we’re all language and content teachers: principles and practices in integrating language and...
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We’re All Language and Content Teachers:
Principles and Practices in Integrating Language and
Content InstructionDr. JoAnn (Jodi) Crandall
University of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC)
Who’s Responsible for English Language Learners (ELLs)?
“I can’t teach science or mathematics or social studies; I’m an English teacher.”
“Send them to me after they’ve learned English; I’m not an English teacher.”
The Dilemma
“Students cannot develop academic knowledge and skills without access to the language in which that knowledge is embedded, discussed, constructed, or evaluated.
Nor can they acquire academic language skills in a context devoid of [academic] content.”
(Crandall 1994:256)
The Answer:Language and Content Teachers:
Collaboration & CooperationContent Teacher’s Rolecontent related to language skillscurriculum & materials for content learningmethods of teaching & assessing content learning
Language Teacher’s Rolelanguage related to academic contentcurriculum & materials for language learningmethods of teaching & assessing L learning
Together: An Integrated, Content-Based Approach
Rationale for Integrated Instruction
Language is acquired most effectively in meaningful contexts
Content provides that meaningful base
Integrated instruction helps bring together linguistic, cognitive, & social development
Integrated instruction focuses on needed school genres/discourse
(Adapted from Genesse, F. 1995)
Understanding the ELL
Who?
What problems?
What strengths?
Understanding the ELL
Language acquisition issues
Issues of prior education and literacy
Cross-cultural issues
Other issues
poverty, war, family
What Makes Content Areas Difficult for ELLs?
Your experiences?
What Makes Content Areas (Texts and Discussions) Difficult for ELLs?
Complex concepts
Unfamiliar (academic) language
Unfamiliar discourse structure
Lack of/different background knowledge
Unclear directions
Other
Two Types of Language ProficiencySocial Language (BICS)(Basic, Interpersonal Communicative Skills)
Everyday (primarily oral) communication
Informal, contextualized, interactive, clues outside of language, cognitively easy
Academic Language (CALP)(Cognitive, Academic Language Proficiency)
Restricted (primarily written) communication
formal, decontextualized, little interaction, few cues, cognitively complex
(Adapted from J. Cummins, 1981)
Levels of Language Proficiency(and appropriate questions to ask)
Level 1: Pre Productionminimal comprehensionno speechlisten, point, act out, draw.clap, show me
Level 2: Early ProductionLimited comprehensionOne/two word responsesname, list, either-or, yes-no, some Wh-H Qs
Level 3: Speech Emergenceincreased comprehensionspeak in phrases/short sentences with errors tell, describe, role play, Wh-Qs
Level 4: Intermediate Fluency Good comprehensionConverse sociallyBegin to develop academic Lanalyze, support, evaluateWhat do you think?What would happen if….?
What Can We Do to Adapt Instruction for ELLs?
What has worked for you?
Jim Cummins’ Model
Cognitively undemanding1 3
Context- Context-Embedded Reduced
2 4Cognitively demanding
Less-Demanding More Demanding
Developing simple vocabulary
Following demonstrateddirections
RepeatingAnswering simple Qs
Simple reading & writingEngaging in routine
conversationsWriting answers to simple
Qs
Developing academic vocabulary
Participating in academicdiscussions
Writing simple science reports
Understanding academic presentations w/out visuals/demonstrations
Oral presentationsTaking standardized tests
What Can We Do to Adapt Instruction for ELLs?
Three Guidelines
Increase sources of information (context)
Decrease complexity
(of concept, text or task)
Increase interaction
Increase Sources of Information:Reduce Reliance on Academic Text
Use pictures, charts, graphs, maps
Use demonstrations, gestures
Involve students in discovery & experiential learning
Embed in meaningful context: thematic teaching
Provide opportunities to learn from others
Use multiple media & opportunities to learn
Decrease Complexity of Concept, Text, or Task
Activate background knowledgeFocus on vocabularyChunk informationProvide graphic organizers, outlinesParaphrase, repeat, summarizeUse comprehension checks & clarification questionsConsciously teach learning strategiesUse variety of texts Use variety of assessmentsAdapt texts
Increase Opportunities for Interaction
Use cooperative activitiesJigsawRound Robin/Round TableNumbered Heads Together
Encourage peer- , cross-age, cross-proficiency tutoringIncrease interactive writing
Journals, response logsTry content literature circlesEncourage project work
Adapting Texts for ELLs
Reduce text (“Less is more!”)Select most important informationUse graphic organizersAssign different sections to students
Simplify structurePut topic sentences firstReduce complex sentencesMake relationships clear
Build redundancyRepeat key ideas, words, phrases
Adapting Texts for ELLs
Simplify vocabulary
Avoid non-essential vocabulary
Pre-teach, define difficult words
Avoid synonyms
Provide visual supportUse graphic organizers, outlines
Relate to students’ experiences
Developing Thematic Units to Integrate L & C Instruction
IDENTIFY THEME OR TOPICIDENTIFY APPROPRIATE TEXTS TO USE OR ADAPTIDENTIFY LANGUAGE OBJECTIVES
VocabularyGrammarFunctions
IDENTIFY ACADEMIC CONCEPT OBJECTIVESIDENTIFY CRITICAL THINKING/STUDY SKILLS/STRATEGY OBJECTIVESDEVELOP ACTIVITIESSEQUENCE ACTIVITIES INTO A UNIT
Sample Thematic Unit PlanTopic: Food and NutritionStudent Profile: Beginning or Intermediate/Elementary Grade StudentsLanguage Skills:
Listening: Listen to a story (A Very Hungry Caterpillar) Speaking: Talk about foods (good for you/not so good)
Retell storyWrite dialogue for caterpillar and act out storySing caterpillar song
Reading: Read language experience storyRead and sequence sentences from story (strip story)
Writing: Fill out calendar/graph of caterpillar’s foodsFill out own calendar of daily foodsMake a caterpillar book and label
Content: Understand the value of different foodsStudy skills/Strategies: Sequence information
Make predictions and confirm/disconfirm themLanguage Objectives:
Grammar: Like/don’t likeOn + days of the weekPast tense
Vocabulary: Days of the week, colors, fruits, other foods (pizza, cake, ice cream), caterpillar, cocoon, butterfly
The Importance of Vocabulary
Needs to be consciously taught and practiced
Is responsible for much of comprehension and motivation to read
Should be taught in chunks when possible
Major resource: Academic Word List
Academic Word Listhttp://language.massey.ac.nz/staff/awl/headwords.shtml
Based on 3,500,000 word academic corpus
Consists of 570 “headwords” with related words for total of 3,000 words
Most frequent academic wordsOccurred in Arts, Commerce, Law, ScienceOccurred over 100 times in corpusOccurred at least 10 times in each area
Excluded are the 2000 most frequent words from West’s General Service List proper nouns, Latin forms
http://www.jbauman.com/aboutgsl.html
(Developed by Adrien Coxhead & colleagues in Wellington, NZ)
Teaching Vocabulary: 25% on eachLearning from input (L,R)
Most common 2,000 words (about 80%)
Stored as one unit
Focused language learning
100,000 + most infrequent words
Teach patterns; roots & affixes
Learning from output (S,W)
Use words; repetition
Fluency activities (L,S,R,W)Use known words & grammar
(Paul Nation)
Some Vocabulary Activities
Word wallsMatchingWord analysisWebsWord games Personal dictionariesCloze/fill in blankAct out/draw/circle/point to items that match definitionIntensive and extensive reading
The Importance of Writing
Writing is:
a form of output
a means of building fluency
a way of developing accuracy
(in grammar, vocabulary, etc.)
a critical skill for academic success
a source of input
Writing and Reading:Complementary Practices
We learn to read by reading, and
We learn to write by writing.
But
We also learn to read by writing, and
We learn to write by reading.
Some Guiding Principles
Writing:is a way to demonstrate proficiencyhelps us discover what we do or do not knowis a process (not everything needs to be graded)is more than a paragraph or essayconventions differ cross-culturallycan be collaborative
Collaborative Writing
Writing does NOT need to be a solitary act.
Any stage in the writing process can be collaborative (pre-writing, drafting, reviewing, revising, editing, publishing)
Collaboration:
Provides opportunity for meaningful communication
Promotes meta-cognition and meta-discussion of writing (and language)
Writing to Build Fluency
Low-risk way to draw upon implicit knowledge
Journals or Logs
Pen or Key Pals
Free-writing or Quickwrites
Informal Writing: emails, blogs, discussion boards
Fluency or Accuracy: Not Both
Important to focus on EITHER
Fluency OR Accuracy
Fluency: focus on meaning, use of implicit learning, risk-taking
Accuracy: focus on form, use of explicit (monitored) learning, care
Focus on Fluency AND Accuracy
only after practice with both.
Some Last Thoughts
Focus on key concepts & languageModify your own languageProvide multiple opportunities to acquire both language and conceptsLet students work togetherProvide time to think, rehearseValidate students’ prior knowledgeEncourage hands-on learningAsk questions at students’ level of English
Some More Last ThoughtsThe Changing School Population
1 of 3 children is ethnic or racial minority1 of 5 speaks a L other than English at home1 of 10 was born outside the U.S.1 of 5 has a parent who was born outside the U.S.ELLs are fastest-growing population in our schools
Further Reading:The following are available at:http://userpages.umbc.edu/%7Ecrandall/index.htm
Crandall, J. A. (ed.) (1987). ESL through content-area instruction: Mathematics, science, social studies. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Crandall, J. A. (1994). Content-centered language learning. ERIC Digest ED 367142. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Crandall, J. A. (1998). Collaborate and cooperate: Teacher education for integrating language and content instruction. English Teaching Forum, 36(1), 2-9.Crandall, J. A. (1998). The expanding world of the elementary ESL teacher. ESL Magazine, 1(4), Crandall, J. A., Jaramillo, A., Olsen, L., & Peyton, J. K. (2002). Using cognitive strategies to develop English language and literacy. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
http://userpages.umbc.edu/%7Ecrandall/index.htm
Additional References
Crandall, J. A. (1999). Cooperative language learning and affective factors. In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affective factors in language learning. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Crandall, J.A. & Kaufman, D. (eds.) (2003). Content-based instruction in higher education settings. Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Kaufman, D. & Crandall, J. A. (eds.) (2005). Content-based instruction in elementary and secondary school settings. Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Crandall, J. A., Nelson, J., and Stein, H. (2006). Providing professional development for mainstream and novice or experienced ESL and bilingual teachers. In Field, R., & Hamayan, E. (eds.) Educating English language learners: A handbook for administrators. Philadelphia: Caslon, Inc.