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WELCOME !WS 2010/11
Lecture 514.094 of the Medical University Vienna
The Pathophysiology of AllergyChapter 1: History & Pathophysiology of Allergy
Erika Jensen-JarolimInst. of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research
History and Pathophysiology of Allergy
Erika Jensen‐Jarolim
Turn of the 19th century: Infectious diseases
Cholera
Tetanus
Tuberculosis
Diphteria Polio
Pocks
Diphteria: a major health threat
Corynebacterium diphteriae
(Klebs‐Loeffler bacillus) produce phage‐encoded toxin
E. von Behring and S. Kitasato (1890): passive immunotherapy with
antitoxin
Diphteria treated with immune serum from horse
The production of antiserum from jugular vein Dialysis of precipitate
Antitoxin was the first major success of therapeutic immunology
Ammon sulfate precipitate of anti‐toxin
Harmful effects of passive serum treatments1. Delayed
serum sickness develops after one week: fever, joint pains, rashes
2. Immediatesudden collapse, sometimes followed by rapid death. Anaphylaxis.
Antitoxin in
jection
1902: Paul Portier and Charles R. Richet discribe anaphylaxisDogs surviving small doses of Actinaria (sea anemone) toxin were reinjected a few weeks later: death from dyspnea, diarrhoea and vomiting.
1903: M. Arthus describes Arthus phenomenonDaily intracutaneous injection of horse serum in rabbits induced no obvious local response for the first few days but leads, subsequently, to foci of oedema, inflammation and eventually tissue necrosis
1906: Clemens Freiherr von Pirquet defines „allergy“
Death‐rate after passive immunotherapy with „Antitoxin“ 1890: 60 % 1894: 30 %1910: 10 %
In: Reports of the Metropolitan Asylums in 1910
The steps to the definition of allergy
1963: Gell PGH, Coombs RRA define Type 1 – 4:
R.R.A. Coombs & P.H.G. Gelldefined „Hypersensitivity reactions“ in 1963
Cytotoxic reaction
C
IgM,IgGII.
Immune complex reactionIgG, IgAIII.
Delayed type reactionIV.Gell PGH, Coombs RRA. Clinical Aspects of Immunology. London: Blackwell, 1963.
Immediate type reaction
IgEI. 1966/67 T&K. Ishizakas, S.G.O. Johannsson
1974: H. Metzger et al.
Hypersensitivity – a highly specific immune reaction
Primary antigen contact secondary response
Interval
2nd contact1st contacts Tertiary contact
IgE
Clinical reaction
IgGserum sickness,
Arthus reaction
anaphylaxis
late phase
Interval
The future of antigen‐specific immunotherapy of allergyRudolf Valenta, Nature Reviews Immunology 2, 446‐453 (June 2002)
Sensitization& memory
Effector phase
Programmed and sources of preformed IL‐4 and IL‐13:
• CD4+ Th‐cells
• Basophils, eosinophils, mast cells (Mohr et al., JI 2005)
• CD1‐restricted gammadelta T‐cells (Russano et al, JACI 2006)
Sources of early IL‐4:
• conventional, naive CD4+
(Noben‐Trauth et al, JI 2000)
• Basophils (Koh et al, Blood 2006)
• TLR‐activated DCs inhibit early IL‐4 by CD4 T cells(Sun et al, JI Feb. 2007)
IL‐13
IL‐4
Moy et al, JMB 310, 2001
IL‐4 and IL‐13 are switch factors for IgE
From the following article:The regulation of immunoglobulin E class‐switch recombinationRaif S. Geha, Haifa H. Jabara & Scott R. BrodeurNature Reviews Immunology 3, 721‐732 (September 2003)
Deletional class‐switch recombination of human Ig locus.
Secreted IgE Membrane IgE
Affinity of specific antibodies to allergens: 10‐10 and 10‐11 M for IgE, but only 10‐6‐10‐7 M for IgG *)
*) Affinity determinations of purified IgE and IgG antibodies against the major pollen allergens Phl p 5a and Bet v 1a. Hantusch B, et al. Immunol Lett. 2005.15;97:81‐9.
The germinal centre microenvironment: Maturation of IgE
From the following article:Germinal centres: role in B‐cell physiology and malignancyUlf Klein & Riccardo Dalla‐Favera, Nature Reviews Immunology 8, 22‐33 (January 2008)
Sensitization& memory phase
From the following article:The regulation of immunoglobulin E class‐switch recombinationRaif S. Geha, Haifa H. Jabara & Scott R. Brodeur. Nature Reviews Immunology 3, 721‐732 (Sep.2003)
Biological effects of IgE binding.
FcRI: high affinity for IgE (109 to 1010 M)FcRII: lower affinity for IgE (106 to 107 M)
Arming effector cells: 99% of IgE bound to receptors, LOW serum levels.
Effector phase
The immediate type symptoms
Rhinoconjunctivitis
Oral allergy syndrome
Diarrhea
Urticaria
Asthma bronchiale
Anaphylactic shock
Effector phase
Turn of the 20th century: allergic diseases
birch pollen
milk
mites
Harmless agents
weed pollen
grasspollen
danderfish venom
http://www.allergome.org/
Protease functionCystein protease activates basophils to Th2 cytokine productionSokol et al, Nat. Immunol. 9, 310‐318. 2008
Structural mimicry. Der p 2 has structural homology to MD‐2 in TLR4 complex.Allergenicity results from functional mimicry of a Toll‐like receptor complex protein. Trompette et al, Nature 457 (7229): 585‐8. 2009
Protease allergens induce the expression of IL‐25 via Erk and p38 MAPK pathway. Yu et al, J. Korean Med. Sci 25;2010
Papain
Böhmer & Nussenzweig. EMBO Rep. 5, 8: 766‐71. 2004.
TLR4
MD‐2
LPS
Molecular Allergology
Allergen dimers‐oligomers‐multimersABA 1 McGibbon et al. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 39: 163. 1990. Tropomyosin Gimona et al. PNAS 92: 9776 . 1995. Phl p 1 Petersen et al. in: Progr. Allergy Clin Imm, 4: 139. 1997. Ara h 1 Shin et al. JBC 273: 13753. 1998. Tropomyosin Reese et al. IAAI 119: 247. 1999.Equ c 1 Gregoire et al. Acta Cryst D Biol Cryst 55: 880. 1999. Equ c 1 Lascombe et al. JBC 275: 21572. 2000. ABA‐1 Xia et al. Parasitology 120: 211. 2000.Ara h 1 Maleki et al. JI 164: 5844. 2000. Ves v 5 Suck et al. IAAI 121: 284. 2000.Profilin Wopfner et al. Biol Chem. 383:1779‐89 2002.Parvalbumin Das Dores et al. Allergy 57, Suppl 72: 79; 2002.Ara h 2 Sen et al. JI 169:882. 2002.Phl p 5b Rajashankar et al. Acta Cryst D Biol Cryst 58: 1175; 2002.Phl p 7 Verdino et al. EMBO J 21: 5007. 2002.Fel d 1 Grönlund et al. J. Biol Chem 278 (41): 40144. 2003.Bet v 1 Schöll et al. J. Immunol. 175 (10): 6645. 2005.
Many allergens are multimers
mediatorschemokinescytokines
multimericantigens/allergens
monovalentantigen/allergen
Flexible, multivalent antigens
Effector cell crosslinking by allergensnon‐productive productive
IgE‐effector cells
enhanced cell survival &
FceRI expressionmonomeric IgE
From the following article:Integrated signalling pathways for mast‐cell activation
Alasdair M. Gilfillan and Christine TkaczykNature Reviews Immunology 6, 218‐230 (March 2006)
Crosslinking is a critical event
multimericantigens/allergens
monovalentantigen/allergen
flexible, multivalent antigens
B‐lymphocyte crosslinking by allergensnon‐productive productive
B‐lymphocytes areepitope‐restricted:„AAMPs“Allergen‐associatedmolecular patterns
Jensen‐Jarolim, Mechtcheriakova, Pali‐Schoell. From:Cancer and IgE: Instroducting the concept of allergooncology. Springer, 2010
Lecture 514.094 of the Medical University Vienna
The Pathophysiology of AllergyChapter 1: History & Pathophysiology of Allergy
Erika Jensen-JarolimInst. of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research
Additive factors
smoking
Medications, food Gender‐Medicine sexual hormones
Hygiene Environment
Climate changes
1st Austrian Allergy Report 2006 ‐ 20% prevalence.
IgE incidence tripled during last decades. Predicted 40% in New Zealand.
Devereux Nature Reviews Immunology 6, 869–874 (November 2006) | doi:10.1038/nri1958
The variation in the global prevalence of asthmaNumbers indicate the percentage of individuals in each country who have asthma. (2004) World Health Organization.
From The many paths to asthma:phenotype shaped by innate and adaptive immunity. Nature ImmunologyVolume: 11 ,Pages: 577–584Year published: (2010)DOI: doi:10.1038/ni.1892
Ragweed (Ambrosia): climate-dependent distribution
11.9.2007: Ragweed Conference in Austria
Urban plants: Pollen containmore and stronger allergens
Pollution – Nitrogen oxides and ozone: Nitration of allergens enhances allergenic potentialGruijthuijsen et al, Int Archs Allergy Imm. 2006
Natural factors: Pollen carry lipid mediators with „adjuvant properties“: PALMsTraidl‐Hoffmann et al, J.Exp. Med. 2005.
Food protein
digested non‐digested
tolerance allergy
Digestion hampered byanti‐ulcer therapeuticsMedications and
Food allergies
WHO: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/en/ec_jan2001.pdf
FDA: http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/biotech/
Sequencing and Database search
no
Serologic tests using allergics´sera
Most likely no allergenic potential
Animal model
Known allergen ?
Stability test in in vitro ‐ digestion
yes
yes
yes
Labeling orExclusion
yes
yes
Astwood JD et al. Nat Biotechnol 1996
no
no
no
no
Declaration obligatory since 2005WHO: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/
biotech/en/ec_jan2001.pdfFDA: http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/biotech/
In vitro digestion test in SGF
pepsin
pH 2.0
in vitro digestion
protein
1.) PEPTIC Level of Digestion:
Stomach fluid: Protein digestion• HCl ‐ Acid• Enzyme: Pepsin
Activation by low pH
In vitro digestion test in SGF
Peptic digestion is pH‐dependent
Richter C et al. Biochem J 1998.
Non‐digested
Acidic gastric juice:digested
The gate‐keeping function of the stomach depends on acid
Hypoacidic:non‐digested
gastritis
ulcus
• PPIs
• H2‐blocker
• Sucralfat
Untersmayr & Jensen‐Jarolim, JACI 2008.
Prescriptions of anti‐ulcer therapeutics on the rise
USA 1990 ‐ 1993 1998 ‐ 2001
Outpatients visits 1,7% /100 4,7% /100
Prescriptions / total prescriptions:H2‐blockers 58.1% 20.7%PPIs 13.2% 64.6%
Alternative, „over the counter“ recommendations:18.8% 6.6%.
Dietary recommendations n.d 27.2%Smoking advice n.d. 3.9%Stress management advice n.d. 3.9%
Kenneth W. Altman, Laryngoscope, 115:1145–1153, 2005
134.384
147.935149.528
155.252
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125000000
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135000000
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145000000
150000000
155000000
160000000
Mio €o
2004 2005 2006 2007
Development of PPI expenses in Austria 2004 - 2007, 2007 - € 155,2 Mio.
Data from: PEGASUS/BIG
Steigerung auf 200510,08 %
Steigerung auf 20061,08 %
Steigerung auf 20073,83 %
ER
EstrogenIgE
Allergen
Allergies stronger inmenstruation, pregnancy, HRT
Mast cell
Gender‐Medicine: Sex hormones
Sensitizations in kids
Govaere E, et al. The influence of age &gender on sensitization to aero‐allergens. Pediatr All. Immunol. 2007, 18(8):671‐8.Abramson M et al. Risk factors for asthma among young adults in melbourne, australia. Respirology 1996;1:291–297.Strachan DP et al, Incidence and prognosis of asthma and wheezing illness from early childhood to age 33 in a national british cohort. BMJ 1996;312:1195–1199.
Tot: overall; GP: mixed grass pollens; TP: tree pollens; Alt: Alternaria tenuis;
GIRLS
BOYS
GIRLS
Chhabra SK, Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci. 47, 2005. Vrieze et al, J Allergy Clin Immun 112, 2003.Siroux et al, J Allergy Clin Immunol 114, 2004.Svanes C et al, Thorax 60, 2005.Martinez‐Moragon et al, J Allergy Clin Immunol. 113, 2004.Kiriyama K et al, Dermatology 206, 2003.
• Premenstrual asthma affects 40% of all women with asthma associated with eosinophilia (p= 0.01).
• Irregular menstruationassociation with asthma and hay fever
• Near fatal asthma in menstruation
• Exacerbation of atopic dermatitis
Menstruation
• Induction of IgE, independent on age and smoking.
Siroux et al, Role of gender and hormone‐related events on IgE, atopy, and eosinophils ….JACI 114, 2004.
Oral contraceptives and allergy
• Women at OCs: risk of wheeze and asthma…..In women without asthma, OC use was associated with higher risk of current wheeze (odds ratio [OR], 1.75; 95% CI, 1.15‐2.65)….
Salam MT et al, J Allergy Clin Immun 117, 2006.
….Women using oral contraceptive pills had more asthma. This was found only in normal weight and overweight women,..
Marcali et al, J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009 Feb;123(2):391‐7.
Postal questionnaire
Gomaz Real F. et al, Thorax 61, 2006
8588 responded, included: 2206 women aged 46–54 years
HRT in perimenopause & asthma
Low BMI with HRT:same risk
for
• asthma
• wheeze
• hay fever
n=535
High BMI: increased risk of asthma: n=1648
• Estrogens suppress T‐cell function • Estrogens enhance antibody production • Receptors for sex steroids on
lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, neutrophils, fibroblasts,epithelial and smooth muscle cells and mast cells
Dimitropoulou C et al. Drug News Perspect. 20, 2007. Wizeman TM et al, National Acad. Press 2003. Balzano et al, Allergy 56, 2001.; Zhao XJ et al, Thorax 56, 2000.
Immunological facts
Additive effect with IgE
Zaitsu M et al, Mol Immun. 44, 2007
ER‐
17‐beta Estradiol
beta‐hex,LTC4
Ca2+
IgE
RBL‐2H3, BMMC, HMC‐1
rat o
vary
(+)
(‐) RBL‐2H
3
HMC‐1
BMMCs.
Mast cells express Estradiol receptor‐
Narita S, et al, Environmental estrogens induce mast cell degranulation and enhance IgE‐mediated release of allergic mediators.Environ Health Perspect. 2007 Jan;115(1):48‐52.
Environmental Estradiols activate mast cellsDioxins, dichlorodiphenyl‐trichloroethane (DDT), its metabolite dichlorodiphenylethylene (DDE), hexachloro‐cyclohexane, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), alkylphenols and their derivatives (nonylphenol, octylphenol, bisphenol A).
Aroclor
Nonylphenol
Endosulfan
Dieldrin
270 patients, 288 controls in Texas:High levels of IgE, IgG and IgM to progesteron and estrogen and late phase reactions.
Roby RR et al, Am J. Reproductive Immunol. 55, 2006.Itsekson A, et al. Premenstrual syndrome and associated skin diseases… J Reprod Med. 2004
IgE
IgE to estrogenIgE to progesteron
Perimenstrual: Asthma, migraine, joint pain.
Itsekson AM et al, Am J Reprod. Immunol 57, 2007.
Women with recurrent miscarriage (>3, mean 5,6): 23/29 Estrogen hypersensitivity20/29 Progesterone hypersensitivity10/10 controls negative
„…Consequence of local immune response to sex hormones...“PMS desensitization to sex hormones: improvement in 50–87%
PMS and recurrent pregnancy loss
Jensen‐Jarolim & Untersmayr: Gender‐medicine aspects in allergology.Allergy. 2008 May;63(5): 610‐5.
Diagnosis of Allergy• Anamnesis• Serology• Skin test • Food Provocation test: DBPCFC
Therapy• Allergen‐avoidance • Antihistamines• Beta‐Mimetics for Asthma• Glucocorticoids
Allergen immunotherapy
Subcutaneous immunotherapy (SIT)• 1911 in EU (Noon & Freeman, Lancet 1911)
• 1915 in US (Cooke, Laryngoscope 1915)• Current standard of care: rhinitis, asthma, venom
Oral immunotherapy• 2005 no published data to support clinical efficacy.Medical Policy & Technology Assessment Committee (MPTAC) Review
(04/18/2005; http://medpolicy.unicare.com)
Sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) • 1986 (Scodding & Brostoff, Clin Allergy 1986,
Warner, Clin. Allergy 1986)• > 20 double blind, placebo‐controlled studiesconfirm clinical efficacy in rhinitis
(Canonica & Passalacqua, JACI 2003)
Mechanisms of allergen immunotherapy I.
• Activation of T‐regulatory lymphocytes
Clark & Cupper, JID 2005: „Immature dendritic cells are polarized by the binding of type 1, type 2, or regulatory PAMP and differentiate into mature dendritic cells that induce the formation of Th1, Th2, or T regulatory T cells, respectively. In general, viral‐associated PAMP give rise to Th1 responses, and PAMP from parasitic organisms favor Th2 responses….“
Mechanisms of allergen immunotherapy II.
• On B‐lymphocyte: Blocking antibodies: IgG1, IgG4 act via FcRIIb
• Similar mechanism on FcRI bearing effector cell
From the following article:Treatment strategies for allergy and asthmaStephen T. Holgate & Riccardo PolosaNature Reviews Immunology 8, 218‐230 (March 2008)
Cytokine‐based therapies in asthma.
Lecture 514.094 of the Medical University Vienna
The Pathophysiology of AllergyChapter 1: History & Pathophysiology of Allergy
Erika Jensen-JarolimInst. of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research