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A CDA ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BROCHURE DISCOURSE 1

Pennsylvania State University

College of the Liberal Arts

Department of Applied Linguistics

A Critical Discourse Analysis of Travel Brochure Discourse: STA Travel & Trailfinders

A Paper in

Teaching English as a Second Language

By

Erica Stabley

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements

For the Degree of

Master of Arts

December 2014


The following faculty members approve the MA paper entitled A Critical Discourse Analysis of

Travel Brochure Discourse: STA Travel & Trailfinders written by Erica Stabley:

________________________________ ____________________Susan G. Strauss, Ph.D. DateAssociate Professor of Applied Linguistics, Asian Studies, Education, Linguistics

________________________________ ____________________Deryn P. Verity, Ph.D. DateDirector of ESL/EAP Programs and Senior Lecturer in Applied Linguistics


Acknowledgements

I cannot express enough gratitude for my committee who contributed their energy, effort,

and support in helping me accomplish the writing of this paper. Thank you to Dr. Susan P.

Strauss, my advisor, who took the time out of her busy life and schedule to help me complete this

paper in a condensed amount of time and offered her support and encouragement throughout the

process. Also, thank you to Dr. Deryn P. Verity, my committee member, for her advice, support,

and encouragement. I am incredibly grateful to also have had the opportunity to have both Dr.

Strauss and Dr. Verity as professors during my experience in Penn State’s MA TESL program.

Thank you also to my family and friends who pushed me and encouraged me through a stressful

time.

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Abstract

This paper explores the persuasive genre of tourism advertising through a critical discourse

analysis approach in order to investigate the online travel brochures of two different travel

companies: STA Travel & Trailfinders. All types of travel brochures aim to persuade or

convince potential travelers to choose the experience or destination being promoted and use

similar strategies to do so; however, in order to be successful in such a competitive tourism

market, travel companies often orient their brochures to target particular social groups. Different

social groups are characterized by specific motivations, desires, beliefs, and choices, which

create and shape identities. Ultimately, people will choose consumption activities that agree

with these identities. Travel brochures use this relationship as a persuasive strategy and align

their discursive features and the particular type of travel being promoted to the identities of

different social groups. A critical discourse analysis revealed that both STA Travel and

Trailfinders discursively frame their services in order to appeal to a specific target groups’

identities, needs, and motivations underlying their desire to travel. In addition, this analysis

revealed different perceptions of experiencing the unknown and the way these perceptions create

distinctions between “travel” and “tourism” (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 210). STA Travel targets

young, adventurous individuals and promotes experiences as a path towards reshaping existing

identities and gaining a new perspective of the world, placing STA experiences in the ‘travel’

category. Trailfinders, on the other hand, promotes experiences as not necessarily reshaping

identities, but being in alignment with existing identities that are attracted to a standard, superior,

risk-free type of experience. Trailfinders experiences, therefore, were found to agree with those

oriented towards ‘tourism.’


Table of Contents

1. An Analysis of Tourism Brochure Discourse: STA Travel & Trailfinders……………….7

2. Review of Literature……………………………………………………………..............10

2.1 Discourse & Genres……………………………………………………………….....11

2.2 Promotional Genres……………………………………………………………….....11

2.3 Tourism Advertising………………………………………………………………....12

2.4 Travel Brochures………………………………………………………………..........12

2.4 a. Textual elements…………………………………………………………..14

2.5 Identity……………………………………………………………….........................15

2.5 a. Identity: Critical discourse analysis……………………………………….16

2.5 b. Identity: Target group……………………………………………………..17

2.5 c. Identity: Here vs. there…………………………………………………….18

2.5 d. Identity: A new sense of consciousness…………………………………...19

2.5 e. Identity: Travel vs. tourism………………………………………………..20

3. Data & Methodology……………………………………………………………….................23

3.1 Why Travel Brochures? ………………………………………..................................23

3.2 STA Travel & Trailfinders………………………………………………………….. 24

3.3 Critical Discourse Analysis…………………………………………………………..25

3.3 a. Visual Imagery ……………………………………………………………26

3.3 b. Stance of expertise ………………………………………………………..27

3.3 c. Participation framework..……….…………………………………………28

3.3 d. Here vs. there ……….…………………………………………………… 29

4. Data Analysis ……….…………………………………………………………….…………..29

4.1 STA Travel ……….………………………………………………………………….29

4.1 a. Visual imagery……….……………………………………………………30

4.1 b. Stance of expertise….……………………………………………………..31

4.1 c. Participation framework: “we” vs. “you” ……….………………………..34

4.1 d. Here vs. there ……….…………………………………………………….38

4.2 Trailfinders ……….………………………………………………………………………… 44


4.2 a. Visual imagery ……….…………………………………………………………...45

4.2 b. Stance of expertise ……….……………………………………………………….45

4.2 c. Participation framework: “we” vs. “you” ……….………………………………..48

4.2 d. Here vs. there ……….…………………………………………………………….50

5. Findings ……….……………………………………………………………………………...55

5.1 STA & Trailfinders Uncovered ……….…………………………………………….55

5.2 STA Travel ……….………………………………………………………………….55

5.3 Trailfinders Travel ……….………………………………………………………….57

5.4 Travel vs. Tourism ……….………………………………………………………… 58

References ……………………………………………………………………………………….61

Appendix A………………………………………………………………………………………65

Appendix B………………………………………………………………………………………66


1. An Analysis of Tourism Brochure Discourse: STA Travel & Trailfinders

Explosions in mass media and advancements in technology have made the world a

communication playground and have enabled constant engagement with other cultures and

societies. In a world where communication is always accessible and where everyone is always

connected, the desire to travel, see, and experience a world other than one’s own has become

increasingly popular. As a result, the tourism industry has seen great expansion which has

created a complex and competitive global market for tourism companies. Within this competitive

market, effective tourism advertising is a critical part of making companies stand out from one

another and have success (Morgan & Pritchard, 2000).

One of the most prominent forms of tourism advertising includes the use of travel

brochures (Molina & Esteban, 2006; Wicks & Schuett, 1991). Travel brochures are especially

important in tourism consumption because, unlike other goods and services, the tourism product

is intangible (Morgan & Pritchard, 2000). Because of the intangible nature of the tourism

experience, travel brochures employ various strategies that help them attract, persuade, and

convince consumers to ultimately choose the experience they are offering (Salim, Ibrahim, &

Hassan, 2012). One of these persuasive strategies involves targeting particular social groups,

which highlights the role of consumer identity in the realm of tourism consumption.

In order to understand the relationship between self-identity and tourism consumption,

the concept of self-identity first needs to be defined. Bagozzi (2013) defines the self as the “set

of central values, goals, and commitments a person has which are reflected in one’s beliefs,

dispositions, emotions, choices, and personal and group relationships” (p. 255). Bagozzi’s


(2013) general definition of self can be applied to that of self-identity in regard to tourism

consumption. In general, consumption and self are intertwined because an individual chooses

consumption activities that agree with the self (Bagozzi, 2013). Thus, tourism consumption

constitutes one such activity that is chosen specifically because it agrees with the self, which

portrays the power of identity when it comes to tourism consumption.

Travel brochures constitute a major source of persuasion in tourism consumption and

utilize the relationship between identity and tourism consumption to help them accomplish

persuasion. Particular “subgroups of society” are formed when an individual has similar

commitments to a specific product or consumption and therefore can personally identify with a

source of persuasive communication (Bagozzi, 2013, p. 260). These subgroups are reflective of

individual perspectives and attitudes, which form the foundation of consumer identity (Bagozzi,

2013). By presenting destinations in a particular way that subgroups or target groups will

identify with, travel brochures can better convince their target group to choose the destination

they are promoting. This makes them a powerful, persuasive tool in the promotion of tourism

consumption.

In addition to promoting acts of travel as being in alignment with particular identities, the

consumption of travel and the experience of the ‘other’ is also promoted as means to a new,

reformed identity. Bagozzi (2013) explains that, in general, consumption activities have been

seen to lead to a transformation of self or a shift in attitude. This is possible because individual

attitudes are influenced by the need or desire to gain something, having common values or goals

with a source of persuasive communication, and acting in a way that establishes or maintains a

self-defining relationship with a source of persuasive communication (Bagozzi, 2013, p. 259). In

addition, Galani-Moutafi (2000) argues that when it comes to experiencing the unknown or


unfamiliar one can reach a self-realization. Travel brochures present their destinations in a way

that outlines shared goals or values of a particular target group which ultimately influences their

desire to take part in that destination. Once potential travelers commit to experiencing the

known, the overall experience is presented as a means to reshaping identities or gaining new

identities.

Although all types of travel are portrayed as a means to a new identity, the extent to

which travel is seen as creating new identities brings up the distinction between “tourism” and

“travel” (Galani-Moutafi, 2000). This distinction is a result of the concept of authenticity in

regard to the experience of the unknown. Handler and Saxton (1988) define authentic

experiences as those where the individual encounters both a “real world” and their “real selves”

(p. 243). Although all experiences involve the unknown, ‘tourism’ experiences are often

promoted in a way that agrees with touristic representations and expectations of destinations,

which limits authenticity (Wang, 1999). To avoid the inauthentic nature of tourism experiences,

many experiences are promoted as ‘travel’ experiences, which involves adventure, risk, and

challenge as well as an authentic experience of the unknown (Galani-Moutafi, 2000). ‘Travel’

experiences are viewed as a means of transforming one’s view of the world (Galani-Moutafi,

2000), therefore having greater potential to reform self-identities or gain new identities.

Overall, the notion of consumer identity becomes particularly salient when it comes to

persuading potential travelers to choose the experiences advertised in travel brochures, and

influences discursive features, the type of travel being promoted, and the precise way that travel

is represented and constructed within brochures (Desforges, 2000; Salim et al., 2012). Desforges

(2000) suggests that the “notion of self-identity… can be used to understand tourism

consumption…and provides a way into addressing many ongoing questions within such studies:


questions about motivation, practices, destination choice, and the politics of tourism” (p.926).

Delving into the notion of consumer identity within tourism brochures can therefore serve as a

holistic way of revealing specific characteristics about the participants and actions involved in

tourism experiences. I will analyze travel brochures of two tourism companies, which are STA

Travel and Trailfinders, in order to elucidate how travel and tourism companies discursively

frame their products and services to appeal to the various facets of their prospective travelers’

identities, needs, and motivations underlying their desire to travel.

2. Review of Literature

2.1 Discourse & Genres

Language forms the basis of human interaction and plays a major role in making our

interactions have meaning. Language allows people to express, question, learn, understand, think

critically, and see the world through various lenses with various intentions. Language is what

allows us to be social beings and the way we interpret, react to, and perceive language is a result

of the overarching social system of discourse (Strauss & Feiz, 2014). “Discourse is an extremely

complex process, comprised of many interacting components…it arises out of mental constructs

that interact with, for example, the psychological, social, cultural, situational, political, and

personal aspects of life” (Chimombo & Roseberry, 1998, p. x). Discourse is the “social and

cognitive process of putting the world into words, of transforming our perceptions, experiences,

emotions, understandings, and desires into a common medium for expression and

communication, through language and other semiotic media” (Strauss & Feiz, 2014, p.2). Many

types of discourses exist, all of which are socially bound and constructed to have rules,

structures, and expectations.


All of discourse is organized and structured around the notion of the genre, which allows

people to recognize, organize, and understand the patterns that form the foundation of “putting

the world into words” (Strauss & Feiz, 2014, p.2). Thurlow and Jaworski (2005) implement the

view of Swales (1990) to define and characterize genre by: (a) its central purpose; (b) its content

and form; and (c) the larger discourse community (p. 582). Strauss and Feiz (2014) define genre

as containing “recognizable discursive patterns for the conveyance of essential propositional

context to some form of audience or hearer, within a particular context, with a view to

accomplish a particular communicative purpose” (p.52). Genres, therefore, are socially defined

by their communicative purpose (Askehave, 1999; Halmari & Tuija, 2005; Strauss & Feiz, 2014;

Swales, 1990; Thurlow & Jaworski, 2005).

2.2 Promotional Genres

Promotional genres are a type of genre that have become prominent in today’s

consumeristic society. Bhatia (2005) explains that because society is centered on consumerism,

the concept of promoting has had a major influence on the function of discourse and genres. This

influence is a result of advances in technology and mass communication, an increased focus on

promotional values in business and other areas, and a generally more competitive drive of

professional and academic activities.

One type of promotional genre is that of advertising. The communicative purpose of the

advertising genre is to inform and promote in order to sell ideas, goods and services to a selected

group of people (Bex, 1993; Bhatia, 2005; Halmari & Tuija, 2005; Strauss & Feiz, 2014;

Thurlow & Jaworski, 2005). The advertising genre contains many different text types, making it

difficult to generalize its exact function, however, all of these text types attempt to bring


attention to and increase consumption of specific goods or services (Bex, 1993). Berger (2004)

describes advertising as a “genre of communication that uses words and images to convince

people exposed to the advertisement to purchase the product or service being promoted” (p. 71).

Thus, advertising informs and persuades in order to accomplish this goal (Salim et al., 2012).

Generally speaking, no matter what the product or service, the underlying objectives of

advertising remain the same.

2.3 Tourism Advertising

In accordance with the general objectives of advertising, the objectives of tourism

advertising attempt to convince people to purchase a specific travel experience or service. More

specifically, tourism advertising attempts to “persuade, attract, encourage, and seduce” potential

tourists to become tourists (Salim et al., 2012, p. 136). In order to convince potential tourists to

become tourists, tourism advertising utilizes persuasive, promotional strategies. Promotional

strategies are especially important when it comes to tourism advertising because tourism is an

intangible product, unlike other goods and services. “Clearly, you cannot test-drive a holiday

beforehand, and thus, promotion becomes critical, having a greater role in establishing the nature

of the product than in most other markets” (Morgan & Pritchard, 2000, p.10). Morgan and

Pritchard (2000) explain how tourism experiences are constructed in our imagination, therefore,

tourism marketing constitutes the selling of dreams or the creation of an “atmosphere” (p. 10).

These promotional strategies aim to make the travel experience appear more tangible and within

the potential traveler’s reach.

2.4 Travel Brochures


To create this atmosphere and persuade people to choose the intangible product, tourism

advertising utilizes various types of promotional media. These types of media include brochures,

websites, posters, and other media advertising (Berger, 2004). Travel brochures constitute one of

the most important and widely used types of promotional media. When people are searching for

a potential vacation or trip, the sources of information they find will ultimately influence the

decision making process, which increases the significance of travel brochures (Molina &

Esteban, 2006; Wicks & Schuett, 1991). Thus, in order to play an active role in the decision

making process, travel brochures must be able to successfully persuade readers of the destination

they are promoting.

To achieve the act of persuasion, travel brochures utilize both images and words,

therefore making them multimodal (Francesconi, 2014; Salim et al., 2012). Kress (2010)

explains how “multimodality” has become the “normal state of communication,” which is the

result of social, economic, cultural, and technological influences on the dynamic world of

communication (p.2). Multimodality includes using images, writing, and color to convey

meaning and messages (Kress, 2010). Francesconi (2014) defines multimodality as involving

written language, typography, images, graphic design, and a specific layout to present a

destination. Van Leeuwen (2005) has also made important contributions to the concept of

multimodality and explains that “images are also used to do things to or for or with people: to

persuade (advertisements), instruct (patterns for dress making), explain (diagrams in textbooks),

warn (image of skull and crossbones on a door), and so on” (p.120). In regard to travel

brochures, images are used to persuade people of a specific destination or experience and make it

seems like the experience is within the reader’s grasp. “The primary role of the image in these


texts is undeniable and the multimodal generic structures contribute to attract the attention,

stimulate interest, seduce and above all, convince” (Caldas-Coulthard, 2008, p.453).

The multimodal characteristic of travel brochures makes them that much more influential

because multimodality “fulfills a plurality of semiotic, cognitive, and emotional functions: it

captures the reader’s attention and engenders a positive mood and a pleasant psychological

attitude” (Francesconi, 2014, p. 6). These multimodal, persuasive strategies, where images

interact with “euphoric and laudatory language,” are especially powerful in tourism brochures

because the reader is able to visualize the destination (Francesconi, 2012, p. 35). In addition,

because of advances in technology, travel brochures can easily utilize multimodal strategies,

resulting in a shift towards web-based brochures. This is especially advantageous in a society

that is highly dependent on and influenced by the visual. Online brochures create an interactive

experience through a visual focus which includes pictures, maps, and images (Francesconi,

2014). Multimodal strategies allow online brochures to holistically represent the destination they

are promoting, which ultimately creates a more remembered reading experience for the potential

tourist and gives the destination an attractive force.

Salim et al., (2012) show that although the visual has been seen as an important aspect of

tourism media, the best way to analyze the effects of tourism brochures is to take into account

both language and multimodal elements of communication.

2.4 a. Textual elements

The overall goal of tourism brochures is to accomplish persuasion, thus, in addition to

visual features, discursive features also point towards this goal. Travel brochure writers use

certain linguistic techniques and consciously choose language that will attract and convince


potential tourists. As cited by Hassan, Habil, and Nassir (2008), Stamous and Paraskevopoulous

(2004) found that the concepts of “pleasure, impressiveness, and recreational” shape tourism

discourse (p. 6). Dann (1996) states that, in regard to tourism brochures, “we never come across

what is average or normal. The discourse of tourism is a form of extreme language” (p.65). The

language of tourism brochures attempts to paint a vivid picture for the reader and specific

techniques are employed in order to make this picture seem realistic and desirable.

Some of these discursive techniques include the use of adjectives, emphatic choices of

words and sentences, metaphors, epithets, hyperboles and other stylistic devices (Dann, 1996).

Various studies focus on the different ways travel brochures use linguistic strategies to

accomplish persuasion. For example, Mocini (2005) highlights how colorful verbal descriptions

and alluring expressions are specifically used to create a “highly emotive experience” and make

the reader feel as though they are part of the world represented in the brochure (p. 157).

All travel brochures employ similar multimodal and linguistic strategies to accomplish

the act of persuasion and convince readers to become tourists. The existence of a vast amount of

travel companies, types of travel experiences, and types of destinations, however, makes for an

incredibly competitive tourism market. In order to situate themselves in a niche and thrive in

such a competitive market, travel brochures often target specific groups of people, which is also

represented within the linguistic and visual features.

2.5 Identity

To help them accomplish persuasion, travel brochures target specific groups of people,

which is possible because of the concept of consumer identity in regard to tourism consumption.

Bagozzi’s (2013) definition of the self is applicable to the concept of identity for the purpose of


this analysis. Bagozzi (2013) defines the self as the “set of central values, goals, and

commitments a person has which are reflected in one’s beliefs, dispositions, emotions, choices,

and personal and group relationships” (p. 255). Consumption and self are intertwined consumer

identity is salient when it comes to travel consumption because of “consumption begins and ends

with the self” (Bagozzi, 2013). The act of travel is a consumption activity and specific acts of

travel are chosen by travelers because they align with the self and identity, which brings travelers

closer to the experience within travel brochure. As a result of being able to personally identify

with travel brochures, which are a source of persuasive communication, and also having similar

commitments to the specific act of travel, particular “subgroups” or target groups are formed

(Bagozzi, 2013, p. 260). These target groups are reflective of individual perspectives and

attitudes, which form the foundation of traveler identity. By presenting destinations in a

particular way that subgroups or target groups will identify with, tourism brochures become a

persuasive, powerful tool in tourism consumption.

Salim et al., (2012) explain that various studies on tourism advertising have highlighted

specific advertising strategies that are used within language, visual image, representation and

identity. Identity is particular important because it can be used to understand tourism

consumption, including the reasons behind the act of travel (Desforges, 2000). Desforges (2000)

suggests “thinking and talking about self-identity provides a way into addressing many ongoing

questions within such studies: questions about motivation, practices, destination choice, and the

politics of tourism” (p.926). Identity, therefore, is especially important when it comes to tourism

advertising and an analysis of the way that travel brochures use identity to attract specific groups

of people can reveal the reasons behind destination choice, motivation, and the desire to travel.

2.5 a. Identity: Critical discourse analysis


The relationship between tourism consumption and identity highlights the social

influence on discourse and genres. In order to better understand the social relationship between

tourism consumption and identity, a critical discourse analysis approach will be implemented.

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is an analysis approach that centers on discourse as social

practice and accounts the relationships between text, talk, social cognition, power, society and

culture (Van Dijk, 1993, p. 253). It highlights the fact that certain forms of discourse and

meanings may have more influence on people and their mental representations (Van Dijk, 1993).

This approach is applicable to an analysis of tourism brochures because of the way that travel

relates to the overarching issue of identity, which is socially driven concept. CDA is an approach

that takes into account the stances and identities that are underlying in the discourse (Strauss &

Feiz, 2014). Thus, a CDA approach will lead to a more thorough understanding of the semiotics

within tourism brochures and how they are inextricably linked to the social world.

Identity is a constant theme throughout travel brochures and is built upon as the reader

connects with the text. The overarching issue of identity is used to accomplish the act of

persuasion in various ways: 1. by initially attracting a target group using specific linguistic and

visual features that the target group can identify with (Hiippala, 2007); 2. in distinguishing

between the “self” and the “other” and the “here” and the “there” (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 205);

and 3. in illustrating that by way of travel and experiencing the ‘other’ and the ‘there,’ new,

reformed identities are created (Galani-Moutafi, 2000).

2.5 b. Identity: Target group

Part of the persuasion process involves establishing connections with individuals in order

to bring them closer to the text and visual. In order to make this persuasive element even more


powerful, different brochure companies attempt to attract specific social groups of people, which

allows travel brochures to more accurately meet the individual’s needs (Hiippala, 2007). This is

possible because discourses are inextricably linked to the social world and texts have an effect on

people’s beliefs, attitudes, actions and social relations (Fairclough, 2003). According to

Fairclough (2003), “different discourses are different perspectives on the world and they are

associated with different relations people have to the world, which in turn depends on their

positions to the world, their social and personal identities, and the social relationships in which

they stand to other people” (p. 124). In this sense, particular types off travel brochures attempt to

persuade different socio-cultural groups, which are characterized by identity.

Discursive and visual elements of travel brochures are used to align the identity of the

targeted social group with the act of travel that is being presented. On the surface, travel

brochures use similar elements to align identities; however, a deeper analysis shows that these

elements are adapted according to the target group (Hiippala, 2007). For example, Hiippala

(2007) explains that a brochure intended for young backpackers would tailor the content

according to “youth culture,” which may involve highlighting night clubs or an affordable

experience (p. 5). Linguistic strategies, therefore, are used as a way to “project a particular

lifestyle associated with a particular social identity that has particular values” (Caldas-Coulthard,

2008, p. 454). In addition, the multimodal structure of travel brochures allows them to be more

persuasive because images are intentionally chosen for a particular target group. As a result,

travel brochures become even more influential because the target group’s identity is represented

and those in the target group can visualize themselves as a part of the images being represented

(Caldas-Coulthard, 2008; Molina & Esteban, 2006).


Once travel brochure establish the initial connection with potential travelers by way of

identity, they can successfully advertise the experience or destination as a means of escape from

the potential traveler’s daily routine.

2.5 c. Identity: Here vs. there

Once an individual feels connected with the text, they begin to visualize themselves as

being part of the promoted experience. Travel brochures can then successfully provide a contrast

between the potential traveler’s current world and that of a travel world. Travel brochures show

the reader how “ordinary places” can be remade into “extraordinary tourist worlds” (Hummon,

1988, p. 181). Thus, identity is used as a way to distinguish between an individual’s current

world and that of a travel world.

For a place to be considered even more worthwhile to travel to, it must be presented in a

way that differs from the familiar. To persuade potential travelers that this is the case, travel

brochures present destinations as being different from the familiar in every way, which creates a

distinction between what Galani-Moutafi (2000) refers to as the “here” and the “there” (p. 205).

Tourism brochures advertise the “there” as an “exotic” world that contains what is missing in

one’s everyday life and it is through this exotic world that potential travelers will realize their

“imaginative journey” (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 212).

The ‘there’ is an opportunity for potential travelers to step outside of the life that they are

accustomed to, which becomes an alluring, attractive force and helps travel brochures

accomplish the act of persuasion. Travel brochures use specific linguistic features to create an

image in the reader’s mind; one that is undeniable and necessary for the distinction between the

‘here’ and the ‘there’. Since travel brochures target different groups of people, the ‘there’ is


promoted in a way that agrees with the identity of the target group. Once again, when the reader

can see themselves as part of the image of the ‘there,’ it makes travel brochures that much more

persuasive (Caldas-Coulthard, 2008; Molina & Esteban, 2006).

2.5 d. Identity: A new sense of consciousness

Because of the distinction between the ‘here’ and the ‘there,’ travel provides people with

an experience that contrasts that of the familiar, which may potentially result in a reformation of

self or consciousness. Once travel brochures connect with an individual’s current identity, they

can show how experiencing the unfamiliar has the potential to give travelers a new way of

looking at the world. Thus, the reader not only connects with the ‘there’ that is being presented,

but can visualize themselves gaining a new, reformed identity as a result of travel. The

distinction between the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ becomes a way for the potential traveler to begin to

re-imagine the self (Desforges, 2000, p. 932).

Desforges (2000) describes how the idea of “personhood” indicates the type of person

tourists want to become and the act of travel will lead tourists to this. Thus, travel is presented as

a way to transform the self into the type of person tourists want to become (Desforges, 2000;

Galani-Moutafi, 2000). This process of self-transformation or self-discovery results from “gazing

into the elsewhere and the other” (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 203). That is, new identities are

formed in relation to the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ and the “self” and the “other” (Galani-Moutafi,

2000, p. 203). By experiencing something that is different or unfamiliar in relation to what is

known, Galani-Moutafi, (2000) argues that one can reach a self-realization. Travel brochures

promote the travel experience as a way for potential travelers to reach this self-realization, which

makes them that much more persuasive.


2.5 e. Identity: Travel vs. tourism

Experiencing the ‘there’ and the ‘other’ is promoted as having the potential to reshape

individual identities, however, the particular way these concepts are viewed and situated yields

different representations of these identities. This brings up the significance of distinguishing

between “travel” and “tourism” (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 210). Galani-Moutafi, (2000)

describes travel as a way to re-imagine the self and being associated with the “values of

discernment, respect and taste,” while tourism may be seen as “unadventurous and lacking” (p.

210). The differences between tourism and travel are a result of the way the ‘there’ and the

‘other’ is represented and constructed. Tourism acts are meant to stimulate the senses of the

reader in every possible way and present a world that is more exciting than anything that the

reader is currently living. The discourse in tourism, therefore, reflects the ‘there’ and the ‘other’

as being associated with pleasure and play, which may disagree with the authenticity of the

experience (Galani-Moutafi, 2000).

Handler and Saxton (1988) define authentic experiences as those where the individual

encounters both a “real world” and their “real selves” (p. 243). In regard to tourism, experiences

are promoted as authentic, however, the authenticity of these experiences is often socially

constructed by certain perspectives and expectations. As a result, the “toured objects” that

tourists are experiencing may not be as authentic as what they may believe them to be (Wang,

1999, p.351). As cited by Wang (1999), this brings up the notion of “staged authenticity” which

MacCannell (1993) explains is a result of touristic expectations and representations of

destinations (p. 351). Although tourism texts ensure that the tourist will become a different

person and will return with a total transformation of self, they do so within the boundaries of the

expectations of the tourist (Bruner, 1991). Agreeing with Bruner (1991), Rojek (1993) explains,


that “while travel is seen as a resource in the endeavor of self-realization, tourism is considered

to actually confirm one's view of the world rather than transforming it (as cited in Galani-

Moutafi, 2000, p. 210).

To avoid what may be considered as inauthentic experiences, many tourism experiences

are purposely promoted as “travel” experiences. According to Galani-Moutafi, (2000) the

“traveler” seeks the experience of ‘travel’ and the ‘other’ because it involves adventure,

challenges, and a potentially more uncomfortable form of travel (p. 220). According to Elsrud

(2001), travelers are seen as desiring the “off-the-beaten-track” type of travel, which does not

entail the comforts and luxuries that tourists would enjoy and instead involves risk and

adventure. Experiencing risk and adventure is proposed as a way to attain greater self-

fulfillment (Elsrud, 2001). During these acts of risk, travelers are confronted by the unfamiliar in

every way, including people, places, and situations. Experiencing the ‘other’ in this way is highly

valuable for travelers because of its potential to build a new self-identity. Travel is also seen as

“embedded in education” because of the traveler’s desire to gain a deeper insight into another

culture (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 210). Educational opportunities may include traveling and

living with host families (Galani-Moutafi, 2000, p. 211).

The possibility of reforming old identities and gaining new identities is an underlying

theme of travel brochures. Travel brochures are not only selling a destination, but are ultimately

selling the identities that go hand in hand with experiencing the destination. As a result, identity

serves as a way for brochures to stand out from one another and to attract specific social groups.

Different tourism brochures offer experiences and destinations that may fit into the different

realms of what it means to be a tourist versus a traveler. There are certain identities that are

constructed because of these differences, which are reflected in discursive and linguistic features


of brochures. As a result, examining the discourse of different types of tourism brochures may

reveal whether travel or tourism is being advertised, which correlate with the overarching theme

of identity. A careful analysis can also reveal what the potential traveler is hoping to gain from

the act of travel they choose to participate in, whether that act is in accordance with travel or

tourism.

3. Data & Methodology

3.1 Why Travel Brochures?

The goal of tourism advertising is to present a type of travel, destination, or experience

that potential travelers will ultimately choose. Since tourism experiences are not a tangible

product, the role of tourism brochures is especially significant in the realm of tourism

advertising. Thus, one of the main functions of a travel brochure is to present an experience that

people can identify with, connect with, and visualize becoming a part of. The act of traveling to a

foreign place can be presented as being completely different from anything the potential traveler

has previously experienced, which gives travel brochure companies a certain authority and

influence. This authority allows them to present their expertise, which is persuasive and

convincing. The experiences that are being offered are not only euphoric and attractive, but are

presented as being a source of newfound self-awareness or self-consciousness. Travel brochure

companies present destinations as the means to a new identity, one that can be realized with their

support, expert opinion, and knowledge base. Thus, throughout the entire act of travel, from the


presentation of the destination to a newfound identity, travel brochures maintain a significant and

irreplaceable role.

All travel brochures ultimately aim to persuade potential travelers to travel and similarly

do so through persuasion. Although travel brochures have the same ultimate goal, they differ in

the type of experience they are promoting and the specific group of people they are targeting. In

order to attract a specific group of people, the linguistic and visual features within travel

brochures are adapted according to that group. In this sense, particular types of travel brochures

attempt to persuade different socio-cultural groups, and do so through the overarching issue of

identity. Although similar discursive strategies are used to sell travel services and accomplish the

ultimate goal of persuasion, the language within is reflective of the target group.

Specific discursive features are used to connect with the intended target group and to

present a type of travel that the target group can identify with and gain a new identity from doing

so. Thus, a deeper analysis of these features can reveal characteristics of the target group, which

may be connected to their ultimate reason for travelling as well as the type of travel they choose.

For this analysis, the brochures of two different online travel companies will be investigated in

order to reveal how persuasion is accomplished by way of specific linguistic features and

through an underlying theme of identity.

3.2 STA and Trailfinders

The data for this analysis will be taken from two online travel companies: STA Travel,

hereafter referred to as STA, and Trailfinders. All data was accessed in the spring of 2014. STA,

created in 1979, specializes in global travel and aims to advise young people and students on

holidays and adventures abroad. Their mission statement is “Bringing You Face-to-Face with the


World.” STA provides brochures for nearly every area of the world, including Asia, Australia

and New Zealand, Europe, Latin America, Africa and the Middle East, and North America. In

addition, they provide brochures that highlight other forms of travel, which can be found on their

website and include “Travel with Purpose,” “Round the World,” and “Educate through Travel.”

Trailfinders was founded in 1970. The company frames itself as experts in tailor-making

itineraries worldwide. Like STA, Trailfinders offers a variety of trip services including trip

planning, flight, hotel, destination, packaged deals, and travel insurance. They provide online

brochures on Asia, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, North America and South America.

Trailfinders’ mission statement which is found on their website is “to always exceed the

expectations of our clients, staff and suppliers.”

The focus of this analysis will encompass various travel brochures that are offered by

each of these travel companies. Although both travel companies provide brochures for nearly

every country in the world and offer similar destination choices, an analysis of the discursive

features can reveal the differences at play in regard to identity, persuasion, and travel. A Critical

Discourse Analysis, hereon referred as CDA, approach will be used. The theoretical framework

for this analysis is based mainly on the semiotics of the text.

3.3 Critical Discourse Analysis

CDA centers on discourse as social practice and requires an account of the relationships

between text, talk, social cognition, power, society and culture (Van Dijk, 1993, p. 253). CDA

describes discourse as being shaped by and as shaping social situations, social institutions, and

social structure and takes into account the identities of people and groups and the relationships

between people and groups (Van Dijk, 2005). Because discourse is socially shaped, CDA


highlights that discursive practices may have ideological effects and bring up issues of power

between social groups.

Differences in power between social groups result in people being more inclined to

accept beliefs, knowledge, and opinions from what are considered credible sources, which

includes scholars, experts, and professionals (Van Dijk, 2005). Certain forms and meanings of

discourse then may have more influence on people and their mental representations. Thus,

specific forms of discourse are used specifically to persuade people, which pertains to the

discourse found in travel brochures and the ultimate goal of persuasion.

According to Strauss and Feiz (2014), CDA is a “micro-based analysis of discourse in

that it takes into account patterns of linguistic features, including adverbs, verbs of knowing and

understanding, pronouns of inclusion, pronouns of exclusion, metaphoric figurative language and

other stance-marking features” (p. 316). CDA is an approach that takes into account the stances

and identities that are underlying in the discourse (Strauss & Feiz, 2014). This approach is

applicable to an analysis of tourism brochures because of the way that travel relates to the

overarching issue of identity, which is socially driven. Thus, a CDA approach will lead to a more

holistic understanding of the semiotics at play because it envelops the larger social world.

The functions of tourism brochures have underlying themes of identity and persuasion in

the discourse and a CDA approach reveals these specific motivations (Strauss & Feiz, 2014).

This approach will lead to a better understanding of the inner workings of the discourse and the

patterns of linguistic features within both companies’ brochures. These linguistic features

include: visual imagery, stance of expertise, participation framework, and a comparison of the


here and the there. These four categories act as techniques or strategies that help travel brochures

to accomplish persuasion, but may be tailored to a specific audience or target group.

3.3 a. Visual imagery

The multimodal nature of travel brochures is especially influential because use of images

results in a stronger connection between the act of travel, the destination, the reader, and the

travel company (Caldas-Coulthard, 2008; Francesconi, 2014; Hiippala, 2007; Kress, 2010;

Molina & Esteban, 2006; van Leeuwen, 2005). In order for potential travelers to relate to the

images found in a specific brochure, the images must be adapted to fit their beliefs, perspectives,

or motivations. Thus, an analysis of the images found in STA and Trailfinders brochures should

reveal certain characteristics of the target group as well as the type of identity they will gain from

the act of travel.

3.3 b. Stance of expertise

From a CDA perspective, taking on a stance of expertise is an important part of the

persuasion process when it comes influencing mental representations, which is possible because

differences in power between groups (Van Dijk, 2005). Stance is the “speaker or writer’s feeling,

attitude, perspective, or position as enacted in discourse” (Strauss & Feiz, 2014, p.103). As

previously noted, recipients of discourse are more inclined to accept beliefs or knowledge from a

credible source, thus, travel brochure companies employ an expert stance to help them

accomplish the act of persuasion (Van Dijk, 2005). Ochs (1993) explains how speakers use

verbal or stance acts to construct their own identities as well as others’ identities, which makes

acts and stances a resource in constructing particular social identities (p. 289). Epistemic stance

is a type of stance that is a result of the particular way participants interact (Goodwin, 2007). It


reflects degrees of certainty or doubt and includes expressions of knowing, thinking, and

believing (Strauss & Feiz, 2014, p. 280). Tourism brochure discourse can easily take on an

epistemic stance because of the distinction between novice and expert travelers.

When it comes to the act of travel, potential travelers lie somewhere along the realm of

novice or expert travelers. If travelers are novice, it becomes especially important for travel

brochure companies to present themselves as the source of stability or expertise. In relation to the

overarching issue of identity, travel brochures attempt to sell a new sense of consciousness or

awareness that is formed by way travel or by becoming an expert traveler, which is influenced by

stance taking. If a travel brochure company orients itself as the expert, potential travelers are

more likely to rely on their expert advice and, thus, are more inclined to picture themselves as

being part of or gaining their new identities. This positions the travel company as the main

resource for the individual to realize their new identity or awareness.

A stance of expertise becomes apparent in the inner workings of the discourse of travel

brochures. As a result, specific discursive features are used to guide potential travelers through

the destination or act of travel that is being presented. Once again, an analysis of these features

can reveal certain characteristics or expectations about the intended target group in regard to

travel.

3.3 c. Participation framework

The concept of participation framework was introduced by Goffman (1981) and is meant

to differentiate between those who are involved in acts of discourse and the way they act in

particular interaction settings. An analysis of participation frameworks will show who is

involved in the discourse. This is crucial when it comes to understanding discourse, especially in


regard to media discourse (Strauss and Feiz, 2014). Since tourism discourse is a form of media or

advertising discourse, an analysis of the participation framework will lead to a deeper

understanding of the larger social interaction between participants.

The participation framework also allows relationships to be formed between the

participants, which in this case involves potential travelers and the travel company (Strauss &

Feiz, 2014). It is set up in a way that contrasts the current identity of reader and the identity that

is presented by the act of travel, which contributes to the overall persuasive element of travel

brochures. In addition, travel brochures differentiate identities of novice and expert travelers,

with the reader standing as the novice traveler and the travel brochure company as the expert

traveler. This gives travel brochure companies even more authority and persuasive power.

3.3 d. Here vs. there

Setting up a contrast between the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ is another strategy that travel

brochures use to add to the power of persuasion (Galani-Moutafi, 2000). The inner workings of

the discourse reveal differences between the potential traveler’s current life and that of the travel

life. The extent that the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ are projected as being different from one another

relate to the type of travel being presented as well as the intended target group. Thus, a deeper

analysis of the discourse can reveal a separation between the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ and the

characteristics of the intended target group.

A distinction between the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ also contributes to the overarching theme

of identity in the sense that a new, unique experience has the potential to change potential

travelers. Once again, travel brochure companies are the expert source and have the ability to

guide potential travelers towards their new sense of consciousness. Overall, an analysis of these


specific discursive features also shows how identity and persuasion act as underlying themes in

travel brochures.

4. Data Analysis

4.1 STA Travel

STA brochures aim to accomplish the act of persuasion by way of an individual’s

personal identity. It becomes apparent that STA is targeting a specific social group, which

includes young adults or university students who are looking for an alternative experience. This

alternative experience, however, offers a more profound possibility, which is gaining a new

identity or new sense of consciousness by way of travel. STA’s goal is to bring potential

travelers “face-to-face” with the world and to alter a traveler’s perspective of the world (STA

Website: About Us). All of the discursive and visual elements point to this and attempt to

persuade readers that their reformed sense of self is knocking on their front door. Thus, STA

promotes the idea that an individual’s current identity has the potential to be exclusively and

positively shaped or transformed by travel.

Why is the identity an individual would gain from traveling from STA different from any

other means of travel? This is where the inner workings of the discourse come into play. STA

reflects their authenticity and distinctiveness through visual imagery, by highlighting their stance

of expertise, by forming a specific participation framework, and describing the notions of the

‘here’ and the ‘there.’ All of these aspects assist in the creation of a new, reformed travel

identity.



Even before the potential traveler begins to read an STA brochure, an alternative identity

is being presented through particular images. The reader is initially drawn in by inspiring images

and the unique layout of the brochure. Creativity is used to activate a certain type of feeling and

emotion. The makers use inviting fonts and colors, which seem to have a life of their own and

make the brochure itself feel like an adventure. Large, artistic fonts are oriented more towards

the creative side, and almost activate a free-spirit feeling, which is a characteristic of the type of

travel that STA is promoting (See Appendix A1).

In addition to the visual characteristics of the words, the images themselves also project a

similar feel. The multimodal nature of an STA travel brochure capture’s the reader’s attention

and allows the reader to visualize the destination (Francesconi, 2014). As readers page through

any of the brochures, they come across various pictures of active young people, who serve as

examples of those who have already chosen to travel with STA. STA purposely choses specific

images that the reader can connect with and, more importantly, that are a direct representation of

his or her individual self. For instance, an image in the Europe brochure shows a group of young

men and women who are smiling and appear to be genuinely enjoying their European experience

while immersing themselves in the culture (See Appendix A2). This image draws potential

travelers in and makes them feel as though they are connected to the experience already because

the group is most likely a direct representation of themselves.

A young, adventurous individual is more likely to be attracted to this unique brochure.

All of the visual aspects of an STA brochure point towards this socio-cultural group and enhance

the promotional power and persuasive ability of STA. As a result, the potential traveler aligns

themselves with the type of travel being presented and can visualize how travel will reshape their

sense of self.



In order for STA to be more convincing and persuasive, STA must take on a stance of

expertise. By setting up a contrast between the experienced STA traveler and the inexperienced

traveler, the reader can clearly see the distinction between their current identity and their desired

identity. Taking on a stance of expertise is twofold, in that it gives STA more persuasion power

and allows STA to be a travel role model, who has already achieved a new perspective of the

world.

Why should the young and adventurous be convinced to travel with STA? STA makes

their expertise and undeniable knowledge base stand out as soon as their brochure is opened. In

the opening statement, STA even goes as far as linking their expertise to human genetics with the

statement: “Adventure…It’s in our DNA” (All Brochures: 2). They continue on to describe how

they love nothing more than getting to know a new culture, which is the “whole reason they set

up STA 35 years ago” (All brochures: 2). From the start, they bring the reader into their world,

which is the world that they have been exploring for the last 35 years. Other phrases, such as

“We practically invented the concept of flying around the world” also underscore STA’s

expertise (All brochures: 7). STA invites the potential traveler to step inside their own personal

discoveries, and makes it apparent that they will generously share their insights, knowledge, and

expertise. As a result, the individual has the opportunity to become part of STA’s world where

they can be taken by the hand and lead towards their new identity.

A stance of expertise is maintained throughout the brochure through the discourse. The

reader may be an inexperienced traveler and therefore is left only with the option of absorbing

the information being presented because of STA’s unquestionable knowledge base. Big, bolded


headings such as “We know because we go!” stand out and underscore their expertise (All

brochures: 5). STA explains: “We listen to our travelers, our expert staff visit faraway places

and use this knowledge to create your very own life-changing experience” (All brochures: 2).

STA’s expert staff have already “been there and done that,” and can therefore assist the

potential traveler in every way possible and become the traveler’s main role model (All

brochures: 4). This gives STA even more authority and persuasion power (See Appendix A3).

STA also uses their authority to eliminate the uncertainty of travel for the reader. The fact

that their destinations and experiences are “hand-picked” and “vetted” by STA expert travelers,

gives the traveler a sense of comfort (All brochures: 5). Travel itself is inherently filled with the

unknown and unfamiliar, which makes STA’s expert opinion far more valuable. By masking the

unknown with their expertise and bringing the potential traveler into a world that STA has

already explored, travelers will be more inclined to choose STA. Above all, the potential traveler

already feels closer to what will become their new identity because they have, more or less,

already partially overcome the hurdle of the unknown.

In regard to stance, particular pieces of the discourse mark epistemic stance and index

certainty of STA’s expertise. STA promises the discovery of a new outlook on life and the world

by travel, but specifically by travelling with STA. They create a feel of certainty through

epistemic stance with phrases such as, “We will make sure you never look at the world in quite

the same way.” The modal verb “will” indexes a high degree of certainty and once again

enhances persuasion. In a section of their brochures called, “Top 10 Reasons to Travel with STA

Travel,” there are various instances of epistemic stance that are indexed through the discourse.

Included in the list are some of the following reasons:


1. “We are the experts.”

2. “We will beat any price…”

3. “We will inspire you…”

4. “We know our stuff when it comes to travel, we’ve been there, done that…”

(All brochures: 5).

Verbs and phrases such as ‘are,’ ‘will,’ ‘know,’ ‘inspire,’ and ‘been there, done that’ all

support the image of expertise and, in turn, greatens STA’s ability to persuade readers that a new

sense of self is inevitable. Once again, these examples show how STA’s expertise is indexed

through the inner workings of the discourse and add to STA’s persuasion power. The potential

traveler can fully depend on STA during the journey of travel.

4.1 c. Participation framework: “we” vs. “you”

The participation framework is also purposely set up in a manner that contrasts the

identity of the reader and that of the STA traveler. The use of the pronouns ‘we’ and ‘you’ are

key in creating this contrast and help form a relationship between the potential traveler and STA.

The entire company of STA, any of its travelers, researchers, or employees are included in the

category of ‘we’ and are therefore placed in the expert category. ‘You’ is directed at the targeted

social group, who are the young and novice travelers. As the expert, STA has already acquired

the preferred travel identity and can therefore take on the role of guiding the individual towards

their desired identity.

In order to convince the individual that they are a part of the ‘you’ who STA will be

guiding towards a new identity, STA must establish a personal connection with the individual. It


is crucial for the reader to see that their individual needs can be fulfilled by the adventures STA

promotes so their desired identity can be seen as achievable. If their individual needs are

accounted for, STA has the ability to play a more powerful role and will become the preferred

guide. STA shows this by describing that they can provide “adventures for all” and that they

will “learn to understand your needs as an individual.” These statements make the individual

feel like a priority, as though the brochure is directed directly at them. Due to their extensive list

of experiences, STA is able to provide a variety of options perfectly suited for the individual:

“To make things much easier for you, we’re giving you our own, very educated opinion

on each property that we feature. We’ve horizontally tangoed with the cool, the

interesting, the enviable, and the luxe to the off the wall to bring you our curated offering

of hostels, hotels, lodges, and apartments, all chosen especially for you” (All brochures:

10).

STA’s own ‘very educated opinion’ and the different groups of people they have

‘tangoed’ with, indicate that STA has already experienced every detail, thus, they are able to

present all available options. The phrases ‘to make things much easier for you’ and ‘all chosen

especially for you,’ place high priority on the individual and create a closer connection. Within

the details of the itinerary descriptions, the experience becomes even more individualized and

has the potential to attract individuals of all kinds. STA attempts to dig into the traveler’s private

mentality:

1. “Perhaps you need to relax…or perhaps you are still raring to go and ready to

explore?” (Latin America: 23).

2. “If you’re feeling particularly energetic…” (Latin America: 23).


3. “Explore the world exactly as you have always dreamed” (Europe: 30).

4. “Thrill seekers have the option to bungee jump…For something a little less hair-

raising…” (Africa: 24).

5. “This is an adventure-lovers nirvana-get your thrills swimming, tubing, or

exploring caves…” (Asia: 27).

The reader feels as though they are part of the ‘you’ being targeted because their every

need seems to be accounted for in the destination descriptions. In addition, use of this pronoun

makes the reader feel even more connected to the emotional and exciting journey and they can

virtually step right in to the act of travel and their desired identity.

Particular verb forms in combination with the pronoun ‘you,’ also individualize the

experience STA is presenting and enrich the relationship between STA and the traveler. These

verb forms include the simple present, modal verbs, and the imperative. The simple present is

purposely used to bring a future and hypothetical experience closer to the individual and make

them feel as though the experience is already occurring:

“Today you jump on board a longtail boat to discover…Cruise down the Mekong by slow

boat watching local life pass you by…” (Asia: 22).

“Explore the jaw-dropping site of Iguassu Falls from not one, but two different countries

with numerous viewpoints…Peer over the edge of the boardwalks and witness the

incredible power of nature…hop on an exhilarating boat tour…” (Latin America: 93).

The simple present creates the illusion of a quick time travel and the potential traveler

can already feel the exhilarating adventure, thus giving them a taste of how their new sense of

awareness will inevitably develop.


In addition to the present tense, the modal verb ‘will’ is also used to describe the future

experience and as indicated in the previous section, indexes epistemic stance. By explicitly

explaining what the individual will do during their adventure, the individual feels even more

certain about the details being presented:

“In the morning of Day 17, you will have guided a tour of Hue’s old Citadel…Next you’ll

cross over the scenic Hai Van Pass on your way to Hoi An, where you’ll stay for three

nights” (Asia: 23).

Similar to the simple present, the use of the modal ‘will’ makes the reader feel like the

journey has already begun and the future experience becomes even more definite. If the reader is

able to visualize the experience, they will ultimately be more convinced to travel with STA.

Along with the simple present and the modal verb ‘will’, the use of the imperative makes

STA’s claims, suggestions, and information much more relevant and direct. Imperative

statements are used as headings and subheadings to draw the reader in, almost as though STA is

speaking directly to them. These statements are especially powerful and rope the individual in

closer to what is being directed. The front cover of the Latin America brochure invites the

individual to peek inside the colorful brochure with statements such as: “Dream Big, Wake

Early, Talk to Strangers, Eat Well, Share Leftovers, and Introduce Friends” (See Appendix A1).

Not only do these statements capture the reader’s attention, but they create the feeling that these

directives can only be accomplished by traveling with STA.

The imperative is used throughout all sections of STA’s brochures, including the

descriptions of destinations and adventures, tips and advice and any other informative sections.

No matter which STA brochure the reader picks up, every page has imperative headings and


subheadings, pulling the reader in further with every piece of the discourse. For instance, in the

Latin America brochure some of these headings include:

1. Save with STA Travel

2. Start the Adventure

3. Make it Happen

4. Sleep with Us

5. Go Smart or Go Home

6. Explore South America

In addition to short imperative statements used as headings, STA also utilizes the

imperative within the travel descriptions or itinerary plans. The itinerary for a day in Lima, Peru

reads:

Arrive into Peru’s capitol city at any time today, relax at your hotel, or head out to

explore some of its vibrant neighborhoods. This evening, meet up with your Chief

Executive Officer (CEO) and the rest of your group to learn about the five weeks’ worth

of adventures that lie ahead! (Latin America: 22).

This imperative theme appears to imbue STA with more authenticity and power. Their

expertise allows them to sound genuine when using the imperative and persuades their readers to

have a certain experience and emotion. Once again, the reader feels as though they are already

experiencing the adventure and can already see how their sense of self is changing. This

particular participation framework creates a positive relationship between STA and the potential

traveler. The pronoun ‘you’ is especially powerful because it allows the reader to connect with

the text and ultimately with STA. In addition, the contrast between ‘we’ (experienced travelers)


and ‘you’ (inexperienced travelers) remains in the back of the reader’s mind, and STA shows

them what it would mean to become a part of the ‘we.’ The use of the present tense, the modal

verb ‘will,’ and the imperative also steer the reader towards their new identity.


Another concept that is crucial in assisting STA in keeping their promise of a new

identity is the underlying comparison of the ‘here’ and the ‘there.’ STA builds up the notion of

the ‘here,’ which is the potential traveler’s home, versus the ‘there,’ which is the destination STA

is describing. Although it is not explicitly stated, the reader’s ‘here’ is assumed to be less

exciting, mundane, and much less colorful. The ‘there,’ on the other hand, is presented as an

emotional, sensory-overloaded, incredible experience, which is drastically different from that of

the ‘here’ and is how the potential traveler will form their unique identity as an STA traveler.

The ‘there’ is presented as an “extraordinary tourist world” (Hummon, 1988, p.181). As the

reader moves through one of STA’s brochures, they get the feeling that they are a part of the

world of the ‘there.’ In this sense, STA gives the reader a taste of how this type of travel will

make them feel, which is exhilarating and life-altering. STA is careful to choose specific

linguistic features that make the ‘there’ all the more attractive and appealing, leaving their

readers asking for more.

Some of these linguistic features include alluring expressions, superlatives, and

sensational adjectives. For instance, in STA’s Africa and Middle East brochure, the following

excerpt describes the country of Madagascar:

“A jaw-dropping, wild-life trenched hotspot, Madagascar is one of the most interesting

places on earth and home to some of the weirdest and rarest animal species in existence.


Forget the film, seeing is truly believing- with over 70 varieties of lemurs and an

abundance of wildlife, Madagascar is more colorful than even Hollywood captured…

This is a once-in-a-lifetime journey to one of the most unique holiday destinations in the

world” (Africa & Middle East:73).

This description has an underlying persuasive force that is accomplished through the

discourse and convinces the reader that the ‘there’ is captivating. Superlatives, such as

“weirdest,” “rarest,” and “most unique” are used in accordance with adjectives such as “jaw-

dropping” and “wild-life trenched” to paint a picture in the reader’s mind. These superlatives

outline the clear distinction between the ‘here’ and ‘there’ in that they are implicitly comparing

the reader’s home with the destination. In order for an identity to be formed, it is essential that

the ‘there’ is presented in a way that completely diverges from the ‘here.’ Use of linguistic

expressions assist in creating a divergence between the two and in creating an emotional bond

between the reader and the experience (Mocini, 2005). Experiencing the ‘there’ in this manner is

what will ultimately lead the potential traveler to their new sense of self.

On the front cover of the Africa and Middle East brochure STA once again uses

imperative statements to draw the reader in and that also highlight the notion of the ‘here’ versus

‘there.’ Statements such as “Get Connected, Get Disconnected, Go Far, and Get Closer,” are

subliminally contrasting the reader’s daily life with that of travel life. These statements suggest

that by traveling with STA, the reader will become disconnected and move farther away from the

‘here,’ which, in return, allows them to become connected with and closer to the ‘there.’ Thus,

the STA traveler’s identity is right within the reader’s grasp.


In reading descriptions of any brochure, a reader comes away with the sense that their

individual self can be shaped by such an intense experience of the ‘there.’ An underlying

characteristic of the journey being presented is that it is unlike anything else the reader has

experienced, may be experiencing, or will experience in the future. Because of this characteristic,

the reader must take a step from familiar territory to unfamiliar territory. The unfamiliar can be

daunting and nerve-wracking for many people, however, STA is sure to provide encouragement

and support during every step of the transition. For instance, phrases such as “spread your

wings” encourage the reader to take a step into the unknown. STA also provides travel advice

and tips, including travel safety tips:

“If you’ve never been away from home for longer than a seven-day family holiday to

Disneyworld, then we recommend you read our travel safety advice to help prepare you

for the unexpected. Traveling in Europe is inspiring and amazing, but it’s wise to have

your wits about you” (All brochures: 12).

Although the reader must jump into the unknown, STA is there to provide directions and

advice. STA is able to prepare a traveler for the unexpected because of their previous experience

with the unexpected. In this sense, STA makes it known that they have already taken on the

responsibility of alleviating some of the stress and uncertainty of travel and are present at every

step of the way.

Other statements that make the reader feel at ease while they are experiencing the ‘there’

are found on various pages throughout their brochures. For instance, in the Europe brochure,

STA asks questions such as, “Been Inspired?” or “Thinking about spreading your wings a little

further?” and follows with the answer of: “Then pick up one of our other brochures” (Europe:


17). This indicates that STA can directly answer to the calls of inspiration. In addition,

statements such as “with this easy, touring concept you can make an entire content your

playground” allow the reader to feel as though it would be easy to step into this type of lifestyle

(Latin America: 20). The potential traveler can securely allow themselves to rely on STA during

their experience of the “there,” which will allow them to reach their travel identity.

At the same time, however, STA brings attention to the power of the experience of the

unknown, which is what will ultimately transform the traveler’s identity:

1. “Get Lost” “Find Your Way” “Make Mistakes” (Asia: front cover)

2. “Figure It Out” (Australia: front cover)

3. “Spin in Circles” (Europe: front cover)

4. “Be Brave”;“Get Scared” (North America: front cover)

These imperative headings show that the act of travel is not always predictable and

requires adaptation. STA encourages potential travelers to take on the challenging aspects of

travel, which will test the limits and result in self-growth. Even though travelers are able to rely

on STA, the unpredictable aspects of travel are still promoted as an invaluable part of the

experience.

STA promotes a life-changing identity that is not only tied to the individual, but also to

the destination country and culture. As a result, the presentation of the ‘there’ becomes much

more powerful and persuasive because of the way it will contribute to an individual’s new

identity. STA highlights their involvement in “responsible tourism” and in every brochure

designates a page explaining their deep connections to foreign destinations (All Brochures: 14).

A page titled “Making it Count” describes the STA Travel Foundation, which brings focus to


STA’s involvement in charity projects worldwide (See Appendix A4). Projects include work in

regard to the local communities, conservation, clean water, and health.

STA states “we owe everything to the incredible communities who open the doors and

allow us to experience their beautiful backyards…so it’s up to us to be courteous and

understanding” (Latin America: 14). Although the individual traveler does not necessarily have

to contribute to any of STA’s humanitarian projects, their travel identity is still contained under

the umbrella of the “The Responsible STA Traveler” if they choose to travel with STA (All

Brochures: 14). By automatically enveloping all of their traveler’s as “Responsible STA

Travelers,” STA gains even more persuasion power in that their readers will be left with the

sense that they are, or will be, the exceptional traveler. Providing this worldly perspective gives

individuals the sense that they are playing a role that allows them to positively contribute to the

larger world around them, thus the connection with the ‘there’ becomes even stronger.

In order to emphasize this responsible travel identity, STA places a great deal of focus on

local communities, foreign culture, and the realities of the destinations within the itinerary

descriptions themselves. STA brings attention to the real struggles and issues of some of the

beautiful destinations they are promoting:

“Despite its beautiful surroundings and the buzz that comes with its thriving tourism,

Cuzco is a tough place to grow up for many children. For those living in extreme poverty,

there’s no room for big ambitions…” (All Brochures: 14).

STA encourages travelers to become involved with local communities and familiarize

themselves with a foreign culture as part of their experience of the ‘there.’ STA encourages

travelers to have an educated experience, which allows travelers to gain a deeper insight into a


foreign culture. These aspects of travel are seen as a way to gain greater self-fulfillment or to

transform self-identity (Elsrud, 2001; Galani-Moutafi, 2000). In addition, STA brings attention

to the fact that the exciting elements of travel are a result of the cultures that are embedded in the

destinations:

“Trek through the rainforest to one of a number of local communities to enjoy a three-

night ‘homestay’ to learn about the lifestyle of the indigenous population. For some, their

traditional homelands are threatened by the encroachment of industry and cash-crop

farming…” (Latin America: 43).

Many of STA’s destinations even offer the opportunity to become immersed in the

lifestyle of a local community. Travelers are provided with the option of short-term homestays,

which will create a stronger connection between the individual and the local community:

“On Day 14, you’ll stay the night with a local family in the village of San Juan, an eye-

opening experience where you’ll gain a better understanding of the day-to-day life of the

locals in this region” (Latin America: 122).

Travelers are provided with the opportunity to experience the destination in a more

profound manner and are encouraged to step outside of their comfort zone and attempt to

understand a foreign way of life. Because they are given the opportunity to experience the ‘there’

in this unique way, the reader is able to see how their identity will transform right before their

eyes. As a result, not only to the characteristics of the ‘here’ and ‘there’ become even greater of a

contrast, but so does the individual’s current identity and their desired identity. STA places a

great deal of importance on the act of travel as a means of shaping and reforming identities and


uses this aspect as a means of persuading potential traveler’s to choose the ‘there’ presented by

STA.

4.2 Trailfinders

The analysis of STA shows how discursive features reflect a specific social group and

how all aspects of their brochures point toward that group. Similar to STA, Trailfinders also

attempts to persuade a specific socio-cultural group to use their travel services. Trailfinders does

not explicitly state who their target group is, but the inner workings of the discourse reveal the

presumed characteristics and, ultimately, the identity of the individuals who desire to travel with

Trailfinders and their reasons for travel. In general, Trailfinders promotes travel holidays that

ensure accommodation, luxury, impeccable services, and a hassle-free experience. Discursive

features are used to highlight these aspects of travel, which align with the potential traveler’s

current identity, as well as the identity they wish to either maintain or take on during travel.

In order to align the identity of the targeted social group with the act of travel,

Trailfinders promotes their experiences as being stable, comfortable, and of high-quality. This is

reflected in Trailfinders brochures through visual imagery, a stance of expertise, a specific

participation framework, and a comparison of the ‘here’ and the ‘there.’ All of these discursive

features combine in a way that allows Trailfinders to take on the role of leading their travelers

through the journey.


The visual presentation of a Trailfinders brochure is simple and gives off a more classic

type of feel. The text is inviting and calming with soft colors, bolded headings, and a formal font


style (See Appendix B1). Words are supplemented with images that portray the destinations they

are describing, natural flora and fauna, and maps of the touring they provide.

The visual aspects of a Trailfinders brochure seem to build up formality and stability.

Before the potential traveler even begins to read, they are drawn in to the security of the visual

presentation, which attracts a more formal target group. Trailfinders purposely gives off an

image that will go hand-in-hand with a predictable and superior type of travel. Overall, the

multimodal nature of Trailfinders’ brochures enables potential travelers to visualize themselves

as being part of the experience and destination (Francesconi, 2014).


In order to persuade a specific social-group to travel with Trailfinders, the experiences

and services must align with the expectations of that particular social group. In this sense,

tending to the identity of potential travelers is crucial in for this company to be successful. To

accomplish persuasion, Trailfinders takes on a stance of expertise. Their expertise is reflected in

the inner workings of the discourse and ultimately allows for the Trailfinders travel identity and

the potential traveler’s current identity to align.

A stance of expertise is particularly important for Trailfinders because of the social group

they are targeting. Those who would be inclined to travel with this company are in search of the

comfortable and hassle-free experience that is being promoted, which requires predictability and

stability. In order to for the experience to agree with these characteristics, a high level of

expertise must be promoted, which is accomplished through epistemic stance. Epistemic stance

assists Trailfinders in creating an overall feel of certainty and reliability (Strauss & Feiz, 2014).

As soon as the reader opens up any brochure, Trailfinders high level of expertise is described:


“With more than 43 years of experience, Trailfinders unrivalled knowledge, outstanding

personal service, and unmatched consumer protection means you could not be in better

hands” (Asia: 3).

Descriptive adjectives, such as ‘unrivalled’ and ‘unmatched,’ indicate high degrees of

certainty and place Trailfinders knowledge base and services high above any other travel

company. Other phrases, such as, “We promise outstanding levels of service and to ensure that

your travels are always carefree,” are especially strong because of verbs and adverbs such as,

‘promise’, ‘ensure’ and ‘always’ (Trailfinders Website: About Us). These verbs and adverbs

eliminate doubt in the reader’s mind, which agrees with the identity they wish to maintain or take

on during travel. These stances help Trailfinders to construct the company’s expert identity as

well as the identities of those who they are targeting (Ochs, 1993). With these high degrees of

epistemic stance, travelers will be more inclined to depend on Trailfinders to guide them through

their experience.

In the list of “29 Reasons to Choose Trailfinders,” the first reason highlights

Trailfinder’s traveling consultants who are “exceptionally well-travelled” and “have visited over

96% of the world's countries to bring you firsthand knowledge of destinations worldwide”

(Trailfinders Website: About Us). Their undeniable knowledge base makes Trailfinders even

more convincing and attractive. Trailfinders have already been through the process of

exploration and discovery to bring their travelers a variety of the best options available:

“We have been helping travelers enjoy holidays to Asia for well over 40 years and our

expert consultants know the region and its fascinating countries exceptionally well.


Below you will find details of the various holiday styles we can offer throughout Asia.”

(Asia: 2; See Appendix B2).

In order for the travel experience to be more predictable and comfortable, the presence of

an expert or guide is essential. As a result, Trailfinders places a great deal of focus on their

experienced guides and tour directors. By depending on Trailfinders travel consultants and

personal guides, the potential traveler is not only guaranteed security and comfort, but will also

have a unique experience that can only be attained with a guide. This is indicated with phrases

such as, “Enjoy the sights whilst your tour director will unlock the secrets of the destination”

(US, Canada, Central and South America: 319) and “Your guide will know the best waterholes

for spotting elephants, hippos…” (Africa and the Middle East: 45). Trailfinders role becomes

even more powerful as their guides provide comfort, while simultaneously exposing the hidden

gems of travel that would otherwise be overlooked. As a result, the potential traveler feels as

though they are experiencing the destination in an exclusive way, which goes hand-in-hand with

the identity they wish to maintain during travel.

Trailfinders highlights that “there are many things to consider when planning a Safari,”

implicitly causing the reader to revert their focus back to the stress involved in travel planning.

This stress can be alleviated, however, with the help of Trailfinders’ travel services. In a section

entitled “Peace of Mind,” Trailfinders indicates that they will take full responsibility for every

aspect of travel, right down to the “safe and well-satisfied return” (Africa: 5). By eliminating

stress, Trailfinders role becomes even more important in the eyes of the traveler.

Trailfinders promotes various styles of holidays that they themselves have already

experienced and mapped out for any potential travelers. They indicate that they will kindly share


their entire knowledge base about travel, which has been formed from years of experience. For

instance, phrases such as, “Our specialist Safari team lives and breathe Africa and are happy to

share this passion when planning your trip,” give the reader direct access to Trailfinder’s

knowledge (Africa: 4). The Safari team ‘lives and breathe Africa,’ convincing readers that they

are undoubtedly knowledgeable and passionate about such a place.

By emphasizing their stance of expertise, Trailfinders is more attractive to the targeted

social group. The fact that Trailfinders has been exploring the destinations they provide for

“more than 43 years” gives them credibility and, in return, gives travelers a sense of security in

choosing Trailfinders. This reflects the identity of those who would choose to travel with

Trailfinders, in the sense that they are in search of an experience that is more predictable than the

typical adventure and want to avoid risk. In addition, the discourse reflects that those who wish

to travel with Trailfinders maintain an identity oriented towards a higher-status or superiority.

4.2. c. Participation framework: “we” vs. “you”

Trailfinders makes it apparent that they exist with the sole purpose of providing the

potential traveler with their own “perfect trip” (US, Canada, Central and South America: 319).

In order to convince the reader that this is possible, Trailfinders uses a specific participation

framework involving the pronouns ‘we’ and ‘you’. Since Trailfinders is the ultimate leader

through the journey of the destination, it is important for them to establish a positive relationship

with the traveler, which is accomplished through this participation framework. The use of

personal pronouns individualizes the experience, which automatically brings the traveler and

Trailfinders closer together.


Although ‘you’ seems to be generic, it is actually highlighting the identity of the

individual who would choose to travel with Trailfinders. Trailfinders places focus on the ‘you’

through phrases such as, “we are totally flexible and offer freedom to create a thrilling itinerary

unique to you” (Africa: 4) and “feel free to tell us where you’d like to go… (Islands of the Indian

Ocean: 4). Trailfinders highlights that their expertise and knowledge specifically exists to

provide the traveler with their ideal experience. In this sense, the power of choice lies in the

hands of the traveler and they feel more in control.

Itinerary descriptions become more personalized through the use of the pronoun ‘your.’

General nouns are typically preceded by the articles ‘a’ or ‘the,’ but the pronoun ‘your’ makes

the noun more specific to the traveler and connects the individual to the experience:

1. “your passionate guide” (Unmissable Experiences Australia and New Zealand: 9)

2. “your tour concludes” (Islands of the Indian Ocean: 7)

3. “begin your holiday” (Islands of the Indian Ocean: 5)

4. “your perfect trip” (US, Canada, Central and South America: 319)

Through the use of pronouns and possessive pronouns, Trailfinders subtly brings the

reader closer to the services they offer and creates a sense of belonging. Any part of the

adventure or destination seems to already belong to the individual and they feel more privileged

or important as they page through a Trailfinders brochure.

In addition, a combination of the imperative and implied ‘you’ bring the potential traveler

even closer to the text and the journey. Day nine of a South American adventure reads:


“Explore the renowned La Recoleta Cementary this morning before flying north to

Iguazú to see the mighty falls. Relax in your hotel situated close to the falls and marvel at

the wonderful views” (US, Canada, Central and South America: 289).

Imperative verbs such as ‘explore’, ‘relax,’ and ‘marvel’ command the reader to step into

the act of travel and push the traveler further into the experience being described. The closer the

potential traveler gets to the experience, the closer they get to Trailfinders, and the possibilities

of the destination become locked in the relationship between the two.


In general, an underlying assumption of travel is that the traveler is in search of an

experience that will take them out of the ‘here’ and place them in the ‘there.’ The contrast

between the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ is crucial for Trailfinders to successfully persuade readers to

travel with them. In order for an individual develop a desire for travelling into the unknown of

the ‘there,’ it must be presented in a way that is alluring and attractive. In this regard, the ‘here’

is implicitly assumed to be mundane or less interesting and from which the potential traveler

needs to escape. More importantly, those who would be inclined to travel specifically with

Trailfinders are in search of a ‘there’ that is convenient, relaxing, hassle-free, and luxurious.

These characteristics are a focal point throughout any experience that Trailfinders presents

because they align with the expectations and representations of the targeted social group

The theme of prestige and superiority seems to be a common element in the comparison

of the ‘here’ and the ‘there’ for Trailfinders travelers. The potential traveler does not necessarily

aim to adapt their identity to travel, but can mold travel to their existing identity, giving them a

sense of high status. For Trailfinders, the ‘here’ remains an important contrast of the ‘there,’


however, the more important contrast lies within the ‘there’. Trailfinders portrays their

adventures as the best possible option for an individual who aligns themselves, or who would

like to align themselves, with luxury and high stature in the realm of travel.

In order to begin to align the ‘there’ with the reader’s expectations, Trailfinders balances

the concept of adventure, which is inherently unpredictable, with stability. Trailfinders presence

is the key to this balance and vital to the planning of any experience. Within the itinerary

descriptions, Trailfinders makes it clear that the sole purpose of their efforts is to make travel

easier and stress-free:

1. “Discover the destination in a comfortable vehicle accompanied by friendly and

knowledgeable guides…” (US, Canada, Central and South America: 319).

2. “A private airport transfer will be provided so you can connect to your destination”

(Asia: 168).

3. “Enjoy morning and afternoon safaris in an open vehicle led by an expert ranger”

(Africa and the Middle East: 39).

Trailfinders presence allows the reader to feel comforted and at ease. The traveler is able

to experience the destination “at leisure” because of Trailfinders knowledge, background of

experienced travel, and expert guides (US, Canada, Central and South America: 319). The

traveler’s comfort is a top priority, which is portrayed in phrases such as, “explore on a

comfortable cruise boat,” and “your tour director…ensure complete comfort throughout” (US,

Canada, Central and South America: 319). No matter how the reader chooses to travel, their

comfort is guaranteed. Verbs such as ‘explore’ and ‘discover’ maintain the sense of exhilaration,

but are balanced with security.


This feeling of security is even more heightened by giving the potential traveler the

power of choice. Thus, the traveler is in control and is able to align the experience exactly to

their specific needs. For instance, an itinerary description of Thailand indicates that “each canoe

has a guide, so you can choose to paddle, or just relax” (Unmissable Experiences Asia: 8). The

traveler is comforted by the presence of a guide, but can still be actively involved in the

experience if they so choose. As part of an African safari experience, the traveler can “relax

back at camp or join a fascinating guided bush walk” (Africa and the Middle East: 45). Overall,

Trailfinders stresses the fact that they will cater to the individual’s needs, which agrees with

identity that the target group wishes to maintain or become a part of.

Discursive elements, such as alluring expressions, superlatives and vivid imagery all

contribute to the image of the ‘there’ and also reveal the identity of the target group. Trailfinders

utilizes formal language to describe their experiences because the target group is more likely to

identify with this type of language, indicating their high expectations. Trailfinders purposely uses

specific discursive features that the target group can identify with and, thus, will more readily

visualize themselves as a Trailfinders traveler (Hiippala, 2007). Accommodation descriptions for

the Amazon and Pantanal in Brazil, read:

1. “Combining a high level of comfort and service with an excellent range of facilities...”

2. “Comfortable guest rooms are simple but tastefully decorated and benefit from a private

veranda with a hammock”

3. …this is one of the most intimate accommodation options in the Pantanal.”

4. “This small and charming lodge…Guest rooms feature a balcony with hammock whilst

Deluxe Bungalows are nestled amongst the trees, offering complete privacy.”

(US, Canada, Central and South America: 301)


Descriptive adverbs and adjectives, such as ‘excellent,’ ‘tastefully,’ ‘private,’ ‘intimate,’

‘charming,’ ‘Deluxe,’ and ‘comfortable,’ give off a feel of formality and attract a specific group

of individuals who find these characteristics appealing.

Superlatives are important in illustrating Trailfinders image of travelling in style or

traveling with only the best of the best. The following phrases demonstrate the power of the

superlative:

1. “An intoxicating mix of one of the most dynamic cityscapes in the world…” (Dubai:

6)

2. “Much of Dubai’s best dining can be found here…” (Dubai: 7)

3. “Before heading to the largest free-flight bird aviary in the world…” (Africa and the

Middle East: 11).

4. “The most glamorous of the Caribbean Islands…” (Islands of the Caribbean: 2)

5. “Perhaps the most picturesque of the Caribbean’s islands…” (Islands of the

Caribbean: 4)

The use of superlatives allows Trailfinders to present their destinations in a way that

leaves no room for comparison. In addition, superlatives greaten the persuasive force behind

Trailfinders descriptions.

Linguistic expressions that are sensory overloaded and contain vivid imagery are also

significant in creating an unforgettable image of the ‘there’. They allow the reader to form an

emotional connection with the words themselves, and ultimately, the experience:

“Abel Tasman National Park is one of the jewels in New Zealand’s crown and this small

group tour offers fantastic coastal cruising, walking, and kayaking amidst stunning


natural scenery. Enjoy a scenic cruise on the Sea Shuttle before disembarking at

beautiful Anchorage Bay for a short walk to Watering Cove where your thrilling 3 hour

kayak trip begins. Watch for playful seals as you explore this stunning coastal paradise”

(Unmissable Australia and New Zealand: 31).

Expressions such as ‘amidst stunning natural scenery,’ ‘your thrilling 3 hour kayak trip,’

and ‘explore this stunning coastal paradise,’ are meant to play with the reader’s emotions in that

they can almost feel themselves becoming a part of such a stimulating environment. Once again,

the use of the present tense and imperative allow for an even deeper connection to be formed

because the individual can step directly into the future experience.

Overall, the ‘there’ is presented as an attractive experience that will meet all of the

individual’s needs, no matter what they are. More importantly, the presentation of the ‘there’

revolves around a specific style of travel that tends directly to the individuals identity. The

traveler wishes to experience the journey, but only with maximized comfort and stability.

Trailfinders promotes the journey as being adapted to meet the needs, desires, and expectations

of the potential traveler.

5. Findings

5.1 STA & Trailfinders Uncovered

Both STA and Trailfinders use the overarching issue of traveler identity and ‘other’

identity to sell their travel services and to persuade potential travelers to choose their


experiences. The inner workings of the discourse in regard to stance, participation framework,

and a comparison of the ‘here’ and ‘there’ all contribute to the persuasive force of each company

and form a connective web between the potential traveler, the destination, and the travel

company. This connection, however, becomes finalized when the individual is able to personally

identify with the act of travel that is being presented to them. As a result, identity is at the crux of

persuasion for both companies, but is specific to the socio-cultural group being targeted. The

language is then adapted according to each target group, which helps both companies to sell their

travel experiences.

The findings agree with a CDA approach because identity and language are inextricably

linked in the discourse of STA and Trailfinders travel brochures. Both companies have the same

ultimate goal, which is to convince potential travelers to choose the destination being promoted,

but the discourse is aligned with the identities of the target group and the identity that will be

gained from travel. Analyzing the discursive features revealed the role of identity and persuasion

in regard to travel and also revealed the extent to which travel is seen as a means of reshaping

existing identities.

5.2 STA Travel

STA targets young adults and students who are in search of an alternative experience and

who are most likely in a transition period of their young adult life. The act of travel is presented

in a way that has the potential to change their lives and shape existing identities. More

importantly, with the help of STA, travel becomes an opportunity for an individual to shape their

identity in an exclusive and unique way. STA, therefore, is actively agentive and acts as a

vehicle that transplants travelers directly to the root of their new reshaped identities. STA’s


expertise and experienced traveler status allows for them to actively bring travelers “face-to-

face” with the world which is limitless and filled with opportunity.

Although STA’s stance of expertise guides travelers on their journey, which alleviates

stress and minimizes some of the uncertainties of the unknown, STA still encourages travelers to

test their boundaries and immerse themselves in an unfamiliar environment. As a result, the risk

of the unknown and the unpredictable remains an invaluable part of the experience that STA is

promoting. STA encourages potential travelers to “spin in circles” (Europe: front cover) and

“make mistakes” (Asia: front cover), highlighting the power of the experience of the unknown.

The ‘there’ is projected as a place for the STA traveler to discover themselves. Wanderlust is a

key feature in the type of travel that STA presents, which reflects a type of traveler lifestyle that

requires an exploration of a foreign place.

Another important aspect of the identity travelers will gain through STA is that it has a

direct connection to the larger world. Travelers are not only experiencing the destination, but are

forming deep cross-cultural connections that have the potential to shape their outlook of the

world. Travel is viewed as a process of learning, growing, and self-discovery. Those who travel

with STA are forced to adapt their existing self and perceptions to the overall journey. In this

sense, travel creates awareness not only of the self, but of foreign culture and people. The ‘there’

and the ‘other’ are a catalyst in the processes of self-reflection and self-identification. In

addition, STA encourages a deeper insight into a foreign culture and to experience the unfamiliar

in a way that requires risk, adaptation, and challenge.

STA travel brochures draw the potential traveler in with descriptive features and colorful

language, bringing the traveler closer to the experience being offered, which reflects all of the


above characteristics. After reading an STA brochure, the potential traveler already feels closer

to their new sense of self and, thus, are easily persuaded on their desire to travel.

5.3 Trailfinders Travel

Trailfinders, on the other hand, promotes their travel experiences as aligning with a more

superior and prestigious standard of experiencing. They set an undeniable foundation of

expertise and stability, and it is from this foundation that they are able to guide their travelers all

over the world in what is presented as the most luxurious and classic manner. Trailfinders’

experiences are framed within luxury and oriented towards a symbol of high status. With the

help of Trailfinders, travelers step into a role that makes them feel prioritized and selected, which

reflects both their existing identity and the identity they wish to acquire during travel.

In a Trailfinders brochure, destinations are presented in a way that agrees with the

traveler’s expectations, but not necessarily reality. Trailfinders describes their destinations so

that they align with the individual’s cultural taste and preference. Although foreign culture is

being presented, it is presented in a way that the potential traveler will be able to relate to and

visualize themselves experiencing. Trailfinders encourages the ideas of exploration and

discovery in a way that does not require the traveler to shift their views of themselves or the

world around them. They guarantee the “perfect trip” which is unique to the potential traveler

and automatically aligns the potential traveler’s needs and expectations with the destination (US,

Canada, Central and South America: 319). As a result, the potential traveler does not need to

take on a new perspective, but can maintain their old perspective during the experience.

The unpredictable nature of travel is alleviated by intensive planning and stability, which

are key features of the Trailfinders style of travel. Trailfinders’ goal is to take travelers on a


journey that minimizes stress and maximizes comfort, thus Trailfinders’ role is unquestionable in

an otherwise inherently unpredictable setting. Travelers can visualize themselves having the

most stimulating experience, while their every need is accounted for. Through Trailfinders

facilities, services, and experiences, the traveler gains everything and lacks nothing.

The language in a Trailfinders’ brochure is reflective of the characteristics of those who

would choose a Trailfinders’ experience. Those who desire a tasteful, charming, comfortable,

secure, and intimate journey identify easily with the discourse in a Trailfinders brochure because

it is chosen specifically for them.

5.4 Travel vs. Tourism

Both STA and Trailfinders attract different target groups and do so through the consumer

identities that form these particular target groups. STA and Trailfinders present their high level

of expertise throughout the experience promoted in the travel brochure and similarly take on a

supportive role through the entire journey of travel, however, the difference lies in what will

come from the act of travel.

Traveling with STA requires risk, adaptation, and challenge and gives travelers the

opportunity to take on an open minded perspective of the world around them. Travelers are

encouraged to place themselves in a position of learning where they will gain new insight of

themselves and the ‘other.’ As a result, STA travel may be more closely aligned with Galani-

Moutafi’s (2000) concept of “travel” (p. 210). Authentic ‘travel,’ where the traveler is faced with

foreign situations that require adaptation and a different mindset, are seen to have more potential

in achieving greater self-fulfillment (Elsrud, 2001). Although STA maintains a supportive role

throughout the entire experience, it attempts to promote and lead travelers on a ‘travel’ journey.


The idea of reshaping identities or gaining a new sense of self is therefore viewed as a significant

part of travel.

Experiences with Trailfinders, on the other hand, may be contained under the umbrella of

Galani-Moutafi’s (2000) concept of “tourism” (p. 210). Although Trailfinders still presents travel

as being part of an “extraordinary world,” which is more exciting than a traveler’s current world,

they do so within the expectations of the social group they are targeting (Hummon, 1988, p.

181). Those who travel with Trailfinders may reshape their existing identities, however, they will

be shaped by what is portrayed as an “exotic” and potentially unrealistic ‘other’ (Galani-Moutafi,

2000, p. 212). The ‘other’ and the ‘there’ are presented in a way that agrees with the potential

traveler’s expectations, which does not acknowledge the realities of a foreign place. This agrees

with the concept of ‘tourism’ because what is perceived as being an authentic experience is only

based on a predetermined representation. In addition, Trailfinders ensures that the travel

experience will be free of risk, hassle, and worry, thus eliminating the necessity of adaptation or

challenge. The tourist is safe in the hands of Trailfinders, making the role of Trailfinders that

much more important. Trailfinders leads potential travelers on a ‘tourism’ journey, which may

prevent travelers from the possibility of reimagining their selves because they do not have to take

on a new perspective of the world around them.

In general, this shows differences in the ultimate reasons for the desire to travel for those

who would choose STA and for those who would choose Trailfinders. The individual who is in

search of a life-altering experience would most likely choose STA, while the individual who is in

search of an unchanging life experience would most likely choose Trailfinders. As a result,

identity becomes dependent on the type of travel and the risk involved.


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Appendix A

The following images were sourced from various online travel brochures on the STA Travel

website in December 2014 and can be found at the following link:

www.statravel.com/destination-guides.htm.

A1. Latin America: front cover. A2. Europe: 13.

A3. All brochures: 2. A4. All brochures: 14.


Appendix B

The following images were sourced from various online travel brochures on the Trailfinders

website in December 2014 and can be found at the following link:

www.trailfinders.com/brochures.

B1. Central & South America: 11.

B2. Asia: 2.

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