandbogs.
management recommendations:• developandmaintainhighwaterquality
andappropriatewaterquantity.• maintainlargeareasofwetland.• avoidchannelizationofadjoiningstreams.
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Wetlands, including swamps, marshes and bogs, provide homes for many species of waterbirds.
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Good backyard habitat design provides a variety of plant types.
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TheLoggingSedimentControlAct(LSCA)lawstatesthatafterSeptember1,1992,anyoneconductingaloggingoperation,
buyingtimberorbuyinglogsforresaleisrequiredtobelicensedbytheWestVirginiaDivisionofForestry(WVDOF).Beforealicensecanbeis-suedtheapplicantmustpossessabusinesslicense,beregisteredandbeincompliancewiththeDe-partmentofTaxandRevenueandwiththeWork-ersandUnemploymentCompensationDivisions.Bylaw,theacceptanceofalogginglicenseobli-gatesanoperatortoprotectsoilandwaterqualitybyjudicioususeofBestManagementPractices(BMPs).
BMPscanbedefinedastheproperuseofanypracticeordeviceusedtocontrolsoilerosionandwaterpollution.Sinceroadsandlandingsarethebiggestpotentialsourceofsoildisturbance,properlocation,layout,maintenanceandreclamationofthesefeaturesisthemostimportantBMPaloggerorlandownercanuse.Useofwatercontroldevicesandtechniquessuchaswaterbars,usingculvertsorbridgesforstreamcrossings,siltfenceandsedimentpondshelptocontrolsoildisturbanceandwaterdegradation.Otherpracticesincludeloggingindriermonths,temporarilysuspendingoperationsduringwetweather,keepingroadsoutofriparianareas,removingtopsfromstreamsandusingproperfellingtechniquestoprotectboththetimbercutterandremainingstandingtimber.
OtherimportantelementsoftheLSCAinclude:•Loggercertification–thepersondirectingtheloggingoperationmustbeacertifiedlogger,having
satisfactorilycompletedcoursesintreefellingsafety,personalsafetyequipment,firstaidandCPR,andforesthealth.
•TimberOperationNotificationForm–mustbesubmittedtotheWVDOFwithinthreedaysofthestartofaharvestoperation.ItsuppliesinformationabouttheoperationandobligatestheoperatortodeclarewhatBMPswillbeused.
•Postingtheoperation–asignmustbeerectedlistingtheloggingoperator’scompanynameandlicensenumberinthree-inchlettersorlargerattheprimaryloglanding.
•Reclamation–reclamationofalllandingsandroadsshouldbecompletedwithinsevendaysofthecompletionoftheharvestoperation.TheloggingoperatormustcontacttheWVDOFofanydelaysoversevendays(forexample,duetowetconditions).
•Violations–loggingoperatorsarerequiredtokeeptheirlicensesandnotificationscurrentandtouseBMPstocontrolsoilerosionandpreventstreampollution.Violationsoftheseorcertainwaterqual-itylawscanresultincomplianceorders,jobsuspensions,citationsorarrest.
Itshouldbenotedthatlandownersalsohavearesponsibilityinpreventingsoilerosionandstreampollution.UnderChapter22oftheWestVirginiaCode,theOfficeofWaterResourcesholdsnotonlytheloggingoperatorresponsiblebutcanalsoholdthelandownerresponsibleforallowingorcontribut-ingtostreamsedimentation.Forthisreasonalonelandownersshouldprotectthemselveswithawellwrittencontract.
TheaboveinformationismeanttobeabriefoverviewofLSCA.FormoreinformationaboutLSCA,BMPs,contracts,etc.,contactyourlocalDivisionofForestryoffice(see Appendix III, page 28).
Appendix I
Logging Sediment Control Act (LSCA)
U.S
. For
est S
ervi
ce P
hoto
Bridge constructed to skid logs across a stream helps maintain high water quality.
��
Appendix II
Roads and Reclamation
Ahighquality,well-planned,lim-itedaccess(gated)roadsystemisanecessityforalmostanytypeof
comprehensivelandmanagementplan.Notonlyaretheyimportantfortheremovaloftimberandforwildlifeman-agementactivities,theycanbeusedforotheractivitiessuchashiking,biking,hunting,wildlifeviewing,horsebackridingandbirdwatching.Manyroadscanbedevelopedintoexcellentnaturetrails.Agoodroadsystemalsoprovidesaccessforfiresuppressionactivitiesshouldtheybeneeded.Aroadsystemcanbedesignedaspartofaforestman-agementplan.
Reclamationistheprocessofrevegetatingroadsandotherdisturbedareaswithgrasses,legumes,wildflowers,shrubsandtreestopreventerosion,improveaestheticsandprovidefoodandcoverforwildlife.Reclamationofland-ingsandspecifiedroadsandskidtrailsisrequiredundertheLoggingSedimentControlActandisaveryimportantcomponentofanyforestmanage-mentplan.Itshouldreceiveasmuchconsider-ationandthoughtasanyotherpartoftheplan.Reclamationprovisionsassociatedwithatimberharvestshouldbeincludedinthecontract.
Reclamationisoftennotstarteduntilalltreestobeharvestedhavebeencutandhauled
away.Becausethispracticeofdelayedreclamationexposesbaresoiltorainandrunoff,itcancauseincreasederosionandisdiscouraged.Reclamationshouldbecomepartofdailyoperationsonatimberharvestandshouldbecompletedbysectionasthejobprogresses.Whenthelasttreeinanareaisre-movedandtheskidtrailorroadleadingtoitisnolongerneeded,reclamationeffortsshouldbegin.First,roadsandlandingsneedtobesmoothedandgradedandwatercontroldevicesinstalled(waterbars,ditches,culverts,etc.).Limeand/orfertil-izer(ifindicatedbyasoiltest)andseedand/orplantingsarethenappliedatrecommendedrates.
U.S
. For
est S
ervi
ce P
hoto
Reclaimed roads and landings provide food and cover for wildlife.
Smooth sumac is a useful shrub to use for the reclamation of logging areas.
Dav
e Po
wel
l, U
SDA
/U.S
. For
est S
ervi
ce
Native grasses and wildflowers provide conservation buffers.
Lynn
Bet
ts, U
SDA
/ NR
CS
Phot
o
��
Landings,steeperslopes(20percentslopeorgreater)andcriticalareasatstreamcrossingsshouldalsore-ceivestrawmulchtohelpholdmoistureandtohelpprovidegreaterseedgerminationandplantsurvival.Afteranareahasbeenreclaimed,motorizedtrafficshouldbelimitedusinggatesorotherbarrierstoal-lowthenewvegetationtobecomewellestablished.
Thechoiceofplantspeciestouseforreclama-tionisalsoimportant.Plantingthecheapestseedingblendthroughoutatimberharvestwilllikelyprovideerosioncontrol,butwilldolittletoenhancewildlifehabitatoraesthetics.Recentresearchhasimplicatedtallfescue(Festuca arundinacea),acommonseed-ingmixturecomponent,withdecreasedsurvivalofseveralbirdspeciesduetoendophyticfungusandbyaggressivelycrowdingoutnativeplantspecies.Fescueandotherquickgrowingplantsareveryimportantforerosioncontrolonsteepslopes.Inlesserosionproneareas,however,nativespeciessuchasswitch-grass,deertongueandCanadawildryeaswellasshrubslikedogwoodandwillowprovidesuperiorfoodandcovertoavarietyofwildlife.
Atthistime,nativespeciesarenotasavailableoreconomicalasthetraditionalseedingmixturesthatcontaintallfescueandothernon-nativespecies.Butbecauseofconcernsaboutnon-nativespecies,theyarebecomingmoreavailable.Timberharvestsonna-tionalforeststrytousenativespeciesforreclamationwherepossible.TheWestVirginiaDivisionofNatu-ralResourcesandtheNaturalResourceConservationServiceofficescanprovidethelandownerinforma-tiononwheretoobtainnativespecies.Speciestobeplantedduringreclamationcanalsobeincludedinthetimberharvestingcontract.
Roadsandlandingareasaretypicallyplantedwithamixtureoffourtoeightspeciesdependinguponthesiteconditionsandgoalsofthelandowner.Ataminimum,themixshouldincludeanursecropthatwillgerminaterapidlyforerosioncontrol(oftenanannualspecies),twoormoreperennialgrassesforwildlifecoverandfoodandone(ormore)legumestohelpimprovesoilfertility.Forbs(wildflowers)andshrubscanalsobeplantedtoimprovehabitat.Be-foreplanting,thesoilshouldbeamendedwithlimeand/orfertilizerifindicatedbyasoiltesttoimprovegerminationandsurvival.Fertilizermaynotbeindi-catedwhenplantingsomespecies.
BIG
BLU
ESTE
M G
RA
SS/N
RC
SSU
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OW
ERS/
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MM
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ELD
ERB
ERRY
/Ken
neth
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ale,
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fore
stry
imag
es.o
rg
��
Plant Species For Reclamation
Sandbar willow provides excellent cover for a variety of wildlife .
Paul
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y, Io
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Stat
e U
nive
rsity
/ww
w.in
vasi
ves.
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Nurse speciesAnnualryegrass–Loium multiflorumWinterwheat–Triticum aestivumOats–Avena sativa
GrassesSwitchgrass–Panicum virgatumIndiangrass–Sorghastrum nutansRedtop–Agrostis albaCreepingredfescue–Festuca rubraCanadawildrye–Elymus canadensisFoxtailmillet–Setaria italicaOrchardgrass-Dactylis glomerataDeertongue(Tioga)–Panicum clandestinum
LegumesWinterAustrianpea–Pisum arvenseBirdsfoottrefoil–Lotus corniculatusRedclover–Trifolium pratenseLathcoflatpea–Lathyrus sylvestrisPerennialpea–Lathyrus latifoliusTuberosasweetpea–Lathyrus tuberosus
Hereareshortlistsofspeciesthatcanbeusedforreclamation.Manymorespeciesareavailablethanarelistedhere.ContacttheWestVirginiaDivisionofNaturalResourcesortheNaturalResourceConservationServiceforinformationonadditionalspecies.
Shrub Species For Reclamation of Logging Areas
Silkycornelorkinnikinnik-Cornus amomumGrayorpaledogwood-Cornus racemosaWinterberry-Ilex verticilliata (needmaleandfemaleplants)Scruborturkeyoak-Quercus ilicifoliaSandbarwillow-Salix exiguaDwarforshiningsumac-Rhus copallinumSmoothsumac-Rhus glabraBlackelderberry-Sambucus canadensisRedelderberry-Sambucus racemosaorSambucus pubensSouthernarrowwood-Viburnum dentatumBlackhaw-Viburnum prunifoliumSmoothornorthernarrowwood-Viburnum recognitum
��
Appendix III
Technical Assistance STATE AGENCIESWV Division of Natural ResourcesQuestions on wildlife and habitat, wildlife management practices (such as hunting, fishing and trapping)
Headquarters-Charleston:(304)558-2771WildlifeDiversityProgram-Elkins:(304)637-0245District1–Farmington:(304)825-6787District2-Romney:(304)822-3551District3-FrenchCreek:(304)924-6211District4-Beckley:(304)256-6947District5-PointPleasant:(304)675-0871
District6-Parkersburg:(304)420-4550
WV Division of ForestryQuestions on forest health, forest management, BMP enforcement, Forest Land Enhancement Program (FLEP)
Headquarters-Charleston:(304)558-2788District1-Fairmont:(304)367-2793District2-Romney:(304)822-4512District3-FrenchCreek:(304)924-6266District4-Beckley:(304)256-6775District5-Milton:(304)743-6186District6-Parkersburg:(304)420-4515
FEDERAL AGENCIESNatural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS - formerly Soil Conservation Service (SCS))Works in conjunction with Farm Service agencies,technical assistance for landowners,Wildlife Habitat Incen-tive Program (WHIP), Conservation Reserve Program (CRP)
MostcountieshaveaUSDAServiceCenterand/orNRCSoffice(oneofficemayserveseveralcounties).LookinthetelephonebookbluepagesunderUnitedStatesGovernment-DepartmentofAgriculture.
Headquarters-Morgantown:(304)291-4351EastTeams-Philippi:(304)457-1118or4516SouthTeams-Beckley:(304)255-9225or9226WestTeams-Parkersburg:(304)422-9082or9083PlantMaterialsCenter-Alderson:(304)445-3005
USD
A/N
RC
S Ph
oto
Use native warm season grasses to provide cover and food for wildlife.
��
Farm Service Agency/ USDA Service CentersQuestions on many federally funded programs for wildlife habitat enhancement or timber stand improvement.
LookinthetelephonebookbluepagesunderUnitedStatesGovernmentforlocaloffices.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program for habitat conservation and enhancement for private landowners
U.S.FishandWildlifeServiceWestVirginiaFieldOffice-Elkins:(304)636-6586
BIRD SURVEY RESOURCESThesevolunteer,non-profitorganizationsmaybeabletohelpyoudeterminewhatbirdspeciescur-
rentlyuseyourpropertyandwhatspeciesmaycomeinafteratimberharvest.
Brooks Bird ClubWheelingChapter-POBox4077,Wheeling,WV26003HandlanChapter-2720LakeviewDr.,St.Albans,WV25177BibbeeNatureClub-126FincastleLn.,Bluefield,WV24701LeonWilsonBirdClub-111JeffersonParkDr.,Huntington,WV25705
WV Audubon SocietyMountaineerChapter-POBox422,Morgantown,WV26507PotomacValleyChapter-POBox578,Shepherdstown,WV25443
Oglebay Good Zoo-EducationDepartment-(304)243-4068
Schrader Environmental Education Center -(304)242-6855
WV Partners in Flight-c/otheWVDNR-(304)637-0245
Three Rivers Avian Center-(304)466-4683or(800)721-5252
WV Raptor Rehabilitation Center -(800)540-6390
Additionally,stateandfederalagencypersonnelmaybeable,iftimeallows,toaidlandownersindeterminingsongbirduseoftheprop-
erty.LocalDivisionofNaturalResources,DivisionofForestryorNaturalResourceConservationSer-viceoffices(see adjacent page for contact information),theCanaanValleyorOhioRiverIslandNationalWildlifeRefuges,ortheMonongahelaNationalForestRangerStationsmaybeabletoaidlandownersinfindingqualifiedpersonstoconductabirdsurvey.Localcollegesanduniversitiesmayalsohaveperson-nelassociatedwiththemthatcouldhelplandownersdeterminewhatbirdspeciesareontheirproperty.
CanaanValleyNWR-HC70,Box200,DavisWV26260,(304)866-3858
OhioRiverIslandsNWR-POBox1811,ParkersburgWV26101,(304)422-0752
Monongahela National ForestSupervisor’sOffice-200SycamoreSt.,Elkins,WV26241,(304)636-1800CheatRangerDistrict-POBox368,ParsonsWV26287,(304)478-3251MarlintonRangerDistrict-CemeteryRd,MarlintonWV24954,(304)799-4334GauleyRangerDistrict-MarlintonRd.,RichwoodWV26261,(304)846-2695PotomacRangerDistrict-HC59Box240,PetersburgWV26847,(304)257-4488GreenbrierRangerDistrict-RangerStation,BartowWV24920,(304)456-3335
Bob
Woo
d
Blue-winged warbler
�0
ThislistofprioritybirdspeciesisatoolforalllandownersconcernedaboutbirdstomakemoreinformeddecisionsonlanduseinWestVirginia.ThelistwasdevelopedbyWVPartnersinFlight
(WVPIF),astatebirdconservationorganization.Itisdividedintothreeparts.Firstarethosebirdswhicharerareinthestate,suchastheHenslow’ssparrow,orwhichhaveanunknownstatusinthestate,suchasthegreatblueheron.Secondarethosebirdsofconservationconcern,specieswhosepopulationshavedeclinedinWestVirginiaand/orelsewhereandwhichhavealargepercent-ageoftheirbreedingpopulationinourstate,suchastheceruleanwarbler.Thirdarespeciesthatarerelativelycom-moninselectedhabitatsandthatfunctionasindicatorsofthehealthofthathabitat,suchasthebeltedkingfisherforstreams.
Thesespecieswillbehighlightedformonitoring,re-search,conservationandeducation,butthelistisdynam-ic.WVPIFwelcomesnewinformationandchangestothislistareexpectedovertime.WVPIFcanbecontactedthroughtheWestVirginiaDNRElkinsOperationsCenter:(304)637-0245oronlineatwww.wvdnr.gov.
Appendix IV
West Virginia Partners In Flight Priority Species
Bria
n M
cDon
ald,
WVD
NR
Rare, Little Known and Status Unknown Species in West Virginia
Common yellow throat
Pied-billedGrebeAmericanBitternLeastBitternGreatBlueHeronYellow-crownedNightHeronBlack-crownedNightHeronBlackVultureAmericanBlackDuckGreen-wingedTealHoodedMerganserOspreyBaldEagleNorthernHarrierNorthernGoshawkCooper’sHawkSharp-shinnedHawkPeregrineFalconNorthernBobwhiteKingRailVirginiaRailSora
BobolinkCommonMoorhenAmericanCootSpottedSandpiperUplandSandpiperWilson’sSnipeBlack-billedCuckooBarnOwlLong-earedOwlShort-earedOwlNorthernSaw-whetowlCommonNighthawkChuck-Will’s-WidowRed-headedWoodpeckerYellow-belliedSapsuckerOlive-sidedFlycatcherYellow-belliedFlycatcherAlderFlycatcherHornedLarkBankSwallowPineSiskin
CliffSwallowBrownCreeperAppalachianBewick’sWrenSedgeWrenMarshWrenSwainson’sThrushGolden-wingedWarblerNashvilleWarblerYellow-rumpedWarblerBlackburnianWarblerProthonotaryWarblerSwainson’sWarblerNorthernWaterthrushBachman’sSparrowVesperSparrowLarkSparrowGrasshopperSparrowHenslow’sSparrowDickcissel
��
Red-eyed Vireo
Grasshopper Sparrow Golden-winged Warbler
Black-throated Blue Warbler
Species of Conservation ConcernWhip-poor-will EasternWood-peweeAcadianFlycatcherLoggerheadShrikeWoodThrush Blue-wingedWarbler Golden-wingedWarblerPrairieWarblerCeruleanWarblerWorm-eatingWarblerLouisianaWaterthrush
Percentage Of Change Per Year
KentuckyWarblerFieldSparrow
Indicator SpeciesBeltedKingfisher Red-eyedVireoBlack-throatedBlueWarblerYellow-throatedWarbler Yellow-breastedChatScarletTanagerEasternMeadowlarkIndigoBunting
Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) Population Trends For Selected Songbirds 1966-2003
Significant decrease
See the USGS BBS site www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/bbs.html for
more maps and information
Using long-term breeding bird data, the BBS calculated trends and produced these maps to give a vi-sual representation of what breeding bird populations are doing. Note that each species’ trends may vary con-siderably across its range, increasing in some regions while declining in others. Predominate trends indicate, however, that while species such as the black-throated blue warbler is generally increasing across its range, the golden-winged warbler is declining. The grey areas of the maps indicate no BBS coverage.
PossibleDecrease
Unchanged PossibleIncrease
Significant Increase
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Expected Results of Forest Management Practices on Songbird Species of Conservation Concern Habitat
Assumes cutting with subsequent forest regrowth and no human development
Appendix V
+ = practice enhances or produces sufficient habitat- = practice degrades or produces insufficient habitat
1 = needs wooded riparian habitat2 = needs agricultural landscape3 = needs large rivers4 = breeds above 2,000 feet in West Virginia5 = needs mast producing trees in winter6 = breeds above 2,000 feet in West Virginia bogs7 = very short term habitat gain, if any8 = effects after compeletion of 2- to 3-stage process
Prothonotary warbler
John
and
Kar
en H
ollin
gsw
orth
/USF
WS
Phot
o
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Appendix VI
WV PIF Management Guidelines GlossarybreedingrangeThetotalcombinedland
areawhereaspeciesofbirdproducesandraisesyoung.Migratorybirdsusuallyreturntothisareaeveryyear.Thisareacanbequitelarge,i.e.,Cana-da,orfairlysmall,i.e.,north-centralMichigan.
breedingpopulationThegroupofbirdsofonespeciesinalocalareathatmateandraisetheiryoung.
BreedingBirdSurvey(BBS)Annualbirdsurveysthatstartedin1966andarecoordinatedbytheU.S.FishandWildlifeService.ThesurveysarerunduringJunebyvolunteersthroughoutthecontinentalUnitedStatesandsouthernCanada.Eachrouteis25mileslongwithstopsevery½mile.Theobserverrecordseverybirdseenorheardduringathree-minuteperiod.WestVirginiahas38BBSroutes.
broodparasitismThefemalesofafewbirdspecieslayseggsinthenestsofahostspe-cieswhichraisestheparasiticspeciesasoneof
itsownbrood.Oftenthelargerparasiticnestlingpushesthehostnestlingsoutofthenestorout-competesthemforfood,causingthatnesttofail
toproducebirdsofthehostspecies.AcommonbroodparasiteintheUnitedStatesisthebrown-headedcowbird.
bufferzonesLandwherehumanactivitiesarecontrolledorrestrictedtoprotectanadjacentsensitivearea.Examplesincludelandsurroundingabaldeaglenestsiteorthestripoflandrunningparalleltoastreamwherehumanactivitiesshouldbeminimized.
canopyTheuppermostlayeroffoliageinaforestformedbythecrownsoftrees.
coniferplantationEvergreentreesusuallyplantedinrowswithpredeterminedspacingtoen-couragerapid,straightgrowth.InWestVirginia
theseareoftengrownforChristmastrees.
coniferousCone-bearingtreesorshrubs,mostlyevergreen,withneedle-shapedorscale-likeleaves.Examplesinclude:hemlock,pine,spruce,cedarandlarch.
contiguousLandareasthatareadjacenttooneanother.
continuousLandwithsimilarvegetationthatisuninterruptedinstructure.
coppicingTheprocessofencouragingthesproutingofyoungtreesfromalivestump.
corridorAstripoflandconnectingtwoormoreareaswithsimilarvegetationthatisusedbyanimalsandplantstomovefromoneareatotheother.
cowbirdparasitismSee brood parasitism.
DBHForestmanagementacronymforDi-ameterofatreeatBreastHeight(measuredat4.5feetfromtheground).
DDTDichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.Apersistentorganochlorineinsecticidethat,alongwithitsbyproductDDE,worksitswayupthefoodchainbyaccumulatinginfattytissuesofmanyspeciesofwildlife.Thischemicalinterfereswithbirdreproductionbycausingthineggshellsandbehaviorchanges.DDTusewasbannedintheUnitedStates,butitisstillmanufacturedintheU.S.andsoldtoothercountries.
deciduousPlantsthatshedtheirleavesusu-allyduringautumn.
Mar
shal
l Ilif
f
Brown-headed cowbird
In coppicing, the stump sprouts connected in a “U” shape as shown by the two outside stems are acceptable choices for crop trees; but “V” connection sprouts (center) generally should not be considered.
��
earlysuccessionalThevegetationthatgrowsonanareafollowingsignificantdisturbance.Itusuallyreferstoareasdominatedbygrasses,briers,wildflowersand/orshrubs.Example:thevegetationgrowingonnewlyclearedland,suchasaroadcut.
edgeThetransitionalareawheredifferenthabitatscometogether.Anexampleistheareabetweenafieldandadjacentforest.
feralAcultivatedplantordomesticanimalthathasrevertedbacktoawildstate.Forexam-ple:feralhousecats.
fledgling Thestageofayoungbird’slifeafteritleavesthenestandbeforeitbecomes
anadult.Usu-allythebirddoesnotreturntothenestandreceivesdecreasingparentalcare.
fragmenta-tionThelong-termsubdivisionorisolationofoncelargeandcon-tinuoustractsofhabitatintosmaller
areassurroundedbyamatrixofunlikehabitats.Thisisusuallyassociatedwithlossofforestedorgrasslandhabitattohumaninducedchanges,suchasagricultureordevelopment.Thedegreeoffrag-mentationdependsontheshapeofthefragmentsandtheirarrangementinthelandscape.Gener-ally,themoreirregulartheshapesandthemoreisolatedthefragments,thegreatertheeffect.
girdlingTheprac-ticeofcuttingintoatreeatleastoneinchdeepintwolocationsatleastfourinchesapartcompletelyencirclingthetrunktocutofffoodandwatertransporttokillthetree.Thestandingdeadtreeservesashabitatforwildlifeandprovidesotherecologicalfunctions.
habitatThepresenceandarrangementoffood,water,shelterandspacethatananimalorplantrequiresforsurvival.
herbaceousVegetationwithsoftstemsthatdiebackeveryautumnandarereplacedbynewgrowthinthespring.Examplesarewildflowersandmostferns.
herbicideAchemicalusedforkillingun-wantedplants.Theyvaryintheirspecificity;somekillingawidevarietyofplants,othersonlybroad-leavedplants,andothersonlygrasses.Manyareverytoxictoaquaticlife.
hybridizationThematingofindividualsofdifferentspeciesthathavedifferentgeneticcom-position,creatingahybridoffspringwithcharac-teristicsofbothspecies.Anexampleisthematingofgolden-wingedandblue-wingedwarblersthatproducesindividualscalledBrewster’swarblers.
incubationTheamountoftimeabirdspendssittingonitseggsbeforetheegghatches.Somebirdswillbegintoincubatetheireggsimme-diatelyafteraneggislaid(hawksandowls),whileotherbirdswaituntilthelasteggoftheclutchislaid(ducks,mostsongbirds).
insecticideAchemicalusedforkillingin-sects.Insecticidesvaryintheirtoxicityandspecific-ity.Someareverygeneral,ornon-specific,andwillkillabroadvarietyofinsectsandsometimesotherwildlife;othersarespecifictoaspeciesorasmallgroupofinsects.
matureforestAdescriptivetermthatrefersmainlytoforeststhathaveattainedmostoftheirheightgrowthandhaveatleastsomeofthefollow-
WV
DN
R P
hoto
Robin fledgling
Girdling.
Spotted jewelweed is an example of herbaceous vegetation that dies back in autumn.
Sue
Olc
ott,
WVD
NR
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Jam
es C
. Pac
k, W
VDN
R
Thinned black cherry stand showing herbaceous understory.
ingcharacteristics:avarietyoftreespeciesandagesfromseedlingstooldindividuals;leavesoccurringatmanyheights;avarietyofgroundcovers;stand-ingordowndeadtreesandotherwoodymaterial;openingsintheforestcanopythatletinlight.
migratoryAdescriptivetermforbirdsandotheranimalsthatseasonallytravellongdistancestoescapesevereweatherand/orfoodshortagesandreturnonceconditionsimprove.
mixedforestAforestcontainingamixtureofbothconiferousanddeciduoustrees.
neotropicalmigrantBirdsthatreturntobreedinnorthernclimatesofNorthAmericaeveryspringandmigrateduringthefalltotropicalareassuchasCentralAmerica,MexicoandSouthAmericatospendthewinter.
nest site fidelityAdescriptivetermforbirdsthatshowapreferencetoreturntothesameareaeitherwheretheywerehatchedand/orhadprevi-ouslyraisedaclutch.
pesticideAchemicalusedforkillingun-wantedpests,eitheranimals,typicallyinsectsorfungi.
riparianThelandadjacenttostreams,riversandwetlands.
shrublayerThelayerinaforestconsistingofwoodyplantshavingmanystemsratherthanonemaintrunkandusuallylessthan20feettall.
shrub/scrubVegetationconsistingofsmalltreesandlowwoodyvegetation.
snagAstandingdeadordyingtree.Snagsprovidehabitatsforavarietyofbirdsandotheranimals.
stumpsproutsSproutsgrowingfromthestumpofatreeafterithasbeencut.See coppicing.
successionThegradualnaturalprogres-sivechangeoveryearsofonehabitatintoanother.Example:Agrassyfieldgrowingtoashrubbymeadowandthenintoaforest.
understoryThelayerofvegetationgrowingunderanotherhigherlayerofvegetation.Exam-ple:shrubsgrowingundertreesinaforest.
uplandLandlocatedonplateaus,hills,mountainsandridgetops.
warm season grass Grassspeciesthatachievemostoftheirgrowthduringthemiddleofsum-mer;theytypicallyhavedeeprootsystemsandprovidecoverduringthewinterbecausetheystayerect.
Sue
Olc
ott,
WVD
NR
Woodland streams provide habitat and resources for many forest nesting species.
��
Checklist of West Virginia’s Breeding Bird Species
Appendix VII
WV Breeding Bird Species
Clos
ed C
anop
y Fo
rest
Edge
s & G
aps
Open
Can
opy
Fore
st
Conif
erou
s Fo
rest
Shru
b and
Sc
rub
Ripa
rian
For
est
Ripa
rian
Wetl
and
Gras
sland
Cliff
Resid
entia
l/ To
wn
DUCKS AND GEESE
Canada Goose NF NF FWood Duck N N F FBlack Duck NF NFMallard NF NFBlue-winged Teal NF NFHooded Merganser N F FGROUSE
Ring-necked Pheasant NFRuffed Grouse NF NFWild Turkey NF NFNorthern Bobwhite NF NF NFWADERS
American Bittern NFLeast Bittern NFGreat Blue Heron N N F FGreen Heron NF NFHAWKS AND ALLIES
Black Vulture NF F NF F NTurkey Vulture NF F NF F NOsprey N NF F FBald Eagle N F F FNorthern Harrier NF NFSharp-shinned Hawk NF NFCooper’s Hawk NF NF NF FNorthern Goshawk* NF NFRed-shouldered Hawk NF NF NF FBroad-winged hawk NF NFRed-tailed Hawk NF NFPeregrine Falcon F F N NFAmerican Kestrel N NFRAILS AND ALLIES
King Rail NFVirginia Rail NFSora NFCommon Moorhen NF NFSHOREBIRDS
Killdeer NF NFSpotted Sandpiper NF NFUpland Sandpiper* NFWilson’s Snipe NFAmerican Woodcock NF NF NF
Key: N=nesting habitat; F=feeding habitat; NF=nesting and feeding habitat; *=typically nests at elevations above 2,000 feet in WV
��
WV Breeding Bird Species Cl
osed
Ca
nopy
For
est
Edge
s &
Gaps
Open
Can
opy
Fore
st
Conif
erou
s Fo
rest
Shru
b and
Sc
rub
Ripa
rian
Fore
st
Ripa
rian
Wetl
and
Gras
sland
Cliff
Resid
entia
l/ To
wn
DOVES
Rock Pigeon N NFMourning Dove N NF F F NFCUCKOOS
Black-billed Cuckoo NF NF NFYellow-billed Cuckoo NF NF NF NFOWLS
Barn Owl NF NFEastern Screech Owl NF NF NF NF NFGreat-horned Owl NF NF F NFBarred Owl NF NFLong-eared Owl* NF NFNorthern Saw-whet Owl* NF FGOATSUCKERS
Common Nighthawk F N NFChuck-will’s-widow NFWhip-poor-will NF NFSWIFTS
Chimney Swift F NFHUMMINGBIRDS
Ruby-throated Hummingbird NF NF F NF NFKINGFISHERS
Belted Kingfisher NFWOODPECKERS
Red-headed Woodpecker NF NFRed-bellied Woodpecker NF NF NF NFYellow-bellied Sapsucker* NF NFDowny Woodpecker NF NF NF NF NFHairy Woodpecker NF NF NFNorthern Flicker NF NF NF NF NFPileated Woodpecker NFFLYCATCHERS
Olive-sided Flycatcher* NFEastern Wood-Pewee NF NF NF NF NFYellow-bellied Flycatcher* NFAcadian Flycatcher NF NFAlder Flycatcher* NFWillow Flycatcher NF NFLeast Flycatcher* NF NFEastern Phoebe NF NF NF NFGreat-crested Flycatcher NF NF
Key: N=nesting habitat; F=feeding habitat; NF=nesting and feeding habitat; *=typically nests at elevations above 2,000 feet in WV
��
WV Breeding Bird Species Cl
osed
Ca
nopy
For
est
Edge
s &
Gaps
Open
Can
opy
Fore
st
Conif
erou
s Fo
rest
Shru
b and
Sc
rub
Ripa
rian
Fore
st
Ripa
rian
Wetl
and
Gras
sland
Cliff
Resid
entia
l/ To
wn
Eastern Kingbird NF NF FSHRIKES
Loggerhead Shrike NF NFVIREOS
White-eyed Vireo NF NF NFBlue-headed Vireo* NF NF NFYellow-throated Vireo NF NFWarbling Vireo NF NFRed-eyed Vireo NF NF NF NF NFCORVIDS
Blue Jay NF NF F NF NFAmerican Crow NF NF F F F NF F F NFFish Crow NF N F NFCommon Raven NF F F F F F F N FLARKS
Horned Lark NFSWALLOWS
Purple Martin NF F NFTree Swallow NF N F NF NFNorthern Rough-winged Swallow NF F F FBank Swallow N FCliff Swallow N F N NFBarn Swallow F F NFPARIDS
Black-capped Chickadee NF NF NF NFCarolina Chickadee NF NF NF NF NFTufted Titmouse NF NF NF NF NFNUTHATCHES
Red-breasted Nuthatch* NF NFWhite-breasted Nuthatch NF NF NFCREEPERS
Brown Creeper NF NFWRENS
Carolina Wren NF NF NF NF NFBewick’s Wren NF NFHouse Wren NF NF NF NF NFWinter Wren* NF NFSedge Wren NFTHRUSHES AND KINGLETS
Golden-crowned Kinglet* NF NFBlue-gray Gnatcatcher NF NF NF NF NFEastern Bluebird NF F NF NF
Key: N=nesting habitat; F=feeding habitat; NF=nesting and feeding habitat; *=typically nests at elevations above 2,000 feet in WV
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Key: N=nesting habitat; F=feeding habitat; NF=nesting and feeding habitat; *=typically nests at elevations above 2,000 feet in WV
WV Breeding Bird Species
Clos
ed C
anop
y Fo
rest
Edge
s &
Gaps
Open
Can
opy
Fore
st
Conif
erou
s Fo
rest
Shru
b and
Sc
rub
Ripa
rian
Fore
st
Ripa
rian
Wetl
and
Gras
sland
Cliff
Resid
entia
l/ To
wn
Veery* NF NFSwainson’s Thrush* NFHermit Thrush* NF NF NF NFWood Thrush NF NF NF NFAmerican Robin NF NF NF F NFMIMICS
Gray Catbird NF NF NF NFNorthern Mockingbird NF NF F NFBrown Thrasher NF NFSTARLINGS
European Starling NF NF F NFWAXWINGS
Cedar Waxwing NF NF NF NFWARBLERS
Blue-winged Warbler NF NFGolden-winged Warbler NF NFNashville Warbler* NF NF NF NFNorthern Parula NF NF NFYellow Warbler NF NF NF NF NFChestnut-sided Warbler* NF NF NFMagnolia Warbler* NF NF NFBlack-throated Blue Warbler* NF NF NFYellow-rumped Warbler* NF NF NFBlack-throated Green Warbler NF NFBlackburnian Warbler* NF NFYellow-throated Warbler NFPine Warbler NF NFPrairie Warbler NF NFCerulean Warbler NF NF NFBlack-and-white Warbler NF F NFAmerican Redstart NF NFProthonotary Warbler NFWorm-eating Warbler NFSwainson’s Warbler NF NFOvenbird NF NFNorthern Waterthrush* NF NFLouisiana Waterthrush NFKentucky Warbler NF NF NFMourning Warbler* NF NF NFCommon Yellowthroat NF NF NF NFHooded Warbler NF NF
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WV Breeding Bird Species Cl
osed
Ca
nopy
For
est
Edge
s &
Gaps
Open
Can
opy
Fore
st
Conif
erou
s Fo
rest
Shru
b and
Sc
rub
Ripa
rian
Fore
st
Ripa
rian
Wetl
and
Gras
sland
Cliff
Resid
entia
l/ To
wn
Canada Warbler* NF NF NFYellow-breasted Chat NF NFTANAGERS
Summer Tanager NF NF NFScarlet Tanager NF FSPARROWS
Dickcissel NFEastern Towhee NF NF NF NFBachman’s Sparrow NFChipping Sparrow NF NF NFField Sparrow NF NFVesper Sparrow NFLark Sparrow NFSavannah Sparrow NFGrasshopper Sparrow NFHenslow’s Sparrow NFSong Sparrow NF NF NFSwamp Sparrow NFWhite-throated Sparrow* NF NFDark-eyed Junco* NF NF NF NFGROSBEAKS/BUNTINGS
Northern Cardinal NF NF NF NF NFRose-breasted Grosbeak NF NFBlue Grosbeak NF NF NFIndigo Bunting NF NFBLACKBIRDS
Bobolink NFRed-winged Blackbird NF NF NFEastern Meadowlark NFCommon Grackle NF NFBrown-headed Cowbird NF NF NFOrchard Oriole NF NF NFBaltimore Oriole NF NF NFFINCHES
Purple Finch* NF NFHouse Finch NFPine Siskin* NFAmerican Goldfinch NF NF F NFHouse Sparrow NF
Key: N=nesting habitat; F=feeding habitat; NF=nesting and feeding habitat; *=typically nests at elevations above 2,000 feet in WV
Funding for this publication was provided by:
Additional copies may be obtained from:
West Virginia Division of Natural ResourcesWildlife Resources Section
The Handlan Chapter of the Brooks Birding Club
The Natural Resources Conservation Service West Virginia Plant Materials Center
Natural Resources Conservation ServiceWest Virginia Plant Materials Center
Old Prison Farm RoadP.O. Box 390
Alderson, WV 24910 304-445-3005
West Virginia Division of Natural ResourcesWildlife Resources Section
Ward RoadP.O. Box 67
Elkins, WV 26241304-637-0245