TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY-COMMERCE

Commerce, Texas

The First Pillar of Reading: Phonological Awareness and Phonemic Awareness

A comprehensive thesis project completed for the partial fulfillment of the Program of Honors Study leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Interdisciplinary

Studies, completed by

Addison Fogel

August 2014

Oral Language

Oral language is an individual’s ability to both speak and listen. Oral

language as identified in the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) promotes

students’ speaking and listening abilities and are utilized in grades K-12. Children’s

oral language abilities are evidenced in language skills development, literacy

development, and oral vocabulary accumulation. One research study suggests that

the lack of exposure to and use of oral language may result in language delays,

which may then lead to the lack of reading skills, vocabulary accumulation, and

language skills as a whole (Fielding-Barnsley & Hay, 2012).

The more practice a child has with oral language, the greater his or her

understanding becomes of the important structure of words (Treheame, Healy,

Cantalini-Williams & Moore, 2003). According to Henning, McIntosh, Arnott and

Dodd (2012), “oral language includes vocabulary and semantic knowledge,

grammatical skill, narrative discourse, auditory comprehension and memory” (p.

232). Language can also be defined as the combination of a person’s lexicon, or total

vocabulary inventory, his or her grammar, and phonological system. Although each

component can be assessed individually, children develop language skills by

learning these components simultaneously (Dickinson, Griffith, Golinkoff & Hirsh-

Pasek, 2012).

To put into the simplest terms, oral language can be divided into two aspects:

receptive and expressive language. Receptive language is an individual’s ability to

listen to and understand speech. This not only includes the person’s vocabulary

skills, but also his or her ability to make sense of what is being communicated

(Olson, 2012). A child who follows the teacher’s oral directions displays receptive

language skills as he or she listens and interprets the meaning of the oral directions

being given, and then completes the task correctly (Tanguay, 2014). An individual’s

receptive language may be affected by his or her auditory acuity, but this study

focuses on a person’s ability to understand speech, rather than how well he or she is

able to hear.

Expressive language is a person’s “output” of language, or the ability to

articulate or speak his or her thoughts through a form of verbal or nonverbal

communication. Expressive language entails both the vocabulary and grammar

structure of a person’s dialogue (Olson, 2012). To effectively express language, a

person must first decide what words he or she needs to use to communicate a

thought, concern, or question, and then be able to express those words correctly

(Tanguay, 2014). Language also entails surface structure and deep structure

(Fedyk, 2012). In terms of expressive language, surface structure describes a

person’s actual vocalization of a thought. Fedyk elaborates, explaining that deep

structure can be described as “the interpretation of the spoken word into a mental

representation of that word” (p. 1).

Oral Language Principles and Skills Development

First, in order for a child to effectively accumulate language abilities, he or

she needs to be exposed to a large amount of spoken language, and at speeds that

allow the child to comprehend what has been said (Dickinson, Griffith, Golinkoff &

Hirsh-Pasek, 2012). Thus, adults need to speak to children using “dollar”

vocabulary rather than “baby talk” (Kennedy, 2013).

Second, children benefit most from oral language that relates to objects or

ideas that they find interesting. When adults speak about subjects that appeal to a

child, they can promote the child’s vocabulary (Lowry, 2011). In addition, when an

adult reads aloud a book that a child finds inviting, the child will be more likely to

have positive experiences with literacy-related activities (Duursma, Augustyn, &

Zuckerman, 2008).

According to Dickinson, Griffith, Golinkoff, and Hirsh-Pasek (2012), the third

principle that fuels a child’s language development refers to an adult’s

responsiveness to the child’s speech. Research concludes that children are more

likely to develop a sturdy foundation of language when adults actively interact with

them, responding quickly and appropriately to the child’s speech. In other words,

an adult’s responsiveness to a child’s oral expression is correlated to the child’s

cognitive competence and language abilities (Dickinson, Griffith, Golinkoff & Hirsh-

Pasek). In a study, parents from high socio-economic backgrounds provided

appropriate and encouraging responses to their child’s speech, leading to the child’s

increase in vocabulary and literacy abilities (Duursma, Augustyn, & Zuckerman,

2008).

Young children learn new vocabulary by understanding what a word means

when it is spoken, and this concept is identified by the fourth principle. Adults can

define a word by explicitly stating its meaning, using motions to imply the word’s

meaning, or displaying a visual example of the word. In addition, adults can

introduce new vocabulary by reading aloud age-appropriate books to children and

engaging in verbal interactions about the terminology used in the story (Duursma,

Augustyn, & Zuckerman, 2008). By using these techniques and introducing new

words in an appropriate and understandable context, adults can enhance the child’s

vocabulary (Dickinson, Griffith, Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek, 2012).

The fifth principle explains that vocabulary and grammar are learned as one

unit and not individually. As children increase their exposure to oral language, they

not only expand their vocabulary inventory, but they also begin to understand the

structure of language and how words work together to assemble a complete

thought. During read-alouds, children become familiar with the vocabulary used in

books (Duursma, Augustyn, Zuckerman, 2008) and they have the opportunity to

hear words within a grammatical context (Dickinson, Griffith, Golinkoff & Hirsh-

Pasek, 2012).

Finally, the last principle describes the importance of positive interactions

between an adult and a child, which result in the child’s increased language abilities

(Duursma, Augustyn, Zuckerman, 2008). Adults should encourage their children to

ask questions about the world around them, and respond in ways that provoke

additional thought from the child. Children should be provided with the

opportunity to engage in back-and-forth conversation with adults so they can

improve their oral language skills (Dickinson, Griffith, Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek,

2012). Durrsma, Augustyn, and Zuckerman conclude, “when parents hold positive

attitudes about reading, they are more likely to create opportunities for their

children that promote positive attitudes towards literacy and they can help children

develop solid language and literacy skills” (p. 556).

Oral Language and Literacy Development

Research demonstrates that a firm foundation of oral language can lead to

the development of phonological and phonemic awareness (Henning, McIntosh,

Arnott & Dodd, 2012). As an adult reads aloud to a child, he or she can promote the

child’s phonemic awareness through the use of books that focus on specific sounds

(Zuckerman & Khandekar, 2010). For example, a story that repeats the /d/

phoneme will trigger a child’s cognizance of the components of oral language. While

one may lead to the other, oral language and phonological awareness are taught in

accordance with one another in early school settings, and are both vital in building a

child’s decoding abilities (Fielding-Barnsley & Hay, 2012). Evidence suggests that

structured guidance in phonological awareness results in word identification, while

oral language knowledge leads to successful reading comprehension (Bianco,

Pellenq, Lambert, Bressoux, Lima & Doyen, 2012). Duursma, Augustyn, and

Zuckerman (2008) support this finding, affirming that as students become more

acquainted with oral language, they are less likely to struggle with reading at a later

age. So, providing instruction or activities that encourage improvement in both oral

language and phonological awareness can lead to an overall increase in literacy

skills.

Oral Language and Oral Vocabulary Accumulation

There is a significant correlation between early oral language skills and a

child’s accumulation of oral vocabulary, resulting in the ability to decode unknown

words while reading (Duursma, Augustyn, & Zuckerman, 2008). Studies have

shown that children from high socio-economic backgrounds are exposed to oral

language nearly four times more than children with low socio-economic statuses by

their fourth birthday (Fielding-Barnsley & Hay, 2012; Duursma, Augustyn, &

Zuckerman). Because of this limited amount of exposure to oral language, children

from lower socio-economic families only acquire a vocabulary of around 500 words

by the age of three, while children in working class families have a vocabulary of

750 words, and children in professional families have an observed cumulative

vocabulary of around 1100 words (Duursma, Augustyn, & Zuckerman). This can be

concluded through standardized expressive and receptive language assessments,

which measure oral vocabulary growth (Henning, McIntosh, Arnott & Dodd, 2012).

However, the parents’ income and occupations are not decisive in this aspect, but

rather, their habits of involving their child in language play (Fielding-Barnsley &

Hay, 2012). In a study, children from low socio-economic backgrounds performed

poorly on tests measuring word identification and reading comprehension due to

their lack of sufficient exposure to oral language at home (Bianco, Pellenq, Lambert,

Bressoux, Lima & Doyen, 2012). This proof of oral language deficiencies in children

of low socio-economic status provides evidence that research-based intervention

programs are necessary to support these children, and also to prevent additional

difficulties in language and reading skills later in life (Bianco, Pellenq, Lambert,

Bressoux, Lima & Doyen).

Activities to Build Oral Language

Incorporating oral language into a young child’s everyday life and designing

activities that encourage spoken language are simple but effective ways to build a

child’s oral comprehension and language abilities (Bianco, Pellenq, Lambert,

Bressoux, Lima & Doyen, 2012). Below are a number of activities that can be used

both at home and in school classrooms to build students’ oral language skills.

Read-Alouds

These should be exercised daily using children’s literature books, and can be

done by both the parent and the teacher. Read-alouds implement the directed

listening thinking approach (DLTA). Not only does this approach allow children to

hear good reading, but it also consists of questioning about what is being read,

encouraging the child to become involved in the reading of a story, and not solely

listen passively (Henning, McIntosh, Arnott & Dodd, 2012). In addition, as adults

read stories aloud, children hear rhyme words and become familiar with other

vocabulary words, promoting their vocabulary growth. Children who enter school

having experienced read-alouds more frequently than others prove to become more

successful readers (Zuckerman & Khandekar, 2010).

Oral Word Play

Young children will likely find enjoyment in manipulating the sounds of

common words to form new words, and even nonsense words. For example, a child

can sing “Mary Had a Little Lamb,” changing the beginning consonants to instead

say, “Zary Zad a Zittle Zamb” or “Bary Bad a Bittle Bamb.” (Yopp & Yopp, 2009).

Children can also complete rhymes, repeat tongue twisters, and clap to each word

that is spoken to increase oral language abilities (Roskos, Tabors, Lenhart, 2009).

Encouraging children to play with oral language and discover various sounds can

boost their phonological and phonemic awareness, while also enhancing vocabulary

skills and cognizance of the components of oral language (Yopp & Yopp).

Class Discussions

Oral language is promoted through informal conversations among peers and

adults, as well as formal classroom discussions (Wilkinson & Silliman, 2000).

Involving students in discussions promotes students’ communication skills,

cooperative learning, and critical thinking (Hamann, 2012). Teachers should not

only engage their students in question and answer sessions, but they should invite

the students to vocalize their knowledge and suppositions. Children should be

encouraged to share thoughts and questions with their peers, as this is proven to

lead to increased oral language development (Genishi, 1998). In addition, class

discussions “offer opportunities to develop and exchange views and ideas, thus

promoting critical thinking skills” (Norman, 2012, p. 4). By facilitating a classroom

discussion, teachers not only encourage the correct use of vocabulary and syntax,

but they also increase the students’ exposure to, and proficiency in, oral language

(Troute, n.d.).

Phonological Awareness

Phonological awareness is the ability to hear the words used in oral language

are comprised of pronunciation units of speech sounds including syllables, rhyme,

and individual phonemes (Torgesen & Mathes, 1998). In activities developed to

focus on phonological awareness, the shift of attention moves from the meaning of

the word to the phonemes of the word (Yopp & Yopp, 2009). Such activities include

the process of becoming able to manipulate these aspects of oral language by

performing tasks of phoneme blending, segmenting, substituting, adding, and

deleting to create new words (Bentin, 1992). For example, a phonologically aware

child will hear the word cat and rather than just imagining the soft creature, the

child will also break down the word into its phonological aspects. This awareness is

developed over time with specific activities, and studies have shown that there is a

strong, positive correlation between a child's phonological awareness and his or her

literacy skills later in life (Adams, Foorman, Lundberg, & Beeler, 1998b; Bentin,

1992; Gillon, 2004; Stanovich, Cunningham, & Cramer, 1984; Yopp, 1992).

Aspects of Phonological Awareness

Phonological awareness is a skill that requires individuals to break oral

language into smaller units; therefore, children must become masters within each

level of phonology (Yopp & Yopp, 2009). The most comprehensible way to consider

phonological awareness including all of its aspects is to visualize a stepladder. The

rungs of the ladder include the following, beginning at the base of the ladder:

Listening, Rhyme, Alliteration, Concept of Word in Text, Syllable Awareness, Onset-

Rime Awareness, and finally, Phonemic Awareness. Yopp and Yopp (2009) explain,

“although instruction should generally progress from larger to smaller units of

sound, phonological awareness development is not lockstep and children need not

master one level before being exposed to other levels of phonological awareness” (p.

2).

Listening. The first rung of the ladder is a child’s ability to listen to and

interpret spoken language. As discussed previously, oral language is a vital aspect of

a child’s language growth, and is a significant determinant of his or her literacy and

vocabulary skills later in life. This correlation is evidenced by research that

suggests, “Understanding the sounds of language is at the heart of the reading

process” (Hansen & Milligan, 2012, p. 77). In order to work their way up the ladder

and complete the auditory discrimination task of distinguishing phonemes in

speech, children must possess sufficient auditory acuity. If a child does not have

adequate hearing, he or she will not be able to become phonologically aware. A

child with keen hearing develops his or her listening abilities in a series of stages

(Stages of Listening, 2013). Infants display their ability to listen by simply reacting

to adults’ words and to music. As they develop into young toddlers, children

increase their capabilities by correctly imitating short phrases and noticing various

sounds they hear around them. By the time children are four years old, “hearing

difficulties may become evident” (Bowen, 1998, p. 1). This is the age when children

should be able to talk about specific sounds they hear in both the natural world and

in speech. From here, children will continue to develop phonological awareness,

progressing to the subsequent rungs of the ladder. The listening level of

phonological awareness is learned and developed through regular routines and

engaging activities (Stages of Listening, 2013). One example of an activity intended

to develop a child’s listening skills involves an adult making a common sound (such

as coughing or clapping) while the child’s eyes are covered, and then having the

child recreate the sound (Adams, Foorman, Lundberg, & Beeler, 1998b).

Rhyme. The second rung of the ladder reflects a child’s use of oral language

through rhyme, which pertains to words with ending sounds that correspond to one

another. For example, “back” rhymes with “tack,” while “balloon” rhymes with

“soon.” As this aspect of phonological awareness is developed, children will begin to

hear similar components of spoken language, leading to a better understanding of

literacy as a whole (Bradford, 2010). Research indicates that children can begin to

recognize rhymes as early as age three (Hempenstall, 2011). This aspect of

phonological awareness can be enriched through oral word play that focuses on

rhyming words (Yopp, 1992), as well as books, such as “I Can’t,” Said the Ant, by P.

Cameron and There’s a Wocket in my Pocket by Dr. Seuss (Yopp, 1995).

Alliteration. Once a child can hear that rhyming words have similar sounds

at the end of the words, he or she can then begin to identify alliteration, which is the

repetition of the same consonant sounds at the beginning of each word in a phrase

or sentence. Examples of alliterations include “cheap cheddar cheese,” and “Mary’s

magic marker.” Being able to recognize alliteration within oral language helps

children become sensitive to the initial sounds of words, “help[ing] students

appreciate that words that share common sounds usually also share common letter

sequences” (Hempenstall, 2011, p. 1). Bradford (2010) encourages adults to

introduce literature that includes alliterative phrases throughout the story such as

the book Animalia by Graeme Base and Sheep on a Ship by Nancy Shaw to help

children develop this aspect of phonological awareness.

Concept of Word in Text. When a child obtains the consciousness that

sentences can be broken down into individual words, and is able to distinguish each

word, he or she has developed word awareness, or concept of word (Hempenstall,

2011). Adults can help children acquire this attentiveness by stating aloud a

sentence, and then encouraging the children to repeat the sentence, clapping as they

say each word (Chard & Dickson, 1999). Teachers can also implement physical

activities to develop students’ word awareness (Treheame, Healy, Cantalini-

Williams, & Moore, 2003). One example describes an activity in which several mats

are placed on the floor. As each word of a sentence is read, the teacher instructs the

students to jump from one mat to the next to help students differentiate words in a

sentence.

Syllable Awareness. Having the recognition that words can be broken

down into syllables is described as syllable awareness, the next level of phonological

awareness (Gillon, 2004). A syllable can be defined as a unit of pronunciation

having one vowel sound, with or without consonants preceding or following the

vowel. For example, “book” is an example of a word with only one syllable, while

“carrot” has two syllables. An easy way to introduce the concept of syllables is to

have a child count how many times his or her jaw moves up and down by having the

child place his or her hand under the chin. As each syllable is spoken, the child will

notice a change in the position of the jaw. By participating in this exercise, a child

would quickly be able to recognize that “motorcycle” is composed of four syllables.

Children may find enjoyment in participating in “syllable games” with their parents

or adults (Yopp & Yopp, 2009). During these activities, adults can say a word out

loud, breaking it apart into obvious syllables. For example, an adult says “I see an

air-plane,” or “I like can-dy.” The child would then piece the syllables together,

saying the whole word fluidly. Yopp and Yopp (2009) elaborate, explaining that

adults can also allow the child to practice breaking apart words into syllables, but

children may take longer to develop this ability than they take to simply recognize a

word that has been segmented into its syllables. In addition, children can

participate in movement activities, during which they clap or stomp as they segment

their names or names of common objects into syllables (Chard & Dickson, 1999).

Onset-Rime Awareness. Deconstructing spoken language into even smaller

units, Gillon (2004) explains that children develop onset-rime awareness, which can

be described as the identification that one-syllable words can be divided into onset

and rime. The onset of a word is the consonant or consonants that precede the

vowel in a word. This can include single consonants as well as consonant blends or

consonant digraphs. The rime includes the vowel followed by the conclusion of the

word (Yopp & Yopp, 2009). For example, the /m/ in “mat” is the onset, and the /at/

is the rime. A rime can be considered a rime unit, or a phonogram, if ten additional

words can be created by changing the onset of the word. There are 37 rime units

that create over 500 English words, comprising both single-syllable and polysyllabic

words. The 37 common rime units include the following rimes: -ack, -ain, -ake, -all, -

ale, -ame, -an, -ank, -ap, -ash, -at, -ate, -aw, -ay, -eat, -ell, -est, -ice, -ick, -ide, -ight, -ill,

-in, -ine, -ing, -ink, -ip, -it, -ock, -oke, -op, -ore, -or, -uck, -ug, -ump, and –unk (Wylie &

Durrell, 1970). Recognizing that multiple words share the same rime unit can help

children enhance their reading and spelling skills through a strategy called words by

analogy (Hempenstall, 2011). For example, if a child knows the words “cat” and

“hat,” he or she should then be able to infer the spellings of “mat” and “bat,” and

decode these words while reading. Yopp and Yopp suggest playing games such as I-

Spy, during which an adult would say something similar to, “I spy with my little eye

something that begins with /m/,” or “I spy something that ends in /ap/.” By

participating in activities such as this one, children can enhance their recognition of

onset and rime, and use this knowledge to expand their vocabulary to include

similar sounding words.

Phonemic Awareness. This is the aspect of phonological awareness that

exists at the very top of the ladder, and is frequently considered the most complex

step to master (Adams, Foorman, Lundberg & Beeler, 1998a). A phonemically

aware child is able to identify and manipulate individual phonemes, or sounds,

within spoken language (Yopp & Yopp, 2009). For example, a child has developed

phonemic awareness when he or she is mindful that “dog” is made up of the

phonemes /d/, /o/ and /g/, and is able to alter these phonemes to create new,

similar words (Yopp, 1992), such as “log” and “frog.” Although phonemic awareness

is an important prerequisite to phonics, the two terms are not interchangeable.

Phonics is introduced when children match their knowledge of phonemes

with their knowledge of the letters of the alphabet (Johnston, 2004). Phonemic

awareness entails more than simple auditory discrimination, which calls for an

individual to differentiate between different sounds, or phonemes, in words.

Although a child may recognize that “cat” and “mat” rhyme, the child is not

phonemically aware until he or she is able to provide an explanation of how the

words are related, and what phoneme distinguishes one word from the other

(Hempenstall, 2011). In this example, a child would prove he or she is phonemically

aware by stating that “cat” and “mat” have the same rime unit, /at/, but they have

unlike onsets: one word begins with /k/ and the other begins with /m/. Phonemic

awareness is not only proven to have a significant contribution on a child’s decoding

and word recognition abilities (Ashby, Dix, Bontrager, Dey, & Archer, 2013), but it is

also considered “a necessary prerequisite for success in learning to read” (Yopp,

1995, 262). This is because phonemic awareness “helps children make sense of the

letter-sound relationships of phonics. Learning phonics, in turn, improves

awareness of sounds and the ability to learn new words” (Melby-Lervag, Lyster, &

Hulme, 2012, p. 13). As children increase their vocabulary through the bridge from

phonemic awareness to phonics and through words by analogy, they enhance their

chances of becoming successful readers.

Assessment

A child's phonological awareness can be measured by his or her knowledge

and skillfulness at various tasks. These include phoneme blending, segmentation,

substitution, addition, and deletion (Stahl & Murray, 1994). By completing these

tasks, a child provides strong evidence that can be used to predict how quickly and

easily he or she will be able to read fluently in the early grades of elementary school

(Stanovich, Cunningham, & Cramer, 1984). Although these tasks are performed and

measured in slightly different manners, each task measures a similar conception of

phonemic awareness. The tasks are repeated at the end of specified time intervals

to determine the student’s progress (Stahl & Murray). According to Chard and

Dickson (1999), children should be fairly successful at accomplishing these tasks by

the end of kindergarten.

Blending. This task requires a student to combine separated phonemes to

form a word (Yopp, 1992). A teacher may verbalize a word very slowly and

disconnected, insuring that each sound in the word is pronounced for the child to

hear. The child then completes the task by declaring the word in one smooth and

connected vocalization, as one would pronounce any word in daily speech (Chard &

Dickson, 1999). Yopp explains that children can practice the blending task by

engaging in teacher-led activities that call for students to blend a segmented word

stated by the teacher. For example, a teacher may peek inside a toy box and say the

name of a toy, pronouncing the word in phoneme segments. The children can then

guess what toy the teacher sees in the box by blending the phonemes and saying the

word. (Example: Teacher: /k/ē/; Child: key)

Segmentation. Segmentation is just the opposite of blending. This task

requires the student to separate each individual phoneme in a word spoken by the

teacher, and research suggests that children who cannot correctly segment a spoken

word may struggle to learn to read (Stahl & Murray, 1994). Yopp (1992) suggests

introducing the segmenting task by encouraging students to segment the phonemes

in their names. Once students are familiar with the task, they can then begin

practicing segmenting phonemes in words with up to three phonemes (Yopp). At

this point in a child’s phonemic awareness development, Elkonin Boxes can be

introduced by drawing a series of boxes and placing a counter over each box as each

phoneme in a word is segmented (Yopp, 1995). For instance, a student segments

“chip” by placing one counter over each box as he or she pronounces the three

phonemes (/ch/, /i/, /p/). Eventually, students should transition into writing the

corresponding letter or letters in each box instead of placing counters to represent

each phoneme (Yopp, 1995).

Substitution. A student engaging in the substitution task must replace the

phoneme at the beginning, middle, or end of a word with a different phoneme

designated by the teacher (Bradford, 2010). For example, the teacher may say to

change the /k/ sound in “cat” to a /m/ sound. The student successfully completes

this task by announcing the new word (Chard & Dickson, 1999).

Addition. Addition requires the student to add a phoneme onto the

beginning or end of a word (Rauth & Stuart, 2008), such as the addition of /s/ at the

beginning of “tar” to form the new word, “star.” To develop this phonemic ability,

children can engage in a “Simon Says” game, during which Simon tells the students

to create a new word by inserting a phoneme at the beginning or end of an initial

word (Yopp, 1988).

Deletion. The deletion task calls for a student to remove a phoneme from

the beginning or end of a word to form a new word. For example, a student may be

prompted to remove the /s/ phoneme at the beginning of “star” to form the new

word, “tar” (Yopp, 1995). Results from an experiment on kindergarten students

suggest that initial consonant deletion is one of the most difficult tasks for children

to master (Stanovich, Cunningham, and Cramer, 1984).

Play

What is Play?

Play is any activity engaged in for enjoyment and recreation, especially by

children. While several varieties of play have been identified, they often overlap

with one another (Kernan, 2007). Children may engage in exploratory play,

constructive play, creative play, pretend, fantasy, and socio-dramatic play, physical

play, and finally, language play. Although the key intention of child’s play is to gain

pleasure from the experience, play is considered “a vital component to the normal

development of a child” (Kaufman, 2012, p. 1). By engaging in play, children

develop socially, cognitively, physically, and morally (Gray, 2008).

Exploratory Play. Children become involved in this type of play when they

use their senses to discover new objects and ideas (Kernan, 2007). Exploratory play

is initiated when a child attempts to investigate an aspect of the world around him

or her. A recent study indicates that children as early as the preschool age are able

to develop an experiment to gain specific information (Cook, Goodman & Schulz,

2011).

Constructive Play. Constructive play consists of using objects and materials

to build something new, triggering questions and investigations about the natural

world (Drew, Christie, Johnson, Meckley & Nell, 2008). Materials may include

“blocks, playdough, junk and collage materials, sand and water” (Kernan, 2007, p.

19). Constructive play allows children to begin developing their inquiry skills, as

well as their analysis skills (Drew, Christie, Johnson, Meckley & Nell, 2008).

Creative Play. A child initiates creative play when he or she utilizes

materials to enrich his or her originality and imagination by creating something new

(Kernan, 2007). A few materials used to accompany this type of play include paint,

sidewalk chalk, toilet paper rolls, fabric, and various craft materials. Research

indicates that creative play leads to cognitive, social, and emotional development

(Peters, 2010; Gray, 2008).

Pretend, Fantasy, and Socio-Dramatic Play. Children become engaged in

these types of play when they take on roles or create imaginary scenarios with one

another (Gray, 2008). This could include anything from playing “house” to

pretending to be mermaids in the swimming pool to acting out their favorite parts in

a popular movie. Kaufman (2012) suggests that pretend play can promote

creativity, as well as the acknowledgement that various perspectives of a

circumstance may be present. In addition, socio-dramatic play stimulates

communication among participants (Kernan, 2007) and an increase in language

implementation (Kaufman, 2012). This type of play also has a rule-based nature, in

which the participants determine the rules (Gray, 2008).

Physical Play. Physical play includes activities that allow children to utilize

their fine and gross motor skills (Kernan, 2007). Tag, jump roping, riding a bicycle

and playing on the monkey bars are all activities that are considered physical play.

Children may also simply “physically explore their environments,” which

incorporates exploratory play in addition to physical play (Kaufman, 2012, p. 1).

Language Play. This type of play involves the “manipulation of sounds,

and…often incorporates rhyme, word play and humor” (Kernan, 2007, p. 19). The

more practice a child has with oral language, the greater his or her understanding

becomes of the important structure of words (Treheame, Healy, Cantalini-Williams

& Moore, 2003). As children engage in oral activities and develop phonological

awareness, they increase their mastery of reading, writing, and spelling skills later

in life (Torgesen & Mathes, 1998). While the acquisition of phonological awareness

by young children holds extreme significance in regards to students' future literacy

skills, the obtaining of this awareness can be considered play (Yopp & Yopp, 2009).

The development of phonological awareness can be a fun and enjoyable experience

for children if they are exposed to opportunities to participate in games and songs

that focus on - and “play” with - oral language.

Connecting Songs and Chants to the TEKS

Bradford (2010) suggests, “singing songs with predictable text is one of the

best ways to get children involved with using language” (p. 3). Focusing on one

particular rhyme or phoneme within a song or chant is a great way for children to

develop these aspects of phonological awareness. Children will even find enjoyment

in manipulating individual phonemes within words of common children’s songs to

form additional rhymes and nonsense words (Yopp & Yopp, 2009). Examples of

songs in which phonemes can be altered to develop phonological awareness include

“Willoughby Wallaby Woo” and “Oo-pples and Boo-noo-noos” (Treheame, Healy,

Cantalini-Williams, & Moore, 2003). The following two songs by Nancy Schimmel

and Fran Avni also focus on various aspects of language, enhancing children’s

phonological awareness and, as a result, their literacy skills as a whole.

“Good For You”

(Verse 1): Tell you something quite insane,

All about my sister Jane:

On her birthday, by mistake,

She ate the candles, not her… cake!

(Chorus): Good for you, you made a rhyme

You can make one any old time, time,

You can make one any old time.

(Verse 2): Tell you something quite absurd,

My music school is run by a bird.

She keeps time while the chorus sings,

She taps her foot and flaps her… wings!

(Chorus)

(Verse 3): Tell you something you won’t believe

All about my brother, Steve.

He couldn’t swim, he couldn’t float

But he crossed the river without a… boat!

(Chorus)

(Verse 4): Tell you something you’ll never guess,

I didn’t either, I’ll confess.

This song was written by a kangaroo,

If he could do it, so can you!

In this silly song, Nancy Schimmel and Fran Avni (2001) place emphasis on

rhyme completion. Each verse tells a short story, and at the end of each verse the

child is given the opportunity to complete the rhyme using a word that makes sense

with the story. This song can be used in both the kindergarten and first grade

classrooms as it applies to the following TEKS:

§110.11. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (C) orally generate rhymes;

§110.12. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (A) orally generate a series of

original rhyming words using a variety of phonograms.

“Muffin Mix”

(Verse 1): Mmm, muffins!

I love munching muffins.

Make me muffins for my lunch,

Please, O please, and thanks a bunch.

(Chorus): When the first sounds sound alike

As in Betsy bought a bike,

Or Steve’s still standing at the station,

We call that alliteration.

(Verse 2): Ssss, snakesound.

I stop when I hear snakesound.

Stay right still, leave me alone,

I only speak to snakes by phone.

(Chorus)

(Verse 3): Shhh! Shushing,

Shortly we’ll be shushing.

Shut the sheep in the shearing shed,

Take the shaggiest one to bed.

While also incorporating rhyme into the song, Schimmel and Avni (2001)

introduce alliteration by including several examples of the literary device. Giving

children the opportunity to discover and practice using alliteration can be a fun,

playful way for children to become more exposed to the elements that comprise our

language. This song can also be utilized in the kindergarten classroom as it pertains

to the following TEKS:

§110.11. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (E) recognize spoken alliteration

or groups of words that begin with the same spoken onset or initial

sound.

“Head and Shoulders, Knees and Toes” (example: /n/)

Nead and noulders, nees and noes, nees and noes,

Nead and noulders, nees and noes, nees and noes,

And neyes and nears and nouth and nose,

Nead and noulders, nees and noes, nees and noes!

“The Farmer in the Dell” (example: /m/)

The farmer in the dell,

The farmer in the dell,

Mi-mo the merry-o,

The farmer in the dell.

These two songs, suggested by Yopp and Yopp (2009), allow children to

practice phoneme substitution. Manipulating the onset in words of familiar songs,

children change one particular phoneme at a time, such as the /n/ phoneme in the

first example. Children will often find enjoyment in sound play, suggesting new

phonemes to try and creating their own lyrics (Yopp and Yopp). These songs can be

integrated into the early elementary classrooms as they relate to the following

TEKS:

§110.12. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (C) recognize the change in a

spoken word when a specific phoneme is added, changed, or removed.

“A-Hunting We Will Go”

A-hunting we will go,

A-hunting we will go,

We’ll find a /b/ and add an /ug/ and now we have a “bug.”

In this familiar song, children are given the opportunity to blend onsets and

rimes to form words (Treheame, Healy, Cantalini-Williams, & Moore, 2003). This

enjoyable phonological awareness activity can be seamlessly integrated into the

kindergarten classroom as it applies to the TEKS below:

§110.11. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (F) blend spoken onsets and

rimes to form simple words.

Books for Read-Alouds and Center Games

Read-alouds allow children an opportunity to become involved in reading,

especially before they are able to read independently. Engaging in fun read-alouds

promotes children’s attentiveness to aspects of phonological awareness, including

rhyme and alliteration. The use of these books applies to the TEKS below:

§110.11. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (D) distinguish orally presented

rhyming pairs of words from non-rhyming pairs; and

§110.11. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (E) recognize spoken alliteration

or groups of words that begin with the same spoken onset or initial

sound (e.g., “baby boy bounces the ball”).

The following children’s books can be utilized as enjoyable classroom read-alouds,

and can also be placed in centers to be used with folder games.

The Bug in the Jug Wants a Hug, by Brian P. Cleary (See Appendix A). This

children’s book focuses on short vowel sounds. Each page concentrates on one

particular rhyme unit, with silly pictures to represent the text. Students can

increase their phonological awareness by recognizing the rhymes on each page.

Phonics can also be developed as students begin to make connections between the

short vowel sounds and the letters that represent them.

Stop, Drop, and Flop in the Slop, by Brian P. Cleary (See Appendix A). This

children’s book focuses on consonant blends. Each page concentrates on one

particular rhyme unit, with silly pictures to represent the text. Students can

increase their phonological awareness by recognizing the rhymes on each page.

Phonics can also be developed as students begin to make connections between the

sounds of the consonant blends and the letters that represent them.

A Fly Went By, by Mike McClintock (See Appendix A). This children’s book

tells a story about a boy who attempts to stop a chain of animals chasing after each

other. The silly story flows from one rhyme pair to the next, allowing students to

develop phonological awareness as they recognize the similarities between the

rhyming words.

Two Fine Swine, a book in the Get Ready…Get Set…Read! series by Foster and

Erickson (See Appendix A). This children’s book focuses on the “ine” and “ide” word

families as it tells a story about two generous pigs that do a good deed on

Valentine’s Day. Since it is themed around Valentine’s Day, this book can be used

during a thematic unit or a study on holidays. Children can develop phonological

awareness by engaging in this read-aloud as they notice the repetition of the “ine”

and “ide” rhyming words with various onsets.

Llama Llama Holiday Drama, by Anna Dewdney (See Appendix A). This

children’s book can also be used during a thematic unit about holidays, specifically

holidays celebrated in the winter. In this story, Llama Llama’s anticipation becomes

overwhelming as he makes preparations for the holidays. This enjoyable story can

promote students’ phonological awareness as they become attentive to the rhymes

used throughout the book.

Dinner at the Panda Palace, by Stephanie Calmenson (See Appendix A).

This children’s book can be used as a fun read-aloud, integrating both language arts

and math as it incorporates counting throughout the story. In the book, Mr. Panda

welcomes his guests for dinner as the Panda Palace fills up with animals of all kinds.

Students can develop phonological awareness as they recognize the words that

rhyme.

The Fat Cat Sat on the Mat, by Nurit Karlin (See Appendix A). This

children’s book focuses on the “at” word family throughout the story. In the story, a

fat cat refuses to get off the rat’s mat. Students can build onset-rime awareness as

they recognize the various onsets that can precede the “at” rime.

The Tan Can, a book in the Get Ready…Get Set…Read! series by Foster and

Erickson (See Appendix A). This children’s book focuses on the “an” and “and”

spelling patterns as a group of animals tries to open a tan can they found in the sand.

Students can develop phonological awareness as they listen to the rhymes used

throughout the story. Phonics can also be developed as children begin to make

connections between the phonemes in the words and the “an” and “and” spelling

patterns.

“I Can’t” said the ant, by Polly Cameron (See Appendix A). This children’s

book allows students to develop phonological awareness as it includes a multitude

of rhymes through both pictures and words.

A Moose That Says Moooooooooo, by Jennifer Hamburg (See Appendix A).

This children’s book tells a silly story about what the main character would include

if he could invent his own zoo. Students can develop phonological awareness as

they engage in this read-aloud by becoming aware of the various rhyme pairs used

throughout the story.

Games

Children learn best when they are engaged in entertaining and stimulating

activities (Bradford, 2010). These activities may include any language play that

“[promotes] awareness of words, syllables, rhymes, and sounds in words”

(Treheame, Healy, Cantalini-Williams, & Moore, 2003, p. 133). Yopp and Yopp

(2009) suggest choosing games that encourage participation among children and

that are stress-free and exciting. In addition, because phonological awareness holds

significance in determining the success of a child’s literacy abilities, the

implementation of these activities at home and in the classroom needs to be an

intentional act of an adult and not merely an accident (Yopp & Yopp, 2000).

Games Created: File Folder Games and Connections to the TEKS

File folder games are easily stored in the classroom and can be transported

without difficulty to and from school by students. The following games have been

created for the promotion of phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, and

phonics, and are intended for use by students in both kindergarten and first grade.

Students in the later elementary grades can also use these games as reinforcement

for building phonological awareness and phonics skills.

What’s That Sound? (See Appendix B) This game has been created to

accompany The Bug in the Jug Wants a Hug, written by Brian P. Cleary. To

successfully complete the game, children work as a group or individually to sort the

words by short vowel sounds. Students must use their knowledge of phonics to

read the word and determine the short vowel sound within the word. This file

folder game relates to the following TEKS:

§110.12. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonics. Students use the relationships between letters and

sounds, spelling patterns, and morphological analysis to decode

written English. Students are expected to: (A) decode words in

context and in isolation by applying common letter-sound

correspondences, including: (ii) single letters (vowels) including short

a, short e, short i, short o, and short u.

Stop, Drop and Blend the Words. (See Appendix B) This game has been

created to accompany Stop, Drop, and Flop in the Slop, written by Brian P. Cleary. To

successfully complete the game, children work as a group or individually to combine

word family cards and initial consonant blends to form words. Students must use

their onset-rime awareness and knowledge of phonics to combine the consonant

blend onsets and the rime units to create as many words as possible. This file folder

game relates to the following TEKS:

§110.12. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonics. Students use the relationships between letters and

sounds, spelling patterns, and morphological analysis to decode

written English. Students are expected to: (B) combine sounds from

letters and common spelling patterns (e.g., consonant blends) to

create recognizable words.

A Fly Went By: A rhyming game to try! (See Appendix B) This game has

been created to accompany A Fly Went By, written by Mike McClintock. To

successfully complete the game, children work as a group or individually to match

the puzzle pieces by finding rhyme pairs. Students must use their phonological

awareness, familiarity with rhyme and knowledge of phonics to pair together the

words that rhyme. This file folder game relates to the following TEKS:

§110.11. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (D) distinguish rhyming pairs of

words from non-rhyming pairs.

Be Mine, Val-en-tine: A syllable counting game. (See Appendix B) This

game has been created to accompany Two Fine Swine, a book in the Get Ready…Get

Set…Read! series by Foster and Erickson. To successfully complete the game,

children work as a group or individually to count the number of syllables in various

words represented by pictures. Students must use their syllable awareness to

determine whether a word has one, two, three, or four syllables. This file folder

game relates to the following TEKS:

§110.11. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (B) identify syllables in words.

Help Llama Llama Decorate the Christmas Tree! (See Appendix B) This

game has been created to accompany Llama Llama Holiday Drama, written by Anna

Dewdney. To successfully complete the game, children work as a group or

individually to count the number of syllables in various words represented by

pictures. Students must use their syllable awareness to determine whether a word

has one, two, or three syllables. This file folder game relates to the following TEKS:

§110.11. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (B) identify syllables in words.

Prepare for the Party at the Panda Palace. (See Appendix B) This game

has been created to accompany Dinner at the Panda Palace, written by Stephanie

Calmenson. To successfully complete the game, children work as a group or

individually to sort the animal pictures by beginning sounds. Students must use

their phonemic awareness to group the words by similar initial phonemes. This file

folder game relates to the following TEKS:

§110.11. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (E) recognize alliteration or

groups of words that begin with the same spoken or initial sound.

The Fat Cat Sat on the Mat. (See Appendix B) This game has been created to

accompany The Fat Cat Sat on the Mat, written by Nurit Karlin. To successfully

complete the game, children work as a group or individually to read a series of

words of the /at/ rime unit. Students must use their phonological awareness and

knowledge of phonics to decode words with the closed syllable pattern. This file

folder game relates to the following TEKS:

§110.12. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonics. Students use the relationships between letters and

sounds, spelling patterns, and morphological analysis to decode

written English. Students are expected to: (C) use common

syllabication patterns to decode words, including: (i) closed syllable

(CVC) (e.g., mat).

Can You Sort the Words? (See Appendix B) This game has been created to

accompany The Tan Can, a book in the Get Ready…Get Set…Read! series by Foster

and Erickson. To successfully complete the game, children work as a group or

individually to read the word on each stick and determine whether the word

belongs in the “an” or “and” category. Students must use their knowledge of phonics

and spelling patterns to correctly sort the words. This file folder game relates to the

following TEKS:

§110.12. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonics. Students use the relationships between letters and

sounds, spelling patterns, and morphological analysis to decode

written English. Students are expected to: (D) decode words with

common spelling patterns.

“I Can Rhyme!” said the mime: Rhyming Bingo. (See Appendix B) This

game has been created to accompany “I Can’t” said the ant, written by Polly

Cameron. To successfully complete the game, children play against each other or

individually to fill up their Bingo cards. Students must use their phonological

awareness, attentiveness to rhyme, and their knowledge of phonics to read the word

on each card and determine if they have a picture on their Bingo card that rhymes

with the word. This file folder game relates to the following TEKS:

§110.11. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (D) distinguish rhyming pairs of

words from non-rhyming pairs.

Welcome to the Zoo. (See Appendix B) This game has been created to

accompany A Moose That Says Moooooooooo, written by Jennifer Hamburg. To

successfully complete the game, children work as a group or individually to follow

the zoo path by finding animals that have the same ending sounds as the pictures on

the spinner. Students must use their phonemic awareness to determine the final

phonemes of the various pictures on the spinner, and then find animals on the game

board with the same ending phonemes. This file folder game relates to the following

TEKS:

§110.12. (b) Knowledge and Skills. (2) Reading/Beginning Reading

Skills/Phonological Awareness. Students display phonological

awareness. Students are expected to: (E) isolate final sounds in one-

syllable words.