Unit 2 Reformation and Religious Wars

2.2 PART ONE: Spread of Protestant Ideas

The Rise of the AnabaptistsAnabaptists were the largest of so-called millenarian groups, who believed that the end of the world was near. An important element of Anabaptist belief was that the law of man had no force over those whom God had served. Faith took precedent over the law, meaning that for an Anabaptist, the will of God was more important than the word and law from ANY government. Some even argued that faith took precedence over marital vows. Anabaptists were pacifists at heart, but were persecuted heavily by both Protestants and Catholics. Luther pronounced them wolves in sheeps clothing.

Michael Sattler,(1490-1527) presided over an Anabaptist meeting at Scheitheim, Germany, and drew up a statement of Anabaptist beliefs. A few are as follows

Baptism was for all who repented of their sins. (Obviously, one had to be an adult to do this.)

The baptized were to separate themselves from the evil and wickedness which the devil had planted in the world.

No member was to take an oath in any form. Anabaptists would not hold public office or pay taxes.

Shortly after issuing the statement, Sattler was arrested. The authorities were afraid his ideas might spread, and were determined to make an example of him. There was a two-day trialafter which he was tortured by having pieces of his flesh torn away from his body with red hot tongs. He was then burned at the stake. His wife was offered amnesty and a comfortable retirement if she recanted. She refused, and was drowned eight days later.

Anabaptists believed that one was only the steward, not the owner of private property. Christians should be compelled by brotherly love to share with anyone in need. Among the groups which originated with the Anabaptists were the Hutterites (named for Jacob Hutter) who believe in the community of goods; and the Mennonites. Modern day Amish follow a similar line of thinking.

In 1532, a radical group of Anabaptists took over the town of Mnster, Germany by election. Their leader, one John of Leyden, convinced the town elders to allow polygamy, thereby establishing endless links of kinship. He led the way by taking sixteen wives. All books except the Bible were burned; and Lutherans and Catholics were murdered. After sixteen months, troops sent by Lutheran and Catholic princes stormed the town and tortured the town leaders to death. A number of those tortured were women. Their corpses, mutilated by torture, were placed in an open cage in the church steeple.

John Calvin and Calvinism

Jean Cauvin (John Calvin) (1509-1564) was the son of a French Notary. He studied to become a priest, and read humanist writings until his father decided that he should study law instead. Although he completed all his legal studies, he did not practice law, but returned to Paris to study. He proved to be a brilliant writer and astute scholar; however he was forced to leave Paris when a classmate delivered an address with heretical overtones. Calvin was known to have helped write the address. Fleeing Paris, he traveled to Strasbourg and later Basel, where at age twenty-six he first published hisInstitutes of the Christian Religion, in March, 1536. TheInstitutesbecame a life work; he translated it into French and expanded it into numerous editions throughout his life. He benefited from the printing press, as had Luther.CalvinsInstituteshad the same influence on the formation of modern French as Luthers translation of the New Testament had had on German.Calvins French became standard French.

Calvins writings reveal a man tortured by anxiety and self-doubt. He frequently spoke of the abyss over which mankind hovered. The most important element of his theology was the doctrine ofpredestination.Calvin wrote that God was sublime, and so overwhelming and awe-inspiring that human beings were insignificant, sinful, and unworthy. Yet God was also a God of love, who planned from the beginning of the universe to the end of time, and selected some human beings, the elect, for salvation; others were selected for damnation:

Predestination we call the eternal decree of God by which He determined in Himself what would have to become of every individual of mankind. For they are not all created with a similar destiny; but eternal life is foreordained for some and eternal damnation for others. Every person, therefore, being created for one or the other of these two ends, we say is predestined to life or to death.

In July, 1536, Calvin ended up in Geneva, Switzerland. He had been sent for by a fiery preacher who told him that God would punish him if he did not comply. While there, Calvin insisted that the city ordinances comply with religious teaching. No distinction was made between occurrences which could be considered crimes and those which were simply un-Christian. Card playing, licentious dancing, theater-going, drunkenness, gambling, and swearing were outlawed. Absence from sermons, criticism of ministers, and family quarrels were punished. Punishment was provided for laughing during a sermon, having ones fortune told, or praising the Pope. Drinking establishments were permitted, but a Bible must always be present, no lewd songs could be song or cards played, and grace must be said before all meals.

Said one cynic: you can do anything you want in Geneva, as long as you do not enjoy it.

Serious crimes were punished by civil authorities only, and were allowed to use torture to extract confessions. Between 1542 and 1546, seventy six people were either banished from Geneva or executed for such terrible crimes as blasphemy, adultery, heresy, and witchcraft.

John Calvin had no tolerance for those who dissented from his religious viewpoints. He referred to them as dogs and swine.

God makes plain that the false prophet is to be stoned without mercy. We are to crush beneath our heel all affections of nature when His honor is concerned. The father should not spare his childnor husband his own wife or the friend who is dearer to him than life. No human relationship is more than animal unless it is grounded in God.

Calvin left Geneva, but returned in 1541, where he was appointed Pastor, and paid a handsome salary based on a tax on kegs of wine. One member of the town council had the audacity to call Calvin a wicked man who preaches false doctrine. Calvin insisted as a condition of his return that the man apologize publicly, and march through the town wearing a hair shirt as a sign of his disgrace.

In 1553, a Spanish scientist, lawyer, physician and amateur theologian named Michael Servetus arrived in Geneva. Servetus was the first person to postulate on circulation of the blood. Servetus had earlier publishedOn the Errors of the Trinity(1531) in which he questioned the divinity of Christ. He also sent Calvin a copy of theInstituteswith corrections noted in the margin. Servetus tried to convince the people that he was correct, and was arrested for his trouble. During his trial, Calvin was so incensed that that he blurted out, May little chickens dig out his eyes a hundred thousand times. Servetus was tried as a heretic and burned at the stake.

John Calvin holding court in Geneva. Calvin believed that limiting distractions in life helped one focus on the Almighty God, and by doing so, He would reveal His will to his followers.

Calvin insisted on rigorous discipline in Geneva over all society. Even the citys prostitutes were organized. He believed that ministers as well as civil magistrates were agents of God whose purpose was the same:

For the church has not the right of the sword to punish or restrain; has no power to coerce, no prison, nor other punishments which the magistrate is wont to inflict.

Despite his seemingly harsh attitude, Calvin was not a prude. He wrote in theInstitutes: We are nowhere forbidden to laugh or to be satisfied with food or to be delighted with music or to drink wine.

Calvin on WomenCalvin believed that salvation was open to men and women, and approved of religious education for girls. Women were to read the Bible only in private, but they could sing in church. He did not believe that a woman should speak in church, and was also not to teach, baptize or offer the communion hosts.

Calvin shared the common Protestant thinking of his day that women had stronger sexual desires than men. Marriage was the proper outlet for their sexual needs. Women who were not married were viewed with considerable suspicion, as it was believed that they were fighting their natural desires, and were upsetting the natural order of things.

Calvin also did not think women should involve themselves in politics. In a letter to Heinrich Bulliger of April 225, 1554, he wrote:

About eh government of women, I expressed myself thus: since it is utterly at variance with the legitimate order of nature, it ought to be counted among the judgment with which God visits usFor a gynaecocracy or female rule badly organized is like a tyranny, and is to be tolerated until God sees fit to overthrow it.

Calvin was shrewd enough to not share his feelings with female rulers at the time, since he needed their protection if his ideas were to spread. His disciple, John Knox, founder of the Presbyterian Church, got into trouble in Scotland when he railed against woman rulers in a pamphlet,Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women.Queen Elizabeth I was particularly offended (justifiably so, as she and Mary, Queen of Scots were Knoxs targets) and Calvin was forced to apologize to her for Knoxs comments.

The Spread of CalvinismCalvinism was more aggressive and more organized than Lutheranism, and quickly became one of the most dynamic and successful of the Protestant movements, much more so than Lutheranism. Calvins theology was clearly enunciated and easily understood. His churches were well organized, which had enormous appeal. Geneva, where he had worked, was a model of a reform community, and its printing presses furnished tremendous amounts of material for missionary work throughout Europe.

Calvinism found a home in the Netherlands and became part of the nationalist movement when the Dutch declared themselves independent from Spain in 1581. In 1560, Frederick III, count Palatine of the Rhine and one of the Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, converted and made his area a major center of Calvinism within the Empire. It grew rapidly in Poland, and for a time was the leading denomination in Hungary. It was most significant in England, however, where Calvinist followers wished to purify the Church of England of all elements of Popery. They were soon known as puritans. Under the reign of Mary Queen of Scots, Scotland became Calvinist.

Mary was herself a devout Catholic, and would have returned Scotland to Catholicism had she been able; however the preaching of John Knox prevailed.

In France, Calvinism also was popular, much to the dismay of the reigning Catholic dynasty. In 1547, Henry II became King of France and described it as the common malady of this contagious pestilence which has infected many noble towns. A special court, the Burning Chamber was created to hear cases of heresy. Those accused were frequently tortured, and if convicted, burned at the stake. Henry II was something of a sadist, and attended many of the executions personally. Despite ruthless efforts to stomp it out, Calvinism still grew in France. By 1560, there were more than 2,000 Protestant congregations in France. They called themselves Huguenot, after Besanon Hugues, a French reformer in Geneva.

2.2 PART TWO: The English Reformation

The English Reformation, leading to the separation of the Anglican Church from Rome, was not based upon religious conviction nor humanist thinking, but rather the desire of King Henry VIII (1491 1547) to secure a divorce and produce a male heir.

The King's Great MatterHenry was the second son of Henry VII, victorious at the Battle of Bosworth Field, and first of the Tudor Line. The elder son, Arthur, was the heir apparent. Henry VII had arranged for Arthur to marry Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. The marriage not only brought a sizeable dowry to Britain, but also gave the upstart Tudor regime a degree of legitimacy. The marriage was arranged when Arthur was two, and celebrated in November, 1501 when he had just turned fifteen.

Four months after the marriage, Arthur, who had never been healthy, died of consumption. Faced with losing the dowry and the Spanish connection, Henry VII convinced the Spanish to marry Arthurs young widow to the second son, Henry, who was now first in line. Never mind that Henry was six years younger than Catherine. There was a Biblical problem, however, as it was sinful, according to the Old Testament, for a man to marry his brothers widow.

The passage in question was Leviticus 20:21:And if a man shall take his brothers wife, it is an unclean thing. He hath uncovered his brothers nakedness. They shall be childless.

Henry sent emissaries to Pope Julius II (who had commissioned Michelangelo) to secure a papal dispensation. Pope Julius granted the dispensation, and Henry married Catherine on June 11, 1509, several weeks after the death of his father. At the time, he was eighteen, and Catherine was twenty five.

As a young man, Henry VIII was very athletic and talented. He has been described as a gifted athlete, musician, and poet. A loyal Catholic, he published a treatise in 1521 which opposed the doctrines of Martin Luther which so impressed the Pope that he awarded Henry the title, Defender of the Faith. English Monarchs still use the title to this day. The only thing more imposing than Henrys talent was his ego. He did not take no for an answer. He kept at least two mistresses by whom he had illegitimate children, and was something of a glutton. By the time of his death in 1527, he weighed over 300 pounds. The table at which he dined was cut in an inverse oval to allow room for his prodigious belly. Among his more dubious contributions to society, Henry is the King of Hearts on playing cards.

Henry was married to Catherine for twenty-four years. She became pregnant five times, but all her children save one were either stillborn, or died shortly after birth. Her sole surviving child was a daughter, Mary (b. 1516). Henry was not comfortable with a female heir apparent. He felt that it was necessary to have a son if the Tudor line was to be considered legitimate. Divorce seemed to be the only solution; however divorce was not allowed under Roman Catholicism. The only solution was to have the marriage annulled (to say that it never legally existed.)

Henry VIII could not produce a son with his wife Catherine, and that will present major problems for England.

To facilitate the annulment, Henry and his lawyers decided, conveniently, that the marriage of Catherine to Arthur had in fact been consummated, and Henry had sinned by marrying his brothers wife. The Princess Mary apparently did not count as a child. To further complicate matters, Henry had become attracted toAnne Boleyn. He had previously had a child by Annes sister, but Anne was not so easily conquered. She kept him begging for five years, and eventually secured a promise of marriage before sharing his bed.

Fate then intervened. The Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, sacked Rome in the summer of 1527, and the Pope, Clement VII, was a virtual prisoner. Charles was the nephew of Catherine of Aragon, and Catherine had made it known that she opposed the divorce. A devoutly religious woman, she was appalled at Henrys suggestion that they had been living in sin. Charles had no intention of allowing the Pope to disgrace his aunt. Additionally, Pope Clement was already reluctant to grant the annulment, as it would mean that the dispensation granted by his predecessor, Julius II, was wrong. Despite the delicate situation, Henrys advisor Thomas Cramner pronounced the dissolution of Henrys marriage to Catherine, and celebrated the marriage of Henry to Anne, who was pregnant at the time.

Although Catherine had been immensely popular in England, Henry was aided by the efforts ofThomas Cromwell, a lawyer. It was Cromwell who suggested to Henry that as King of all England, he should also be supreme head of the Church in England. To make the separation from Rome legal, he proposed several laws passed by Parliament, the most important of which was the Act of Supremacy, which made Henry head of the Church of England.

Cromwell also was instrumental in turning public opinion against the established church. Instances of church corruption were well publicized, and exaggerated if it suited his purpose. Cromwell used the growing unpopularity of the Catholic church as an excuse to seize the wealth of the church in England. Five hundred monasteries were closed, and their lands ceded to the Crown, the largest transfer of English real estate since the Norman Invasion of 1066. Cromwell justified his actions by complaining of the corruption of the monasteries. He accused the monks of a variety of sins, including secret, solitary vice. Yet monks were still required to keep their vows.

Closing the monasteries did result in a rebellion in northern England, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace. It was not as organized or as great a threat as the German Peasants Revolt, but Henry put it down with equal severity.

Henrys problemsand marriageswere not over. The child whom Anne Boleyn carried turned out to be a red haired, blue eyed girl. Henry was so disappointed, he refused to kiss his daughter until she was christened, some months later. The child was named Elizabeth, after Annes mother, and later was Queen Elizabeth I. Anne had several more children, but like Catherine, they were all either stillborn or died shortly after birth. Henry was getting up in age, and increasingly desperate for a male heir that he believed Anne would not give him. He could not annul his marriage to Anne as he had Catherineit would have been too convenient an excuseso he instead accused her of adultery. Witnesses were forced under torture to admit to an adulterous relationship. Among those accused was Annes own brother. Existing evidence makes it highly doubtful that Anne, pious and religious, was every unfaithful to Henry; however Adultery was a convenient excuse. Anne was convicted and beheaded inside the Tower of London on May 19, 1536.

Henry went on to marry four more women, starting with Jane Seymour. Fortunately, Jane produced a son named Edward, but she died in childbirth. Henry ultimately died in 1547, after a long illness. He had suffered several strokes, and had very painful ulcers on his legs. Because of his weight and other indications, there is some argument that he died of diabetes.

Despite often being portrayed as incredibly beautiful, Anne Boleyn was not known for her looks, but rather her brains.

Edward VIBecame King on the death of his father, but was only ten years old, and in poor health. England was actually ruled by a council of regents, the most powerful of whom was his uncle, Edward Seymour. Seymour was particularly aggressive in moving England more toward Protestantism. To secure his position, he arranged the marriage of his brother, Thomas, to the late kings widow. He fell from grace when he was found kissing the Edwards half sister Elizabeth, then fourteen, in a more than stepfatherly fashion. His romping with Elizabeth caused her stepmother to send her away to a more protected environment. Edward himself only lived five more years, and died at fifteen, the same age at which his uncle Arthur died.

While Edward was King, Thomas Cranmer issued theBook of Common Prayerfor the Anglican Church. The Book was intended to standardize worship in the Church of England and, in a way, allow the government to exercise greater control over religious life and morality. The church exists in America as the Episcopal Church. Additionally, an English version of the Bible was published.

Protestantism in Ireland

The English reformation exacerbated the traditional bitter hatred of all things English by the Irish. This hatred was not helped by the attitude of the English monarchy to all things Irish. Henry VIII had stated his desire to "reduce that realm to the knowledge of God and obedience to us." In the sixteenth century, the Irish were considered "barbarians" and a policy of complete extermination was considered. It was ultimately abandoned only because "to enterprise (that is, "attempt") the whole extirpation and total destruction of all the Irishmen in the land would be a marvelous sumptious charge and great difficulty." Translation: it would cost too much.

In 1536, the Irish Parliament, acting on orders from London, approved laws affecting theseverance of the Irish church from Rome and declaring the King of England as head of the church. Monasteries were closed, Catholic property confiscated and sold, and the profits sent to England. However, the Irish populace remained defiantly Roman Catholic, if for no other reason, to spite their hated English overlords. Irish Catholicism was soon synonymous with Irish nationalism.

CORNELL NOTES QUESTIONS

1) In what ways did the Anabaptists and John Calvin explain how the church (not Catholic) should be more important than the state (govt)?

2) Describe Calvins philosophy of predestination.

3) Why did Henry VIII split from the Catholic Church? What did the Church look like in England after the split?