Saving Souls and Bodies: The United States Christian Commission in

the Civil War

By

Ashley MillerMay 2018

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for theDual-Degree Program in History and Archives Management

Simmons CollegeBoston, Massachusetts

The author grants Simmons College permission to include this thesis in its Library and to make it available to the academic community for scholarly purposes.

Submitted by

____________________________Ashley Miller

Approved by:

___________________________ ________________________________

Stephen Berry Sarah LeonardAssociate Professor of History Associate Professor and Chair of History

© 2018, Ashley Miller

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 2

Historiography 6

Early Work of the USCC 13

Reading Materials 20

Loan Libraries 26

Literacy Programs and Schooling 31

Women and the USCC 34

Special Diet Kitchens 40

Conclusion 46

Bibliography 55

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Part I: Introduction

From the 1830s until the Civil War, Northern Evangelical Protestants undertook a large

array of social reform efforts. Established preachers led reform movements in education, health,

temperance, criminal justice, and abolition. These groups distributed food, clothing, and money

to the poor, vagrant, sick, and uneducated. In the 1840s and 1850s, city churches and religious

organizations in the North turned their attention to serving the needs of new immigrants and

native poor.1 Several chapters of the Home Missionary and Tract Societies built mission

churches and Sunday schools. They even offered aid with job placement. In Philadelphia, with

the help of five thousand volunteers, the city was divided into sections for “systematic visitation”

and relief for every needy home.2 Educational reform was particularly an evangelical priority.3In

New York, a Methodist minister created an early type of settlement house, complete with

schoolrooms, shops, living quarters, and a chapel.4 By reforming the sinful parts of society,

evangelists sought to bring the United States closer to their religious ideology. Freedom,

patriotism, and voluntarism had become hallmarks of religious practice within the United States.5

These reform efforts did not cease once the first shots were fired at Fort Sumter, but they instead

took on new zeal, with one prominent organization leading the charge against the weary souls

and bodies of Union soldiers.

The United States Christian Commission, or USCC, was formed at a meeting of the

Young Men’s Christian Association in New York City on November 14 and 15, 1861, just

months after the inception of the Civil War. Its two founding members Vincent Colyer, an artist

1 Frances Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals: The Struggle to Shape America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2017), 45. 2 Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 45. 3 Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 44-45. 4 Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 45. 5 George C. Rable, God’s Almost Chosen Peoples: A Religious History of the American Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 3.

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and humanitarian, and George Stuart, a businessman, created the organization in response to the

suffering troops faced during the First Battle of Bull Run. Their purpose was to organize a

central agency to systematize, combine, and extend the work of the YMCA. The goal of the

Commission was to minister to the spiritual needs of soldiers, to distribute supplies and religious

material, to write for soldiers, to receive and respond to inquiries concerning the whereabouts of

soldiers, and to aid chaplains.

In the spirit of evangelical Protestantism, the USCC emphasized Bible preaching and

immediate conversions. For most of the nineteenth century, evangelists felt a strong duty to

spread the word of Christ. Delegates extended that word to the battlefield. While the original

plan for the Commission was to aid clergy members in the armed forces, the chaplaincy program

only had about thirty members who were quickly overwhelmed by both the scale of battle and

the number of casualties. The Commission was eager to aid in religious healing for soldiers.

Religion undoubtedly helped to sustain army morale and lengthen the war.6 It helped overcome

soldiers’ fears of dying and allowed them to find meaning in the horrors of the battlefield.

Seeking conversions formed a large part of the Commission’s work. Evangelists characterized

instantaneous conversions as a sudden and overwhelming demonstration of God’s grace,

particularly imperative for dying soldiers. 7 Administering to soldiers’ spiritual needs, especially

before death, was the most important work.

Five thousand volunteers, or delegates, from the Commission served during the War.

They were sent to hospitals, field camps, and battlegrounds to serve. Some delegates were

seminary students, but most were simply concerned Christians; even Walt Whitman served as a

6 Rable, God’s Almost Chosen Peoples, 8. 7 Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 13.

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delegate. Delegates served two-week or six-week terms. While women also participated, often

accompanying their husbands while they served the Commission.

The Commission reached its stride in the years 1863 and 1864. Its popularity, support,

and recognition culminated in increased and varying types of aid that reflected pre-war

evangelical reform impulses mobilized for the war effort. It expanded its work to include special

diet kitchens, loan libraries, and literacy programs. Moreover, in May 1864 the Ladies’ Auxiliary

Christian Commission emerged with the mission to write letters to soldiers, fundraise, make

clothing, gather and send supplies, work in special diet kitchens, and serve as nurses. With the

increased support, the USCC kept record of how donations and stores were used and how exactly

delegates served.

Delegates kept strict records about the terms they served with the army. Each delegate

tracked how many “reading matters,” testaments, hymn books, hymn and psalm books, Soldiers’

books, pages of tracts, papers, and pamphlets that he distributed in a “Delegate’s Statement and

Report.” Other statistical records found in this report included the number of sermons given,

meetings participated in and conducted, funeral services conducted, soldiers conversed with,

soldiers benefited from gifts of hospital stores or personal ministrations, number of letters written

for soldiers, and the number of soldiers assisted on the battlefield. Each report would also

include a summary of the delegate’s experiences, including where and how long he served, what

he did, with whom he served, and any unique experiences. These reports were then sent to their

respective offices. As the reports themselves state, their purpose was “to show the nature,

necessity, and benefit of the work of the Christian Commission” to potential donors.8

8 Delegate’s Statement and Report, United States Christian Commission 11/15/1861-1/1/1866, Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant General's Office, 1762 – 1984, National Archives, Washington DC.

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Initially, the delegates faced great difficulty in accessing the troops. The Commission

needed official approval from the federal government in order to be recognized by the Union.

Moreover, military authorities challenged the usefulness of the Commission. The Commission

only started to gain favor in the army after it built a reputation for relieving the suffering of

soldiers. 9 The USCC’s usefulness especially became apparent on the battlefields of Second Bull

Run, Antietam, Fredericksburg, and Gettysburg. By October 1863, Ulysses S. Grant permitted

the delegates free access to all troops in the West and free passage for their supplies. 10

Over the course of the war the Commission took on much more work than simply

administering to the spiritual needs of soldiers by caring for their physical needs as well.

According to the First Annual Report of the Commission, delegates had to “nurse, dress wounds,

strip off filthy garments, wash the blood and dust of hard marches off of the soldiers, cleanse

them of vermin, and put upon them clean clothing; dig graves for the dead, lift and open boxes,

make wearisome visits on foot, sleep on the ground,... and often work from daylight until

midnight, or all night long, with little to eat except dry bread and crackers.”11 Over the course of

war, the Commission created various programs to furnish troops with necessary supplies.

The US Christian Commission disbanded on January 1, 1866. After nearly five years of

caring for soldiers, the delegates distributed more than six million dollars’ worth of goods and

supplies in hospitals, camps, prisons, and battlefields. With modest goals set in traditional pre-

war evangelicalism, the USCC expanded to cater to the physical needs of soldiers, grounding the

roots of the later Social Gospel Movement. The USCC was afforded the opportunity to aid

9 James O. Henry, “The United States Christian Commission in the Civil War,” Civil War History, (1960): 376.10 Henry, “USCC in the Civil War,” 376. 11 Henry, “USCC in the Civil War,” 382.

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countless soldiers during trying times, minister to their spiritual needs, and provide them with the

comforts of home, saving their souls and bodies.

Part II: Historiography

This project weaves together religious discourses, the impact of religious groups on

societal norms, and evangelical charities. Though my historical analysis draws from such

histories, the primary historiography that contextualizes this project concerns the United States

Christian Commission. The USCC has rarely received its dues in the historical narrative, with a

bulk of the materials about the commission written in the 1960s. Therefore, this project will

expand upon the brief historiography of the USCC.

There has been little written about the USCC. Only one great tome of work exists about

the commission, and it was created by the organization itself. The Annals of the U.S. Christian

Commission was written and compiled by Lemuel Moss, an executive committee member, and

published in 1868, just a few short years after the commission officially dissolved. Leading the

wave of denominational histories in the late nineteenth century, this text is largely self-

congratulatory and glorifies the work of the USCC. Most of the works created about the

organization were published in the 1960s, as a direct result of the renewed interest in the war,

garnered by the centennial anniversary. The modern discussions of the organization are mere

mentions about aid distribution, the famed volunteer Walt Whitman, or comparisons to other

relief organizations. This project not only brings together several fields of scholarship, but seeks

to distinguish the USCC as its own unique organization.

USCC vs. USSC

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In the little that has been written about the USCC, there is the tendency to compare and

contrast it with the Sanitary Commission. There is debate among historians over whether not

these organizations should be compared. Both were created after the First Battle of Bull Run.

The organizations shared similar goals, yet went about their work differently. Those working for

the USSC were paid, while the USCC ran primarily on volunteer service. The USSC sought to

only care for the physical needs of soldiers, while the USCC took a multifaceted approach. These

differences have played out in Civil War literature as a contentious rivalry between the two

organizations. Martin T. Buinicki’s article, “The Needs of Means Additional: Walt Whitman’s

Civil War Fundraising,” the author states that “In spite of both its official imprimatur and its

continual public efforts to place itself at the center of charitable efforts during the war,

undirected donations would continue to pour in, and the USSC would find itself competing with

other organizations, including most importantly the Christian Commission, founded by the

YMCA a short time later and devoted to both the spiritual and physical well-being of the

soldiers.”12 Not only were the two organizations competing for resources to aid soldiers, but

historians have traditionally pitted them against each other in terms of effectiveness and

likeability. George C. Rable’s work, God’s Almost Chosen Peoples: A Religious History of the

American Civil War, even utilizes President Lincoln to compare the two organizations, stating

“perhaps Christian Commission officials seemed too much like the pesky clerical delegations

that kept showing up at his door. In any case, during a trip to Philadelphia, Lincoln offered

warmer praise for the rival Sanitary Commission.”13 According to Robert H. Bremner, the rivalry

“might have been less intense had the agencies not differed so widely in ideology. The Christian

Commission embraced the traditional views of charity as a religious obligation, alleviative in

12 Martin T. Buinicki, “The Need of Means Additional: Walt Whitman’s Civil War Fundraising,” Walt Whitman Quarterly Review 31, no. 4 (2010): 2. 13 Rable, God’s Almost Chosen Peoples, 219.

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nature, and particularly sanctified when directed toward spiritual ends. The Sanitary

Commission, adopting a more secular attitude, made prevention its watchword; suspicious of

‘spontaneous benevolence,’ it sought to discipline the nation’s charitable impulses and tum them

toward practical goals.”14 Bremner even goes so far as to state that “the opinion of the present

writer is that the United States Sanitary Commission rendered the greatest service to the general

cause of philanthropy.”15 There is debate, however, as to the usefulness of such commentary to

the historical narrative.

While these comparisons are frequent in Civil War discourse, there is debate as to

whether these groups should even be compared. Because both commissions had differing goals,

it is useless to contend that one group was more or less effective than the other. In his article,

“The United States Christian Commission,” James O. Henry states that

One of the mistakes consistently made by historians in their evaluation of the work of the Christian Commission is to judge it on the basis of the work of the Sanitary Commission. This usually places the Christian Commission in an unfavorable light. To arrive at a fair evaluation by this method is an impossibility, especially in view of the two opposite goals these organizations set for themselves. When judged in light of its overall goal, the Christian Commission will rise to the same level of the Sanitary Commission, which has occupied a commendable position in American history.16

Henry firmly believed that the Commission’s work was just as efficacious as the Sanitary

Commission’s work. Just as historians have compared the USCC to the USSC, so has the

USCC’s likeability among soldiers been dissected.

Mixed Reviews of USCC

14 Robert H. Bremner, “The Impact of the Civil War on Philanthropy and Social Welfare,” Civil WarHistory. (1966): 301. 15 Bremner, “Civil War Philanthropy,” 302. 16 Henry, “The United States Christian Commission in the Civil War,” 387.

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The response to the USCC and its delegates changed over the course of the war. The

USCC became increasingly popular, yet historians have discussed quotes from soldiers that

display their dislike of the commission. These mixed reviews of the commission reveal the

complex nature of this religiously bound aid. Soldiers’ responses and reactions to the delegates

and their work were mixed. According to M. Hamlin Cannon’s article, “The United States

Christian Commission,” the delegates of the USCC “frequently faced official apathy and even

hostility in the course of its welfare work among the federal forces.”17 Philip Katcher’s article,

“Union Soldiers had Mixed Verdict on the Effectiveness of the U.S. Christian Commission,”

provides a laundry list of examples of the disdain soldiers harbored for USCC delegates. For

example, Katcher states that “Delegates often refused to give soldiers items they wanted if their

wants differed from what the delegates thought they should have. For example, Delegate Ashley

noted that ‘a man came in this A.M. who on being asked if he was a Christian, ans. Promptly yes.

He wound up by asking if he could get some novels off us.’ The soldier went away disappointed,

however; Delegate Ashley disapproved of novels.”18 Furthermore, Katcher also describes an

instance where soldiers got physical with delegates, “Delegates were often unaware of the

feelings of soldiers like Westervelt, and were surprised when they were treated inhospitably.

Pastor Ashley described one unpleasant experience: “‘This afternoon went among 46th Ill., many

of whom were very drunk and beastly. One struck me, but a doz. hands were at once ready to

restrain him.’”19Of course, when describing their own experiences, delegates’ reports almost

always discussed pleasant, grateful interactions with soldiers. Although there were a handful of

17 M. Hamlin Cannon, “The United States Christian Commission,” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 38, No. 1 (1951): 61. 18 Philip Katcher, “Union soldiers had a mixed verdict on the effectiveness of the U.S. Christian Commission,” America's Civil War 15, no. 4 (2002): 12.19 Philip. “Union soldiers had a mixed verdict,” 12.

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negative interactions and views of USCC delegates and their work, a majority of soldiers had

positive views of the USCC and appreciated their aid and religious guidance.

Evangelical Reform Society

While there are a number of texts regarding wartime evangelical reform society, for the

sake of brevity and the length of this project, a small selection was chosen.20 In the late twentieth

century, studies of religion during the Civil War emerged. Previously neglected, this major field

of study has been dissected by such historians as Drew Gilpin Faust and Steven E. Woodworth.

As George C. Rable notes in his 2010 work, Gods Almost Chosen Peoples: A Religious History

of the American Civil War, “the grand and sweeping narratives of the sectional crisis and Civil

War from James Ford Rhodes to Bruce Catton to Shelby Foote and beyond have seldom paid

attention to religion much less tried to create a religious narrative of the conflict.”21 This project

utilizes several such works to contextualize the work of the USCC in the space of evangelical

reform society.

Although the United States Christian Commission’s work was heavily tied to evangelical

reform culture, the USCC makes few, if any, appearances in texts regarding the subject. The

Pulitzer Prize winning The Evangelicals: The Struggle to Shape America by Frances Fitzgerald

skips from pre-war America to post Civil War, disregarding the war years and the evangelical

reform effort that took place throughout that time.22 Fitzgerald does make one mention of the

20 While there are a number of works involving religion during the Civil War, my project focuses on those relating to the Northern United States, as the US Christian Commission was designed to serve the Union Army. 21 Rable, George C. God’s Almost Chosen Peoples. 5. 22 Fitzgerald, The Evangels, 56-57.

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USCC when discussing the1873 work of one of its former volunteers.23 This lack of information,

on the USCC is a recurring theme throughout several texts regarding wartime evangelicalism.24

While many historians, such as David Goldfield, list religion as one of the factors of the

start of the war, religion undoubtedly helped to sustain morale and lengthen the war, yet there is

still much debate over whether the war created a more devout society. 25 In M. Hamlin Cannon’s

article, “The United States Christian Commission,” he states that “The Civil War was ushered in

on a wave of religious revival. In point of total numbers, however, this revival did not affect a

majority of the people. In 1860 only a little more than 5,000,000, of a population of 22,200,000

over the age of ten, listed themselves as members of an evangelical denomination.”26 Yet

according to Philip Schaff, theologian and church historian, in 1854 the United States harbored

“probably more awakened souls, and more individual efforts and self-sacrifice for religious

purposes…than in any other country in the world.”27 Evangelical Protestantism was the dominant

religious force in the country for most of the nineteenth century, and this group undertook a large

array of social reform efforts.

Women’s Work

There are few discussions of women’s work in societal reform efforts in the Civil War.

Women’s work is often only mentioned in the context of the larger body of male work which do

not discuss their efforts are not discussed at length, nor are their relief organizations. Fernanda

Perrone’s article, “I Prayed and Sung in Every Tent: Israel Silvers, US Christian Commission

23 Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 85.24 This can be observed in George C. Rable’s God’s Almost Chosen Peoples: A Religious History of the American Civil War, James M. McPherson’s Battle Cry of Freedom, Harry S. Stout’s Upon the Altar of the Nation: A Moral History of the Civil War, and Shelby Foote’s The Civil War: A Narrative, among others. 25 David Goldfield, America Aflame: How the Civil War Created a Nation,(New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2011). Rable, God’s Almost Chosen Peoples, 8.26 Cannon, “The United States Christian Commission,” 61. 27 Rable, God’s Almost Chosen Peoples, 11.

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Delegate from New Jersey,” the USCC, “reflecting the masculine Christianity of the YMCA

tradition, the Christian Commission had no women on its governing board. Only twelve women,

all but one of whom was from the Midwest, were issued credentials as delegates. Women

sometimes accompanied their husbands to the front, and played an important support role

through local aid societies.”28 This quote not only captures the muscular Christianity of the

USCC but also notes the important work women accomplished for such aid societies. Perrone is

one of the few authors to tell of the importance of women in the USCC. The only other extensive

mention of women working for the USCC was by Martin T. Buinicki, in his article, “The Needs

of Means Additional: Walt Whitman’s Civil War Fundraising.” Buinicki states that “several of

the leading women of society were particularly ambitious and forward thinking, forming the

Women’s Central Relief Association (WCRA) in an effort to organize and coordinate the

charitable efforts on the homefront…Soon the work of the WCRA was subsumed by the new

organization, the USSC, which subsequently made great efforts to become the conduit for

assisting the soldiers and the wounded during the war.”29 Both Perrone and Buinicki’s articles

were written in 2014. Clearly observing a more modern view, even these two articles do not

discuss women’s work at length.

My thesis intends to rectify the prior absence of evangelical reform culture from the

discussion of the USCC. Utilizing reform efforts made by the USCC, I will situate their early

work such as providing religious reading materials as following the principles pre-war

evangelicalism, while contextualizing their later work of providing special diet kitchens as the

precursor to the Social Gospel Movement. My project will rectify the absence of women’s relief

efforts by discussing the work of women for the USCC and the Ladies Auxiliary to the United 28 Fernanda Perrone,“I Prayed and Sung in Every Tent: Israel Silvers, US Christian Commission Delegate from New Jersey,” The Journal of Rutgers University Libraries 1, no.66 (2014): 83. 29 Buinicki, “Needs of Means Additional,” 9-11.

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States Christian Commission. Moreover, I do not intend to compare the USCC to the USSC. By

examining a number of texts created by the USCC, including Delegate’s Statements and Reports,

a booklet explaining the creation of the Ladies’ Christian Commission, and the Annals of the

U.S. Christian Commission, I will not only expand the scholarship of the USCC, but provide a

more complete, rounded narrative of their work.

Part III: Early Work of USCC

The early work of the USCC focused on providing for the spiritual needs of soldiers.

Their proven success and support, as well as the exigencies of the war, allowed the USCC to

expand their work to include and cater to the bodily needs of Union troops.

The support of the Christian Commission grew steadily throughout its life, culminating in

more aid, donations, and volunteers. By the middle of 1862, the USCC “was at first regarded by

the public with general indifference.”30 Even religious presses were not quick to recognize and

assist the USCC because of a general lack of confidence in the organization and its goals. 31 This

lack of confidence could be due in part to its slow beginnings. It was not until May 14, 1862, a

full year after the inception of the war, that the first delegates were sent to the army.32 By the

time they arrived, there were already a large number of aid societies that collected supplies and

donations for Union soldiers. Once the Commission proved itself on and around the battlefields,

Gettysburg being particularly important for allowing the USCC to become more recognized,

support increased.

The Battle of Gettysburg, though half-way through the war, provided the USCC with the

perfect venue to demonstrate the value of its work. It remains the bloodiest battle in the western 30 Lemuel Moss, Annals of the U.S. Christian Commission (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1868), 117.31 Moss, Annals of USCC. 118.32 Moss, Annals of USCC, 122.

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hemisphere, with casualties totaled around fifty-five thousand. The delegates were quick to offer

medical attention, food and supplies, minister to the dying soldiers, and bury the dead. C. L.

Pascal, a delegate who served at Gettysburg from July 6 to July 18, gave a chilling description of

not only the services he rendered, but the aftermath of the battle: “Not having received any thing

to eat, except perhaps a Small piece of hard dry biscuit and a little water for over 8 days (after

the battle), and oh how thankfully was received nourishing food with wines + jellies by poor

helpless Soldiers, at the hands of the Christian Commission.” 33 Pascal also detailed two

interactions he experienced aiding Confederate soldiers. The first soldier, Spencer Samson of the

22nd Regiment, Georgia Infantry was found

carried out from a filthy Stable and laid against the side of the Barn to die. His wounds in the fore part of the head, which lay open + the Brains coming out + worms at work therein , as he lay with his chin resting on his breast I approached him + asked a question, No answer, another + another, No answer placed my tin cup to his lips + he clinched it beneath his teeth + held fast ‘till all was gone, I gave him a Farena Cracker, he chewed it, but one ½ at least crumbled out his mouth, I Soaked one he ate it, another + So, he ate I gave about 20 of them a dozen ginger + several slices of bologna sausage and made him comfortable, The next day he could talk, his wound was dressed + he kept getting better up to the time of my leaving, I spoke to him of his future, He said “I have made my peace with God. And desired “me to write home to his wife (+ his children) “These words. Say to her I have great faith in “Jesus. I have prayed forgiveness of my Sins “My prayers have not been in vain. That thee “Shall bring my children up in the fear of “God, and if it is Gods will that we shall “not meet in this Earth, We will meet in “Heaven.” 34

Despite the USCC’s mission to only cater to Union troops, Pascal could not simply leave this

man to suffer alone. He catered both to his spiritual and physical needs, making him as

comfortable as possible. Pascal also aided another Confederate soldier at Gettysburg,

demonstrating evangelical behavior and aiding those in need.

33 Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant General’s Office. NARA.34 Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant General’s Office. NARA.

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Another poor Soldier (Rebel) lay on the cold ground near at hand in a dieing state In a Loud voice he called me to him, to drive the flies off him, none were in him, a glance at his wounds revealed the mistery, it was worms cralling in his flesh, I talked with him, told him he was laid there to die + to lose no time in making his head with God, his only helper, I told him that I could give him a drink or something to eat and covered his bear limbs with a shirt – He was prayed to + he prayed + prayed for himself, Gentle night he died and I have no doubt his Spirit went to heaven + many were the blessings the Christian Commission the dieing Soldiers and dearest friend on earth.35

Pascal’s report affirmed the need for the work of the USCC. In the statistical portion of his

report, Pascal stated that he personally assisted three hundred wounded soldiers on the

battlefield. Union soldiers mostly received the Commission’s aid, but as Pascal’s report shows,

delegates took mercy on Confederates too, administering to them food, water, and spiritual

guidance.

The efficacy of the spiritual ministrations by delegates can also be observed from this

report. In both examples of aiding Confederate soldiers, each one prayed to God. In the first

example, the soldier was so touched by the delegate’s aid that he had Pascal write home to his

family so that they may immediately take up good Christian lifestyles. In the latter example,

Pascal was certain that the soldier’s immediate conversion to Christianity in the little time

remaining before death set in would secure him a place in heaven. Another delegate, C. W.

Holstein, shared both his initial feelings about the USCC prior to his at Gettysburg service, and

how those feelings changed afterward.

When I entered upon the work of the Christian Commission, I was laboring under Some prejudice against accounts I had previously received of its operations. had I an opportunity of seeing its workings, and from actual observation, than all such prejudice was dispelled, like the mist before the morning Sun:- and not only not only did these feelings of prejudice pass away, but the place was soon occupied by others of an entirely different nature – I felt that if there ever was an institution deserving if the patronage of the patriotic and Christian people of the land, this was just the one:- every effort should be made, Every nerve strained to keep it in active operation:- it is so thoroughly adapted in every respect to the wants of the

35 Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant General’s Office. NARA.

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brave Soldiers suffering from the untold horrors of the Battle-field, administering, as it does, alike to their spiritual + temporal necessities36

Holstein’s account demonstrates the virtues of the USCC’s work. As someone who did not

previously believe the praising accounts of the organization’s work, Holstein experienced it

firsthand.

I know that had it not been for the Christian Commission many of those noble Soldiers, most of them maimed for life, would have suffered from the want of very many articles that tend materially to the everyday comforts and necessities of human life:- Hence it is that in my Statement under the headings of “Number of Soldiers benefitted by gifts of Hospital Stores,” I have made the remark that it “could not be estimated” orders were continually pouring into the Tent from Division + Ward Surgeons, Ward Masters, Nurses, +e. for supplies, and they were always cheerfully filled, the only regret being that Sometimes the article called for was not on hand.37

Holstein did not support the USCC prior to his work at Gettysburg, but upon observing the

organization and its work in so dire a situation, he instantly saw its virtues. The USCC was

effective, organized, and well supplied. They had not only large quantities of supplies, but the

volunteers necessary to distribute it. Moreover, Holstein’s account serves as a call to action. He

believed that the work of the Christian Commission should be sustained and that every effort

should be made to keep up its work. Holstein’s report reflects the nation’s growing admiration

and support for the Commission at that time.

Aid societies that once had their own interests began contributing to the USCC. In 1864,

The New Hampshire Soldier’s Aid Society’s annual report noted that the USCC possessed more

recognition with a larger range than their organization, stating that “the better known and wider

spread organizations of the Sanitary and Christian Commissions, to which the larger towns and

cities now send their contributions directly, instead of through the medium of this Society as

36 Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant General’s Office. NARA.37 Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant General’s Office. NARA.

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formerly, to a great extent.”38 The NHSAS donated to the USCC, yet prior to 1864, there are no

mentions of the USCC in any of the NHSAS’s annual reports. About one-half of the USCC’s

entire work, as measured by money and supplies received and by the number of delegates

commissioned, was accomplished during the year 1864.39 At the end of the war, the

Commission’s entire cash receipts totaled $2,524,512.56.40 Due to the overwhelming support, the

USCC gained access to several parts of the Union Army.

Even the army grew to trust the aid of the Commission. On December 12, 1863, General

Ulysses S. Grant granted the USCC was granted access to the West, or the Military Division of

Mississippi. With the aid given and religious services provided, “It was generally felt, especially

during the last two years of the war, that the Christian character of a young man was as safe in

the army as in any place out of it.”41 A number of generals expressed their gratitude for USCC

delegates. General Grant wrote to George Stuart, a co-founder of the USCC, on January 12, 1866

that “It affords me pleasure to bear evidence to the services rendered, and the manner in which

they have been rendered. By the agency of the Commission much suffering has been saved, on

almost every battle-field and in every hospital during the late rebellion. No doubt thousands of

persons now living attribute their recovery, in great part, to volunteer agencies sent to the field

and hospital.”42 General William T. Sherman also gave his impressions of the USCC’s work in a

January 19, 1866 letter to Stuart, “That the agents for the application of this charity did manifest

a zeal and energy worthy the object, I myself am a willing witness; and I would be understood as

heartily endorsing, without reserve, their efforts, when applied to the great hospitals and

38 New Hampshire Soldier’s Aid Society Annual Report for 1864. Concord Public Library. 5.39 Moss, Annals of USCC, 165. 40 Moss, Annals of USCC, 687. 41 Moss, Annals of the USCC, 59-60. 42 Moss, Annals of USCC, 238.

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rendezvous in the rear of our great armies.”43 The support of these generals enabled the

Commission was able to effectively adhere to and complete its mission in assisting the Union

Army. There were, in fact, a multitude of ways in which the USCC sought backing.

The establishment of delegates’ reports was used to drum up support. They were “A

system of reports—not perfected and fully introduced, however, until a year later [1863]—

furnished the requisite information for the Agents and for the Executive and Auxiliary

Committees. This information also, so far as desirable, was communicated to the public through

various channels. Thus an interest in the work was sustained.”44 These reports not only provided

statistical data of aid given but documented the achievements of the Commission. The reports

tracked the number of days a delegate’s service occupied, the meetings they conducted, the

number of meetings participated in, the number of sermons and addresses delivered, the number

of funeral services conducted, the number of soldiers personally conversed with about their

spiritual interest, the number of soldiers benefitted by gifts of Hospitals Stores or personals

ministrations, the number of letters written for soldiers, the number of wounded soldiers assisted

on battle-fields, the number reading matter distributed, scriptures, hymn and psalm books,

soldiers’ books, pages of tracts, papers, and pamphlets.45 Each report included a section for

“Report of Work and Incidents,” where delegates were to write, “particulars and incidents” with

the purpose “to show the nature, necessity, and benefit of the work of the Christian

Commission.”46 By publicizing all the work being done by its delegates, support for the

organization grew, allowing increased donations. At the conclusion of their service delegates

created statistical reports on the aid distributed, the data may not be the most accurate. As

43 Moss, Annals of USCC, 238. 44 Moss, Annals of USCC, 145. 45 Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant General's Office. NARA. 46 Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant General’s Office. NARA.

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Delegate Alex M. Lauglin admitted in his October 16, 1863 Delegate’s Statement and Report,

“Reading matter distributed I gave an account every evening, so that I cannot give an accurate

account here of the amount distributed.”47 One can hardly blame the delegate for not correctly

tallying the hundreds of pages of tracts given to weary soldiers. Yet, support for the USCC’s

efforts came through using this data.

Several soldiers expressed their reverence for the delegates of the USCC. Of the

sacrifices of the delegates, “Said a soldier to Chaplain Thomas at Bermuda Hundred: ‘What a

blessed institution this Christian Commission is! Your delegates care for us in the hospital,

follow us on the march, and in the hour of battle they hover around us like ministering angels.’”48

Those serving in the Commission followed the troops, wherever they were, to administer aid and

cater to their spiritual needs. Due to the obvious and overwhelming needs, the Commission

provided the soldiers with physicians, “Many eminent physicians are sent out by the

Commission, who render very important service. Among these were Drs. Reed, Goodman, and

Parker. The latter reports that with his own hands he made three thousand dressings for wounds

at Fredericksburg. The gratitude of the relieved for such labor cannot be expressed; yet this is

only an instance among hundreds of like exertions.” 49 It does not need to be stated the

importance of this kind of work, the very health of the Union Army depended on it. The soldiers

too appreciated the sacrifice and toils of the delegates. It inspired such trust in the soldiers, “The

following is an instance of the unbounded confidence the soldiers have in the delegates of the

Commission: After the 2d Connecticut Regiment was paid off, they put their several packages

into a bag and sent it to the Commission tent, only requesting that they be sent to their homes.

On overhauling it, it was found to contain about seventeen thousand dollars, which was 47 Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant General’s Office. NARA. 48 Ladies’ Christian Commission: Auxiliary to the U.S. Christian Commission (Philadelphia: C. Sherman, Son & Co., Printers, 1864), 24. 49 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 23.

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expressed to their friends at home. Hundreds of watches and other valuables are given to the

delegates for safe keeping.” 50 Evidently, the USCC had formed a strong reputation among

soldiers as a good and trustworthy organization.

Reading Materials

While the USCC always had a strong focus on distributing reading materials for soldiers,

that focus was amplified with both the invention of loan libraries and literacy programs.

Delegates kept strict records of what types of reading material they distributed and in what

quantity. In the “Delegate’s Statement and Report,” completed after delegates finished serving

their volunteer terms, they outline how many scriptures, hymn books, hymn and psalm books,

soldier’s books, pages of tracts, papers, reading matter, and pamphlets they personally dispersed

to Union soldiers.51At first, “The Commission, in this as in other respects, did not at first aim to

be more than the forwarder of what the people might supply, and the earliest shipments of

reading-matter therefore consisted mainly of such second-hand tracts, newspapers, and books as

were offered.”52 Seeing the benefit of these tracts, the USCC began the regular distribution of

religious weekly papers in the fall of 1863.53 The Commission's goals and distributions changed

as the war went on and their organization garnered more support.

The dissemination of reading material to the army gained quick support, both with troops

and those looking to provide aid. Publishers were eager to support the cause, some creating

special tracts, “Then the small publications of the Tract Soci[e]ties were added—some of them

having been specially prepared for army circulation.”54 The American Messenger, Tract Journal,

50 Ladies Christian Commission, 23.51 NARA U.S. Christian Commission. 52 Moss, Annals of USCC, 685. 53 Moss, Annals of USCC, 686. 54 Moss, Annals of USCC, 685.

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and Christian Banner were all distributed among troops. While the work of spreading literature

was not as dire as providing basic provisions, the Commission and army all felt the importance

of this work, “The work of distributing publications throughout the army by the Christian

Commission possessed several points of special interest. More than any other part of their labors

it furnished an index of the character of the soldiers; and the evidence was as gratifying as it was

remarkable, that a large proportion of the army were men to whom serious and solid literature

was a necessity.”55The Commission also provided literature to African American troops:

Reference has several times been made to the labors of the Commission among the colored troops. They were supplied with elementary school books of all kinds, and also with periodicals, Scripture portions, and other publications suited to their circumstances and attainments. Not a few of them could appreciate the reading-matter furnished for general distribution, and none showed greater eagerness or gratification than they. To be able to read the New Testament was to these new-made men a marvelous acquisition, and to own the Book itself was to secure an incalculable prize.56

The troops undoubtedly appreciated the furnished reading materials, with the desire for more

growing constantly.

The USCC sought to increase the amount of reading material available for troops. In the

fall of 1863, the USCC prepared to increase the volume and quality of reading matter provided

for troops. The Commission made heavy purchases, instead of relying merely on donations, to

ensure the best possible texts for soldiers.

Not a few of the subscribers to them went into the ranks, and requested that their papers should follow them; sometimes the chaplain would make up a “club” from his regiment; the publishers generally gave notice that their journals would be furnished for soldiers at the simple cost of production…The same considerations that suggested this increase of religious periodicals operated also to improve the quality of the books used. Less reliance was placed upon tracts and the smallest kind of publications, although they continued to be abundantly circulated, and a

55 Moss, Annals of USCC, 685. 56 Moss, Annals of USCC, 711-712.

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better and more expensive class of works was purchased, alike for the knapsack and the library. Many of these books were printed and bound in substantial and attract styles, and were every way worthy of the wide circulation and eager reception which they received. 57

The USCC not only received numerous donations of reading materials from citizens but

cooperated with of several publishing societies to increase their work. There was indeed a large

circulation of Scriptures in the army. Under date of Sept. 18, 1862—about the time that the

headquarters of the Christian Commission was established in Philadelphia—Mr. Stuart wrote to

the American Bible Society, asking if it would grant to the Commission “what Bibles and

Testaments they may need in their work.” To this request Rev. Dr. Taylor, Corresponding

Secretary of the Bible Society, replied on the 20th: “Your letter can have only one response. Most

cheerfully will our Committee and Board grant all that you require in your noble labors.”58 The

Bible Society provided millions of volumes of reading material to the Union army: “Besides the

grants to the Christian Commission, amounting to 1,451,748 volumes, valued at $179.824.99, the

Bible Society also sent to the army, through other agencies, not less than 574,512 volumes—

making their total issues for this purpose, during the period of the civil war, amount to the vast

number of 2,026,260 volumes.”59

Working closely with the Commission, the Bible Society was able to furnish reading

matter to troops throughout the nation. Generous offers from publishing societies poured into the

Commission:

The two American Tract Societies, at Boston and New York, early gave attention to the wants of the army…Both co-operated cordially with the Christian Commission, making to it donations of books and papers, and selling at the lowest prices. In June, 1864, the Boston Society adopted the following resolutions:

57 Moss, Annals of USCC, 686. 58 Moss, Annals of USCC, 686. 59 Moss, Annals of USCC, 690-691.

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1. That the Committee on Charities be authorized to grant to the Christian Commission the publications of this Society, to such amount as the charitable funds will permit, provided that said Commission shall purchase an equal quantity of said publications at cost.

2. That if the Christian Commission shall accept the above proposal, and thus distribute our publications through the army, our own independent system of distributions shall be discontinued.60

The American Tract Societies had such faith and confidence in the Commission’s work that they

were willing to give up their own independent distribution to the army in favor of using the

Commission’s network. Moreover, the Societies granted the Commission innumerable books and

papers to provide for soldiers, for free or for a small price. This sort of charitable work by the

American Tract Societies undoubtedly earned the USCC an elevated reputation among other

religious publishing societies. Other publishing societies quickly followed suit and were eager to

share in the Commission’s work. The American Sunday-School Union, Tract Society of the

Methodist Episcopal Church, Presbyterian Board of Publication, Presbyterian Publication

Committee, American Baptist Publication Society, Protestant Episcopal Book Society,

Massachusetts Sabbath-School Society, American Reform Tract and Book Society, New York

Sabbath Committee, and others, along with many private publishers, gave their cooperation, and

were “desirous of a share in the patriotic and Christian work of furnishing the army with

attractive and wholesome reading.”61

American publishing societies were taken by the Commission’s patriotic religiosity.

Their work of supporting the Union was not only a noble one, but harkened to the ideals of

muscular, American Christianity. Its mission catered to the vision of a strong, united America,

one without sin, where voluntarism and reformation were at the forefront. “In the monthly and

weekly religious newspapers distributed, all the evangelical publishing societies were

60 Moss, Annals of USCC, 698-699. 61 Moss, Annals of USCC, 700.

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represented and all the evangelical denominations.”62 The success of the USCC’s endeavor is

evident in its statistics, “The figures show that the total newspaper circulation by the

Commission rose from less than two hundred and fifty thousand copies per month in 1863, in

which year it may be said really to have begun (the previous distributions having been mainly

donations of second-hand papers), to more than one million five hundred thousand copies per

month in the beginning of 1865.” With the cooperation of these religious publishing societies the

USCC was able to provide soldiers with not just a way to pass time, but encouraged moral,

evangelical pursuits.

The USCC sought to aid the widest possible audience. While the Commission’s original

intentions were to aid the Union troops, their work did extend to those in the Confederacy.

Moreover, their work extended to reach immigrants, and those practicing other religions. The

USCC sought to reach a wide audience, including in their provided reading material, “The

various nationalities of our troops were well shown by the several languages in which these

Scriptures were printed—one request being for Testaments in English, German, French, Danish,

Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese.”63 The Commission not only distributed Protestant reading

materials, but “The Roman Catholic version (Douay) of the Bible was gratuitously distributed to

some extent, by the Christian Commission and other agencies, to those soldiers and sailors who

preferred it. The Commission would not appropriate funds for this version, but distributed such

copies as were donated.”64Despite their own evangelical Protestant preferences, the members of

the USCC were willing to supply the soldiers with what they wanted.

62 Moss, Annals of USCC, 700-701.63 Moss, Annals of USCC, 689. 64 Moss, Annals of USCC, 698.

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The Commission distributed secular literature as well, but on a restricted basis. Allotting

secular literature for troops was the work of one man in particular, Chaplain Thomas. As early as

December 1862, he began to supply his regiment with the “best and freshest” periodical

literature, both secular and religious, regularly at the least expensive cost to the USCC. 65 With

publishers willing to provide publications at half price, and the Adams Express Company willing

to carry all packages for free, other chaplains were eager to cooperate and join the movement. In

1863, Chaplain Thomas’ plan was greatly expanded. It soon included the best books, and the

formation of portable libraries for regiments, hospitals, etc.66

The USCC, was of course, wary of dispensing non-religious materials, especially

considering its mission:

In September 1863, Chaplain Thomas was detailed by General G. H. Thomas (not a relative) as “General Reading Agent for the Army of the Cumberland.” He at once set about perfecting and carrying out his plan. For some time he had felt the necessity of being in close connection with one of the national societies at work in the army, in order to give greater comprehensiveness and efficiency to his movement, and urged its adoption by the Christian Commission. The Commission hesitated about engaging in such an enterprise, partly because it involved the receiving of pay from the soldiers for the reading-matter distributed to them, and partly because it involved the distribution of secular literature—neither of which were sanctioned by the Commission’s ordinary methods of operation. After a few months, however, the work was undertaken, with very beneficial results.67

Secular reading was only provided for certain parts of the army, “The distribution of secular

periodical literature through the Commission did not include newspapers, but only magazines

and reviews; nor did it become general, but was confined to the Western armies.”68 Despite their

hesitations, the USCC still provided soldiers, albeit a small portion of them, with the reading

material they craved. In April 1864, the Christian Commission began distributing leading secular

65 Moss, Annals of USCC, 714-715. 66 Moss, Annals of USCC, 714-715. 67 Moss, Annals of USCC, 715. 68 Moss, Annals of USCC, 716.

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magazines and reviews in the Army of the Cumberland.69 While Chaplain Thomas could only

secure secular reading for troops within the Army of the Cumberland, his plan did create the

successful portable lending libraries for soldiers.

Loan Libraries

In 1864 the Commission established and maintained libraries at stations of the

Commission, military posts, in general hospitals, and on the naval vessels and river gunboats.70

They provided soldiers with a moral, educational pastime. The libraries included both secular

and non-secular works. These libraries were an immense success, with both the soldiers and

delegates singing their praises.

Chaplain Thomas created the plan for libraries throughout the Commission. The loan

library system functioned as follows: books were purchased from leading publishers at half price.

Like the unsecular papers and tracts, publishers gave the USCC generous discounts to supply

their libraries. Chaplain Thomas compiled an army catalog where books were chosen under this

restriction, “‘None but the best works; none but the best, most suitable and cheapest editions;

secular works as well as ‘religious;’ utility rather than variety;’” publishing centers in Boston,

New York, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati acted as agents to receive, pack, and forward all

purchases without charge. These houses were, Gould & Lincoln, Boston; Chas. Scribner & Co.,

New York; Ashmead & Evans, Philadelphia; and Poe & Hitchcock, Cincinnati. The government

supplied the cases for the libraries. The first sixty cases were made by order of General Thomas,

subject to the approval of the Secretary of War—the Commission being meanwhile responsible

for the expense. The Secretary approved the order, and granted a requisition also for two hundred

69 Moss, Annals of USCC, 713. 70 Moss, Annals of USCC, 687.

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and forty more. Each library contained “125 volumes—standard popular books of history,

biography, poetry, fiction, science, religion, etc.—all appropriately labeled and numbered, and

neatly covered and numbered on the cover.” On the inside door of each library was “a catalogue,

in large type, with the names of the books arranged alphabetically by authors, and numbered,

with additional numbers and spaces up to 160. Additional catalogues on cards were also

provided, for the special convenience of patients who were unable to go to the library.” 71 The

Commission then loaned the libraries to hospitals, camps, vessels, or other places of deposit to be

returned when the library was no longer needed. The role of caring for the library was thus an

onerous task:

The library was confided to the chaplain, surgeon, or other responsible person who consented to act as librarian. He was required to sign a pledge, promising attention to his duties as librarian, a faithful care of the books, and promptness in sending monthly reports of the condition and use of the library. Each library was provided with a register or record book, so arranged as to preserve, with little trouble, a complete history of every volume.”72

The cases secured the books while the library was not in use, and only the delegate overseeing

the library had access to the key, safeguarding its contents. The catalogs not only kept track of

circulation but served as an additional security measure. Moreover, it justified the purchase of

certain kinds of books. Citizens also donated books. Those that were not used in libraries were

given to troops, “Frequent appeals were addressed to the public for valuable books for the

soldiers—special efforts being made in this direction at the holiday seasons—and these were

responded to with more or less liberality. The books thus secured were variously used—some

being put into Loan Libraries and the rest otherwise distributed.”73 Initially, the Commission

prepared two hundred fifteen libraries, “containing the full number of 125 volumes each. Besides

71 Moss, Annals of USCC, 717-720. 72 Moss, Annals of USCC, 717-720. 73 Moss, Annals of USCC, 724.

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these there were 70 Libraries of half the size, containing 75 volumes each, making in all 285

Libraries and 32,125 volumes at a cost of not less than one dollar per volume.”74 The USCC

delegates cared for and ran these libraries. The delegates kept strict records of what books were

checked out, by whom, and how many times.

Delegates kept strict reports for their libraries with registers to detail all pertinent

information. Each “contained 172 pages—160 for regular entries and 12 for incidental

memoranda…From this register were made up the monthly reports—showing how many times a

volume had been drawn during the month, or that it had remained in the library, or that it had

been lost, with such illustrative incidents as were deemed valuable. The monthly reports were

forwarded to the General Library Agent, who thus knew the exact location and condition of

every library.”75 The reverence for the libraries can be observed in their monthly reports. While

there are several examples of reports singing the praises of these libraries, only a select few

appear here:

Library 11. Volumes drawn, two hundred and eighty-nine; volumes lost, none. Marked improvement in the social life and general deportment of the patients and attendants of this hospital has taken place since the introduction of the libraries. We have more correspondence between soldiers and their friends; more social purity, less boisterous and rude conduct. The mental and moral conditions of the men have been revealed, and not a few scholars, Christians, and gentlemen have been found beneath the humble attire and title of “private.”76

Delegates and officers alike observed the benefits of the loan libraries. For soldiers, it provided

them with a replacement for bad behavior. Instead of gambling or drinking, soldiers were

learning and reading. As a result, there was increased friendliness and comradery. Another

Chaplain detailed the praises of his regiment’s library:

74 Moss, Annals of USCC, 721. 75 Moss, Annals of USCC, 720-721. 76 Moss, Annals of USCC, 722.

29

Library 70. Second Wisconsin Cavalry, Alexandria, La. Report, by Chaplain B. L. Brisbane. For June, 1865: Volumes drawn, one hundred and eleven; volumes lost, none. The library is a fine collection. It is doing immense good. It is the best thing the Christian Commission has done for the service. Every regiment should have one. It has deep and abiding influence intellectually, morally, and spiritually. For July: Volumes drawn, two hundred; volumes lost, none. The longer we have the library, the more useful we find it. For August: Volumes drawn, sixty-one; volumes lost, none. Have been on the march to Hempstead, Texas. For September: Volumes drawn, three hundred and thirty; volumes lost, seven. Some men in the hospital were sent off and discharged, without returning, some of whom carried off books. We are very thankful for the library. No estimate can be made of the good it is doing. For October: Volumes drawn, one hundred and twenty-nine; volumes lost, three. Some books carried off by deserters, or others. Library has already well paid for itself. A number of souls lately converted. A good work going on in the regiment. I ascribe much to the library.77

The library not only caused good behavior among the men, but grew the number of conversion

the Commission was able to obtain. This can be observed in another library’s report log:

Library 99. Hempstead, Texas. Report for September, 1865, by Rev. S. J. Orange, Agent Christian Commission. Volumes drawn, five hundred and twenty-five; volumes lost, none. The library has been invaluable to the men. They all praise the selection of books; and so interested were they that I turned the library over to the First Iowa Cavalry. For November, by Chaplain J. S. Rand: Volumes drawn, three hundred and seven; volumes lost, three. At the end of October we were on the march to Austin, Texas. The soldiers have employed much of their time in reading, instead of card-playing. We have a chapel tent, in which we keep the library, and have prayer-meetings every evening. We have some clear conversions.78

Even with long marches and men returning home after the war, the libraries lost relatively few

books.

The libraries succeeded in turning the soldiers away from immoral behaviors such as

drinking, card playing, and drinking. Furthermore, it increased interactions between soldiers and

those aiding them, and fostered a friendly environment between the two. It provided soldiers

with a way to effectively pass time, while also serving to educate them. The libraries even

77 Moss, Annals of USCC, 722-723.78 Moss, Annals of USCC, 723.

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worked to convert some souls to Christianity, a clear victory for the USCC. The following report

demonstrated not only an example of a naval library, but of the impact the libraries have on the

soldiers’ overall morale, “Library 228. United States Flag Ship New Hampshire, Port Royal

Harbor, S. C. Report for October 1865, by Chas. Wiener, Librarian. Volumes drawn, two

hundred and sixty-six; volumes lost, one. The library is having a good effect. It is lessening

profanity and intoxication.”79 The libraries were an immense success for the Commission. They

increased morale, promoted moral behavior, and even converted soldiers to Christianity. Their

effectiveness cannot be overestimated.

Unfortunately, “Many of the Libraries were lost in the final breaking up of hospitals,

camps, etc., at the close of the war. But more than fifty permanent forts and posts throughout the

country, and twenty-five United States war steamers, were supplied, and the libraries were still in

use by them at the beginning of 1867.”80 Fewer than half of the libraries survived the end of the

war. Moss ended his discussion of the Loan Libraries, by again stating the popularity of the

program, “The library work of the Commission, in a systematic form, was one of its latest

movements, but none was more thoroughly appreciated by the soldiers, and it was very fruitful in

permanent good.”81 The USCC’s loan libraries furthered the work of catering to the spiritual

needs of soldiers while also providing them with educational secular texts.

Literacy Programs and Schooling

Not only did the Christian Commission provide literature to soldiers, but they actively

promoted literacy wherever they went. They created schools in Commission chapels, provided

79 Moss, Annals of USCC, 723. 80 Moss, Annals of USCC, 723. 81 Moss, Annals of USCC, 723.

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the necessary materials, and taught the illiterate children, poor adults, soldiers, and African

American troops how to read and write. The success of this facet of their work is evident.

It is difficult to discuss the Commission’s education efforts, without first discussing the

creation and use of chapels. Prior to 1864, there were few chapels within the Union Army, “In

November, 1863, the Commission had but four chapel tents in the Army of the Potomac. In the

correspondence between the Central Office and Mr. Cole, General Field Agent, it had been

suggested that the Commission could perhaps furnish to each brigade a canvas roof, technically

called a ‘fly,’ as a covering for a chapel, if the soldiers would put up the walls.”82 At the

December 29, 1863 meeting of the Executive Committee of the USCC, it was voted to furnish,

“as needed, six chapel tents and forty canvas roofs for chapels to be erected by the soldiers.”83 It

was then reported that “an unusual religious interest pervaded the army” and that “multitudes

were converted to Christ.”84 It was also observed that some of these houses of worship were very

large—sixty feet in length by thirty-five feet in width—several of this size being put up in the

Twenty-fifth Corps, and used both as chapels and school-rooms.85 It was common for these

chapels to serve multiple purposes: places of worship, meeting spaces, libraries, and classrooms.

They provided both the classrooms, and all the classroom supplies including roofing, stoves,

lights, primers, blackboards, pens, slates, ink, and readers. The USCC even provided their

student soldiers with teachers.86 Because of these efforts, the USCC was able to educate a large

number of students.

82 Moss, Annals of USCC, 177.83 Moss, Annals of USCC, 178. 84 Moss, Annals of USCC, 178. 85 Moss, Annals of USCC, 442. 86 Moss, Annals of USCC, 442.

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Seeking educational reform, the USCC worked to promote literacy among marginalized

groups. In the latter part of the war, the Commission worked heavily with the black troops in the

Twenty-Fifth Corps, “For this work the Commission employed experienced teachers, and

furnished to each regiment or brigade…everything that was needed to give to all an opportunity

for mental improvement. The soldiers were very thankful for these advantages, and showed great

eagerness to learn.”87 The delegates for these troops established Brigade schools and there was

“great anxiety on their part is manifested to improve the advantages thus extended to them.”88

The Commission not only offered education to soldiers, but also opened schools to the poor

children and adults affected by the war, “The quartermaster of the post offered a tent, benches,

and desks, if the Commission would open a school for the children of the poor white employees

of the government.”89 Another example can be observed at Bridgeport in the Eleventh Corps, “In

addition to the usual religious services in the chapel, a Sabbath-school was organized for soldiers

and the children and the adult poor whites. General Howard’s adjutant was superintendent, and

the General had a class of poor girls, none of whom could read.”90 Despite its focus on aiding

Union troops, the Commission’s literacy efforts extended to former members of the

Confederacy. Supplemental to their other work, and at the request of General William T.

Sherman, “this Branch assisted in relieving the wants of the many refugees and deserters from

the rebel army that gathered [in Louisville, Kentucky]. They were helped to employment,

gathered into Sunday-schools, taught to read, and they had opportunities of hearing the gospel

preached.”91 By extending their services to those not in the army, the Commission went above

87 Moss, Annals of USCC, 437-438. 88 Moss, Annals of USCC, 196. 89 Moss, Annals of USCC, 464. 90 Moss, Annals of USCC, 480.91 Moss, Annals of USCC, 329.

33

and beyond its mission to Union soldiers by delivering to education and reform to others affected

by the war.

The literacy programs and schools proved quite successful. Schools were established in

each regiment at Wild Station, and it was reported that “hundreds of those who could not read at

the beginning of the winter were sufficiently advanced at its close to read in the Testament; and

many of them had learned to write with rapidity and elegance. It was no uncommon thing for

one, riding along the line of works held by his corps, to see men at every step of his progress,

reading or studying in their primers, politely bowing as he passed, as if they recognized in him

the giver of the blessings they had found.”92 The success of these schools inspired innumerable

soldiers to attend, and provided an outlet for their spare time. “The men came in by reliefs, as

picket and fatigue duty would allow, three thousand in a week, for their turn to drink at this little

stream of knowledge. They showed great eagerness to learn.”93 The schools were held during day

and evening sessions. With soldiers spending so much time learning, reading, and writing, there

wass little time for sinful behavior such as drinking or card playing. The efficacy of this program

was evident:

Some, without any knowledge of the alphabet, learned to read in easy sentences in six days. And for the majority, according to the uniform report of the teachers, the average time required to learn to read in easy sentences was only four weeks. The pupils carried out the normal system thoroughly, for as soon as they had acquired one letter they cast about at once to teach it to someone more ignorant than themselves. So that one teacher, multiplied in this geometrical ratio, was very soon felt as an educating power in the entire regiment.94

92 Moss, Annals of USCC, 453.93 Moss, Annals of USCC, 453.94 Moss, Annals of USCC, 453.

34

The soldiers thus spent their time teaching each other how to read and write, amplifying not only

the overall education of the regiment, but the will to learn. Those soldiers who did learn were

perceived to be more disciplined, respectful, and free from vice.

The Commission’s literacy efforts made by the Commission not only served to educate

soldiers, but increased comradery between them. It was reported that “the results of these school

were very satisfactory, the soldiers learning rapidly, and showing a great desire to improve.”95

The soldiers became more cooperative as a result of their teachings: “It was the uniform

testimony of the chaplains and the officers of the regiments that those taught in our schools were

more obedient and respectful to their officers; discipline was improved; habits of vice were

checked, and in many cases genuine religious interest was excited.” 96 Another such example is

found here, “I gave primers to boys employed in the regiment. One of them, the colonel told me

to-day, lay by his fire until midnight, trying to decipher his letters. I gave another to a bright

youngster, and a few minutes after I saw him sitting on a stump, while a little drummer-boy was

teaching him to read.”97

The USCC’s reform efforts were certainly attained when it came to their schools and

literacy programs. The USCC’s literacy programs harkened back to the educational reform of

pre-war evangelical culture.

Women and the USCC

Initiated by a group of men belonging to a male Christian group, the USCC did not

formally incorporate women into its relief programs until 1864. Several Ladies’ Christian

Commissions did exist in major cities such as Buffalo, Detroit, and San Francisco, but not until 95 Moss, Annals of USCC, 442. 96 Moss, Annals of USCC, 453. 97 Moss, Annals of USCC, 712.

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May 1864 did the USCC actively seek to establish a Ladies’ Christian Commission in every

community throughout the loyal states.98 Spearheaded in Philadelphia, the movement grew

rapidly, with women providing ideas and services for the USCC. Of the 266 ladies’ auxiliaries

that formed at this time, eighty of them were in the city of Philadelphia alone.99 These auxiliary

groups were located in seventeen different states of the Union.

The Commission sought a wide range of contributions from women with several

proposed ways for them to serve.

If the Ninevites could consent to fast, and clothe themselves in sack-clothe at the call of a strange prophet, surely the Christian women of the Republic can consent to express a sympathy with their suffering and imperiled country, by self-denial in dress and food; by simplicity in both, to give outward and appropriate expression to their grief for sins which have so provoked their beloved Redeemer, and called forth from him such expressions of displeasure…And this leads me to show another thing each of you can do. Love your country, and judge the characters of others in part, by their regard for it. Love your country, and willingly sacrifice anything its interests demand.100

This not only highlights the patriotic evangelicalism favored by the Commission, but places the

Civil War as punishment for the sins of the nation, namely slavery, from God. The Commission

told women to “Love your country. It is worthy of your love. None was ever more so. Its

institutions, its national character, its relations to the human race, and its coming history, its

relations to the church of Christ, all claim for it a high place in our affections. “101 The nurturing

idyllic vision of women was used to portrayed the United States as some heroic lover, worthy of

love from the Ladies’ Christian Commission. Of course, the religious nature of the

Commission’s goals was never forgotten, “Pray for your country, the government, the army, and

98 Moss, Annals of USCC, 356. 99 Moss, Annals of USCC, 358.100 Ladies' Christian commission, 6.. 101 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 7.

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the navy.”102 Moreover, the sacrifices of the enemy were used to inspire Northern women into

their own sacrifice, “If Southern women will dress in calicoes for such a government as their

leaders are seeking to establish, surely Northern women can for as much for our Government.”103

This sentiment also harkens back to the economic purchasing power of women; in times of need

or political turmoil, this force has been called upon for boycotts and resource conservation.

Furthermore, the women were encouraged to influence others within their community to join the

relief effort. The USCC sought women to establish monthly collections, to make clothing for the

soldiers, to gather stores, and to collect contributions.104This puts the women serving the

Commission as influential participants of society, having the persuasive means to garner

donations of time, money, and materials from various members of their communities. Women

purchased goods, made clothing, cooked meals, “You cannot over-estimate the power of your

sex in certain directions.”105 The Commission suggested activities that would even have been

deemed inappropriate, “Might not every lady send a letter to the army every month; not only to

kindred there, but to friends, or even strangers? The times and circumstances would remove from

it every shade of impropriety. Ascertain if any young man from your neighborhood is without

friends, or if a family find it difficult to write frequently to the husband and father.”106 These

activities allowed women the opportunity to participate in the war effort.

The war effort challenged social practices and even gave women the power to organize

their own groups within the Commission. In the movement to initiate a Ladies Christian

Commission, the Reverend J. G. Maxwell offered a demanding course of action, “Do what you

can to sustain the Christian Commission…Within your own parish see to it that a society be

102 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 8.103 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 8.104 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 19.105 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 7.106 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 7.

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organized, if agree-able to the officers and members of the Church, to secure a yearly

subscription in money, and such labor for the army as the Central Committee, from time to time,

may show to be needed for furnishing the soldiers with hospital garments. See to it that while the

necessity for this kind of effort shall continue, your association be kept in vigorous operation.”107

The USCC was not just asking for help from these women, but full participation. The women

responded with fervor and excitedly took on the resolutions the Reverend put forward:

The Reverend J. G. Maxwell also put forth these resolutions, which were unanimously adopted:

Resolved, As the unanimous expression of the sentiment of this meeting that we recommend to the ladies of the various Evangelical Churches in the loyal States, that they organize Ladies’ Christian Commissions in each congregation, auxiliary to the United States Christian Commission.

Resolved, That the United States Christian Commission be requested to issue a circular embodying a form of organization, with hints as to the process of organizing.108

The creation of Ladies’ Christian Commission groups throughout the loyal states gave women

the opportunity work within their own congregations to further the goals of the USCC. Women

thus took charge of their own sub-groups of the USCC assuming the leadership roles,

fundraising, and work assignments. This empowered the women to take control of not only their

own work, but their own finances as well. These Ladies’ Commissions were to be organized

“either by establishing one in each church, or by forming a union society for all the churches in

the same neighborhood, as it might seem most desirable in several localities…Membership in the

ladies’ societies was to either be associate or active. Associate membership might include all of

either sex and every age who should pay into the treasury one dollar annually; active

membership would include the ladies who gave also their time and service in collecting and

107 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 9.108 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 10.

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preparing clothing and stores for the soldiers.”109 Women had a say in whether or not they would

be active or passive members. Finally, charging the women a membership fee not only ensured

the cooperation of the women involved, but also raised funds for the Commission to enact new

programs and purchase supplies.

The Ladies’ Christian Commission not only inspired excitement in the women, but the

men of the USCC were grateful for their aid. The confidence in the women was strongly felt,

Of them, and for them, we may confidently say, that nothing will be left undone, which Christian women can with propriety possibly do, to promote either the bodily welfare or religious benefit of those who fight the battles of our nation. The loyal Christian women of our beloved country will take double pleasure in honoring our dear Redeemer while they bless the defenders of the Union, and relieve those who suffer in its cause. It will give them the profoundest joy to add to the cup of cold water ministered to the thirsty soldier on the field of blood, the Christian grace of having it given by a disciple of Jesus, and accompanied by the comforting words of salvation. If, while they aid in saving the nation by saving, cheering, strengthening its defenders, and serve the cause of humanity by mitigating anguish and ministering comfort to the sick, the wounded, the dying, they can at the same time in all they do, glorify the precious Saviour who died for us, their delight will be full, their reward abundant.110

It is clear that the work of the women was not just to aid soldiers but to honor Jesus. Just as Jesus

relieved believers’ suffering, so too did the women of the Ladies’ Christian Commission relieve

the soldier’s suffering. By serving the USCC, they act as conduits of God. The feasibility and

confidence in the establishment of the Ladies’ Christian Commission can be observed in its plan

of action. The Commission was certain that “few churches will refuse to enter into it” because

“Most of them will rejoice in placing themselves side by side with the great body of the churches

of our Lord Jesus in so great a movement and so good a work. Few, if any, who love our

Saviour, our country, and the brave men of our army and navy, will refuse to aid by giving their

109 Moss, Annals of USCC, 356-357.110 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 10-11.

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names and the small fee required.”111 There was general sureness that churches would organize at

once and the women in particular, would be willing to “cheerfully visit, without salary, such

churches as need any one to aid them in organizing, and thus this great national movement can

be thoroughly carried out without the expense of a salaried agency.”112 The USCC’s work would

bring together “nearly all in all our evangelical congregations, present the whole church united in

one grand work of patriotic Christian benevolence, and secure to the United States Christian

Commission an immense fund, not less than a million of dollars, for the unlimited expansion and

vigorous prosecution of its great work in all parts of the army and navy.”113

The establishment of the Ladies’ Christian Commission not only provided women with

the opportunity to contribute, but established a web of evangelical congregations, all working

together in patriotic harmony to assist the Union troops. The needs of the country and the love of

Jesus were so intertwined that one could not be separated from the other, “Happily, a plan has

been formed, which, if carried out, cannot fail of honoring the Saviour, benefiting the soldier,

and helping the country on a truly national scale.”114 Contributing to the relief effort was intrinsic

to their faith. The Commission firmly believed its honorable mission would be enacted swiftly,

without compensation for those involved, but that they would be willing to take up its noble

sacrifice.

The Ladies Christian Commission undoubtedly provided immeasurable aid to not only

the overall efforts of the USCC, but to the broader war relief effort. The amassed money from

these groups, as reported to the Commission, amounted to nearly two hundred thousand

111 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 11-12. 112 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 11-12.113 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 11-12.114 Ladies’ Christian Commission, 11.

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dollars.115 While the Commission recognized potential discrepancy within these numbers, “these

figures can by no means convey an adequate idea of the amount of self-denying labor performed

by these societies, or the results of such labor. They cannot be estimated. Neither are they

complete as regards to the amount contributed, for the reason that a very large amount of stores

and boxes of clothing, prepared by ladies’ societies, were forwarded to the Commission, whose

valuation could not be obtained.”116 It was felt that “And everywhere, whether distinctly named

or not, the ladies were the most numerous and successful workers in providing means for the

Commission.”117 The women, while providing the most basic bodily needs for soldiers, also were

able to advance their work and gain managerial roles within the USCC, as displayed by the

creation of special diet kitchens.

Special Diet Kitchens

The USCC established special diet kitchens in the beginning of 1864. They provided

soldiers in hospitals with diets specifically designed for them to aid in their healing. The special

diet kitchens were an invention of Annie Wittenmyer, a former Sanitary Agent for the state of

Iowa. During her work with the Iowa troops in the Western armies, she received and distributed

donated supplies under the direction of the state government. Being granted such close access to

troops, Wittenmyer turned her attention to relieving the men’s suffering within hospitals. Lemuel

Moss stated

Her observation of the sufferings and necessities of the men, and her desire to see them effectually relieved, turned her thoughts to the subject of hospital diet. While noticing the efforts made by surgeons and their assistants to give to their patients a suitable diet, and also noticing the endeavors to supplement these efforts by voluntary labors, as described above, she saw that the great want could

115 Moss, Annals of USCC, 358. 116 Moss, Annals of USCC, 358-359. 117 Moss, Annals of USCC, 356.

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not be overcome except by some plan, comprehensive and exact, that should maintain military discipline on the one hand while on the other it met the special necessities of every individual patient. The result of her observations and thoughts took shape in the system of Christian Commission Special Diet Kitchens, with which her name will be forever associated.118

She quickly developed a plan for the special diet kitchens. Wittenmyer, who became the General

Superintendent of this service, proposed her plan in the latter part of 1863, and it was adopted by

the USCC January 29, 1864.119 The Commission authorized Wittenmyer to act in “consultation

and co-operation” with Reverend Edward P. Smith, General Field Agent of the United States

Christian Commission for the Army of the Cumberland, and with the Field Agents for the other

armies of the West and Southwest, and with the Branches of the United States Christian

Commission in Pittsburg, Indianapolis, Louisville, St. Louis, Peoria, Chicago, and other places,

for the establishment of special diet kitchens in connection with such hospitals in the Western

and Southwestern departments, and for their supply with the proper stores for preparation, as

they “mutually deem wise and best.”120

Wittenmyer’s plan for special diet kitchens took a disciplined, multi-faceted approach.

Her plan placed medicine and food on an equal level when it came to the overall health of troops.

Moreover, special diets were only to be prescribed by physicians. Her plan embraced the

following points: the special diet kitchens, while part of the regular hospital, were government

kitchens and under the control of the surgeon in charge, thus distinct from general hospital

kitchens; the USCC supplemented the government kitchens with cooking utensils and supplies to

secure the highest standards and the variety of food necessary for such specialized diets;

“experienced and competent” Christian women managed each of the special diet kitchens; these

women derived their authority from the USCC, received compensation from, made reports to,

118 Moss, Annals of USCC, 663-664. 119 Moss, Annals of USCC, 666-667. 120 Moss, Annals of USCC, 668.

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and cooperated with agents and delegates of the Commission; these women were in charge of all

supplies and stores furnished; they also had the privilege of visiting patients, reading to them,

writing letters for them, etc.; ward surgeons prescribed diets based on regular diet lists with as

much care as he prescribed medicine, these lists were then returned to the kitchen, and governed

the distribution of the food; finally, all patients who were in too poor a condition to go to the

general table or to eat the food prepared in the general kitchen, had their meals ordered from the

special diet kitchen.121

Since the special diet kitchens were under the control of the government, the soldiers

were in some small way able to hold onto their regimented lifestyle even when sick or wounded.

The surgeon prescribed and controlled their diet, while kitchen workers prepared everything the

soldiers consumed. The special diet kitchens assured their needs would be met through

supplemental supplies, food, and funding coming from the USCC. These also ensured that high-

quality food would remain available to soldiers. Moreover, the Commission provided and

selected women to work within the special diet kitchens, ensuring the constant presence of

available workers. These women workers not only prepared the food, but delivered it to patients

in a home-like manner, read to them, prayed with them, and wrote letters for them, just as male

USCC delegates did. Not only did women start the kitchens but the kitchens also served as an

important avenue of service for women. The women carried with them some authority, and were

treated as managers by fellow workers, and even received compensation for their work, though it

is not clear how much. The women, in preparing these meals for soldiers, were in a sense

concocting their medications—the special diets were prescribed as carefully, and their healing

properties were strongly felt.

121 Moss, Annals of USCC, 665-666.

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The value of a good diet in easing the wounded soldiers’ suffering cannot be

overestimated. Moss stated that “It can hardly be needful now to dwell upon the importance of a

proper diet for the sick. And yet Miss Nightingale’s terrible statement is probably still true, that

‘thousands of patients are annually starved, in the midst of plenty, from want of attention to the

ways which alone make it possible for them to take food.’”122 The special diet kitchens sought to

combat this desire for attentive care. In order to accomplish their goals, the special diet kitchens

were heavily regulated:

A Diet Bulletin is issued every day to the wards, exhibiting the articles of full, half, and low diet appropriate for that day, together with a list of articles which can be ordered on extra diet. A glance enables the surgeon to see precisely what articles are on hand, and is his guide in making out his orders for diet…While this method increases the responsibility and adds to the work of the surgeon, it certainly promotes to a much greater extent the welfare of the patient. Attention to diet thus becomes one of his most important and necessary duties. It should never have been otherwise. Health, strength, and life itself depend more upon the efficiency of the kitchen than upon the power of the medicines or the agency of external comforts.123

This quote effectively demonstrates the importance of the special diet kitchens in relation to

patient well-being. The willingness of the surgeons to take on the burden of this extra work

exhibits the overall confidence in this aspect of healing. The government rigorously tested and

approved suggested foods in the special diets, “The Surgeon-General has given a “diet table,”

with the various diets—full, half, low, milk, beef tea, and chicken, together with the articles and

amount appropriated to each. This table is the result of very careful and accurate experiments

made in several of the largest hospitals in the United States…it is only the more delicate and

nicer articles which the Christian and Sanitary Commissions have found it necessary to

furnish.”124 Thus, the Commission had access to stores and donations of the more difficult to

122 Moss, Annals of USCC, 664. 123 Moss, Annals of USCC, 676. 124 Moss, Annals of USCC, 674.

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attain articles for the special diet kitchen. According to Moss, “This arrangement also afforded

an easy and effective method of increasing the facilities and resource of the hospital, when these

were for any reason insufficient, by drawing upon the Commission.”125 Only with the aid of the

Commission did these special diet kitchens flourish.

This service of the USCC was not only approved of by the surgeons brought into

immediate contact with it, but it was also endorsed by the government.126 Wittenmyer secured

her access to the army, “By the action of Assistant Surgeon-General R. C. Wood, and of the

Commanding Generals and Quartermasters of the Departments in the West, in the spring of

1864, Mrs. Wittenmyer secured free transportation for herself and assistants, with every facility

for visiting and laboring in the hospitals within their fields.”127 On October 20, 1864, Wittenmyer

even received an endorsement from President Lincoln. “Let this lady have transportation to any

of the armies, and privileges while there not objected to by the Commanders of the armies

respectively.”128 With this powerful backing and overwhelming support, Wittenmyer and her

staff not only aided the soldiers within the hospitals receiving the specialized meals, but those

working within the special diet kitchens.

The special diet kitchens afforded those in marginalized groups an opportunity to work

and have an impact on the war effort. Generally, two ladies were assigned to each special diet

kitchen and over one hundred ladies were engaged in their management.129 Furthermore, the

USCC granted Wittenmyer the power to personally select and appoint the woman managers who

would carry out her plan. There was reportedly a welcoming atmosphere for the women. “The

125 Moss, Annals of USCC, 669. 126 Moss, Annals of USCC, 670. 127 Moss, Annals of USCC, 670.128 Moss, Annals of USCC, 671.129 Moss, Annals of USCC, 670.

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ladies of the Commission were for the most part heavily welcomed by the surgeons, and even

where there was some prejudice to be overcome it was not long yielding. The partial

independence of the managers of the special kitchens, and their responsibility to an extra-

governmental society were found to work advantageously to all concerned.”130 Moreover,

African Americans who worked within the special diet kitchens were reportedly treated equally.

Wittenmyer stated that “we have very excellent men in our kitchen, seven white and three black.

They are all delighted with the new order of things, and say it seems very homelike. We all eat at

the same table—one or two taking turns to serve. The colored men at first positively declined,

but now take their places as requested, and we have a very pleasant, social table.”131 It does

remain unclear how many African Americans served the USCC in this capacity, but those who

did serve the Commission in this way contributed greatly to its success.

The special diet kitchens were reported to be “at once tried and [were] an immediate

success.”132The first special diet kitchen was established in the Cumberland Hospital in Nashville

and was maintained for nearly two years.133 Afterwards, “The kitchens were rapidly multiplied

among the principal general hospitals at the West—as in Louisville, Lexington, Bowling Green,

New Albany, Madison, Nashville, Knoxville, Chattanooga, Memphis, Vicksburg, Little Rock,

etc.” In November 1864, twenty-four had been in operation. In the ensuing winter, besides

further extension in the West, they were introduced into the hospitals of the East—at

Washington, Alexandria, City Point, Point of Rocks, Baltimore, etc. In sum, between fifty and

sixty special diet kitchens were put into operation, varying in the length of operation according to

the needs of their service. They were maintained in the more permanent hospitals until the

130 Moss, Annals of USCC, 668-669. 131 Moss, Annals of USCC, 678. 132 Ibid. 133 Ibid.

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Commission closed its labors.134 The special diet kitchens survived until the end of the war, their

effectiveness felt by all. While restricted to maternal caring roles, women serving the

Commission catered to the bodily needs of soldiers, and in doing so, contributed greatly to the

war effort.

Part IV Conclusion

The Commission did not immediately stop its work when the surrender at Appomattox

took place. With troops still engaged in the Southern and Western fronts, the USCC continued its

work by attending to them, “When at last the armies were disbanded, and the regiments set out

for their several homes, — their fightings over and their marchings ended, — the Commission

attended them on their way, so far as was practicable, met them at the various rendezvous where

they were discharged, and supplied them with such service as they might need.”135 The

Commission wanted to ensure that every last soldier was properly cared for until he or she was

able to return home. In addition to other reading materials, the Commission provided soldiers

with two keepsake texts especially prepared for them, — one by Reverend Dr. E. N. Kirk,

entitled " Mustered Out," published by the Boston Tract Society, and the other issued by the

USCC, entitled " Parting Words," — written by Charles. E. Lex. Their efforts of distributing

Christian reading material adapted to fit the soldiers’ soon-to-be post-war lives. The invention of

these religious keepsake books was designed to bridge the gap between soldier and citizen. They

allowed the new veteran to take pride in not only his service and dedication but all of the

religious teachings and experiences he gained as a result of the Commission’s work. All of the

tracts could be looked back on as encouragement to continue one’s religious journey, to continue

to learn and take care of oneself, and most importantly, to become a model citizen.

134 Moss, Annals of USCC, 669-670. 135 Moss, Annals of USCC, 223.

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The Commission’s work was largely popular at the end of the war. It had the funds and

support to continue its work into the West:

Although these resources were not needed for the emergency apprehended, as the fall of the rebel capital was followed by the bloodless surrender of the rebel armies, yet the Commission was thereby enabled to continue and complete its labors in a manner that in all probability would not have been otherwise possible. Funds for the more quiet and obscure work in Texas and on the Plains could not have been so readily obtained, if the appeal had been for that work alone, after the excitement and interest of the war had largely passed away.136

The Commission ensured every last soldier was cared for. They sought to reach not only those in

the more accessible regions of the nation, but expanded their work into Texas and the Great

Plains. Despite the interest in the war effort having passed, the Commission was still able to

complete its work in lesser-known regions where the war was still ongoing. After Robert E. Lee

surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865, the war continued. On May 12, 1865,

the final battle of the war took place at Palmito Ranch, Texas, resulting in a Confederate victory.

General Simon Bolivar Buckner agreed to terms for the surrender of the Army of the Trans-

Mississippi on June 2, 1865, the Civil War had officially ended. Cherokee leader Stand Watie

became the last Confederate general to surrender on June 23, 1865. Yet, the Grand Review of the

Army of the Potomac and of General Sherman’s Army on May 23 and May 24, 1865,

respectively, marked an end of the war for civilians. The fanfare and celebrations were over. For

northerners, it was time now to return to normal life, they had generously given to its cause for

four years, but they wanted to leave the strife of the war in the past. The Commission, however,

had considerations of expanding its work.

Having such support and popularity in continuing their work, the Commission was

unsure of its next moves now that the war was coming to an end. There was a desire to parlay

136 Moss, Annals of USCC, 224.

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their momentum into work outside of the war, but the original mission of the Commission

prevented this:

As the necessity for the peculiar work of the Commission diminished, it was suggested in several quarters that they might advantageously turn their attention to new fields, which were opening to the benevolence and Chris tian activity of the nation. It was said that the Commission was well organized, had the confidence of the government and the people, possessed unusual facilities for reaching all parts of the nation, and could hence accomplish more in the way of educational and evangelizing movements than newer or less comprehensive associations. These suggestions were carefully considered by the Executive Committee, but it was deemed inexpedient to adopt them. The Committee thought that as the Commission was organized for a specific purpose, the organization should cease as soon as its purpose had been accomplished. They felt that a prompt relinquishment of their trust, with a full report of the manner in which it had been discharged, was due alike to themselves and the public. Accordingly, at their meeting held on May 18, the Executive Committee, after an extended review of all the questions and interests involved, adopted the following minute by a unanimous vote: —

Whereas, The United States Christian Commission was formed early in the war for a special purpose, "To promote the spiritual and temporal welfare of the soldiers in the army and the sailors and marines in the navy," and

Whereas, That work, which God has so abundantly blessed, is nearly done; therefore

Resolved, That it is the intention of the United States Christian Commission to hold itself strictly to its original purpose, and to dis continue its operations as soon as the necessities shall cease which required its organization.

At the same meeting the following resolutions were also unanimously adopted: —

Resolved, That we will make no further efforts to organize Ladies' Christian Commissions.

Resolved, That the services of all paid Collecting Agents employed by this Committee be terminated on the first day of June next.

Resolved, That the above action of the Executive Committee be communicated to the Branch Commissions, and that they be advised to dispense with all paid Collecting Agents.

Everything was now directed toward the closing up of the stations and offices of the Commission, as rapidly as the welfare of the soldiers would permit. The military posts were gradually abandoned by the troops, and the hospitals were gradually emptied of their patients, and the work of the Commission was curtailed in similar measure. During the summer and early autumn most of the permanent Agents and officers resigned. The

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Branch Commissions were left to close up their local matters according to their judgment, as determined by the general principles already announced.137

As it was decided that the Commission’s original goal was to aid Union soldiers, it was

determined by the seventeen-man Executive Committee, that the Commission’s work would

cease once the last soldiers were sent home. Its mission of providing spiritual guidance to the

Union was complete. It was believed that once the soldiers returned home, their needs would

end, after all, the exigency of war had ended. The Executive Committee voted unanimously to

stop all parts of the organization as soon as it was deemed appropriate to do so. All work in

spreading the Ladies’ Christian Commission had stopped, all paid workers would cease their

work in June, and USCC stations and offices closed as soon as the last troops left them.

Permanent and paid agents resigned as well. Since the Commission had accomplished its goal of

catering to the physical and spiritual well-being of those in the Union Army, they began

terminating their efforts. Shortly after the war, the Commission’s work ceased, officially

dissolving on January 1, 1866.

Despite the various soldiers’ aid organization ending with the war, the newly minted

veterans’ needs continued. After their service concluded, many veterans remained scarred

mentally and physically by what they had endured. Victory had a price—soldiers returned home

missing limbs, addicted to drugs and alcohol, plagued by disease, experiencing what we now

know to be post-traumatic stress disorder, and unable to work. Few returned home to find their

farms, homes, and supplies decimated by the Gettysburg campaign. Others went to live in

soldiers’ homes, insane asylums, and poorhouses throughout the country; some were even

reduced to vagrancy. The post-war society had not yet figured out how to handle the burden of

rebuilding a unified nation, paying pensions, shouldering the immense loss of both humans and

137 Moss, Annals of USCC, 225-227.

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resources. Gone were the handouts of food, literature, spiritual guidance, and medical treatment

of the USCC. Moreover, for Union veterans returning north, there was a general lack of

understanding of the trauma they underwent. Unlike their southern counterparts, northerners

were not exposed to the same kinds of violence—the only major battle occurring in the north was

less than dozen miles away from the Mason-Dixon Line.138 According to historian Brian

Matthew Jordan, “Union veterans won the Civil War only to return home to another one.”139

There was a general expectation that these victorious, war-hardened men would have a

successful return to society. The Commission had vowed, “not to leave them until they had

ceased to be soldiers and had become again simple citizens of the Republic.”140 It was widely

thought that once these soldiers returned home, they would no longer need aid. The expectation

for a simple transition back to a life of normal citizenry was evident, yet those who did not

experience combat harbored contradictory beliefs about the veterans.

Citizens back home harbored deep suspicion about soldiers returning home. A New York

newspaper reported that “They are coming back to us, these brave, disbanded soldiers…scarred

and mutilated, crippled in body, crippled in mind.”141 Moreover, he was certain that the soldiers

would carry with them “long trains” of disease and moral maladies.142 A Wisconsin newspaper

stated that “no doubt considerable apprehension is felt of suddenly disbanding and sending home

the many thousands employed for the past few years in the avocation of war.”143 The violence of

the war, the bloodiest ever seen, made northerners skeptical of the nature of those who fought,

“after all, they had confiscated acres of cotton and thousands of slaves, torched southern cities,

138 Brian Matthew Jordan, Marching Home: Union Veterans and Their Unending Civil War (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2014), 6. 139 Jordan, Marching Home. 7.140 Moss, Annals of USCC, 223. 141 Jordan, Marching Home, 33.142 Ibid. 143 Ibid.

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maimed enemies, and waged a more devastating kind of war.”144 Moreover, immigrants

constituted one-quarter of enlisted men by the end of the war, and the overwhelming xenophobia

added to the distrust of soldiers. Often, there was no fanfare for returning soldiers, no parades or

cheering crowds awaited them. The Boston Daily Advertiser reported that soldiers were “allowed

to pass through” with “as chilly a silence as if they came home humbled with defeat.”145 Several

soldiers reported that pre-war acquaintances and even family members did not recognize them

upon their return. New Hampshire veteran, Phineas Whitehouse, wrote: “There is no disguising

it, boys, the people are afraid of us.”146 Their disfigured and war-torn bodies, perceived

immoralities, and violent occupation made northern citizens question these former soldiers’ place

within society. Yet, some were certain that with the war behind them, soldiers were bound to

easily progress back to normal life.

The assumption that the returning men were war-hardened citizen soldiers who would

transition seamlessly back into society caused unimaginable harm to these veterans. Veterans

could not shake the memories of war. They could not forget the frenzy of battle, with bullets and

shot whirling past, the sights of their fallen comrades, and the gravity of their actions. Veteran

Stephen Chase could still recall years later the assaults on Petersburg, Virginia June 16, 1864

when a rebel shell flew in his direction and disemboweled his company commander who was

standing immediately to his right, “I can see my old comrade lying there in his own gore and

being carried to his last resting place under the wild apple tree.”147 Such memories have been

recounted by innumerable soldiers, their impact on them immeasurable. Those who endured the

most horrifying treatments were often most willing to tell their stories. Ex-prisoners of war felt

144 Jordan, Marching Home, 43. 145 Jordan, Marching Home, 38. 146 Jordan, Marching Home, 43. 147 Jordan, Marching Home, 72.

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an intrinsic need to share their stories with as many civilians as possible. Yet, the truth of these

wartime prisons seemed so unbelievable and was unlike anything that had taken place during

modern civilian times that citizens did not believe it. Ex-prisoners were accused of embellishing

their stories to spoil the peace for their own partisan agenda and to perpetuate a hatred for the

South.148 According to modern war psychiatrist, Jonathan Shay, “if they are to heal” survivors

“need to voice their grief” publicly with “some mix of formal social ceremony” and some

“informal telling of the story” so that they may feel that they are not “alone.”149 Traumatized by

what they themselves had done, endured, and witnessed, and the mistreatment they received at

home, some veterans committed suicide. Northern civilians gave little attention to veterans, after

all, they felt that the war had ended, the Union was restored, veterans and prisoners had been

returned home, and the perpetrators had been punished.150

Northern citizens gave no consideration as to social welfare, veterans’ rights, or veterans’

aid. Even though the challenges of incorporating veterans into society were apparent, soldiers’

aid societies, the Sanitary Commission, and the Christian Commission all ceased their work

when the last of the soldiers returned home.151 The Union veterans could not rely on government

aid or civic philanthropy to assist them. Worse still, many employers refused to hire veterans,

due to veterans’ disabilities and employer biases, making it impossible to make a living. Soldiers

were unable to live on their four or eight dollar a month pensions, if they received one at all,

while the average laborer in 1865 earned forty-four dollars a month, and those in skilled trades

brought home as much as eighty dollars a month.152 Poverty was prominent among veterans, with

several living in tenement houses. Some turned to begging to make their livings. One veteran

148 Jordan, Marching Home, 133, 145. 149 Jordan, Marching Home, 133. 150 Jordan, Marching Home, 134. 151 Jordan, Marching Home, 60.152 Jordan, Marching Home, 57.

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stated that “the good people of this country are tired of giving, and disgusted at the sight of the

crippled relic of the war.”153 Yet, in the considerations on when the USCC should dissolve, it was

noted that the support for the organization had not waned, and there was even talk of continuing

its work, but the Executive Committee had decided against it, perhaps foretelling the coming

opposition to such aid from Northern citizens. The President of the Sanitary Commission, Henry

Whitney Bellows, commented that the war “drained [volunteers] of strength,” and that it was “a

wicked waste of money and time and wisdom;” Bellows did not want Union veterans spending

the rest of their lives in poor houses, but instead wanted to “economize our battered heroes, and

take care of them in such a way as to maintain the military spirit and the national pride; to nurse

the memories of the war, and to keep in the eye of the Nation the price of its liberties.”154

Bellows had argued that the communities that raised the regiments should be responsible for

providing employment and “sympathetic aid.”155 Citizens no longer wanted to give to veterans—

the growing economic depression and “mounting class-consciousness led many to fear ‘that

relief was turning into a right.’”156 Northern citizens felt veterans should be able to care for

themselves, without the aid of the government or charities. Moreover, the rise of Social

Darwinism thinking in the North painted disabled Union veterans as “greedy and conniving, not

so heroic after all.”157 Without the work and support of the USCC, veterans were left to fend for

themselves.

While social Darwinism took hold of the North immediately following the Civil War, the

USCC’s work certainly contributed to the rise of the Social Gospel Movement in the early

153 Jordan, Marching Home, 59.154 Jordan, Marching Home, 60-61.155 Jordan, Marching Home, 61.156 Ibid. 157 Fred Pelka, The Civil War Letters of Colonel Charles F. Johnson, Invalid Corps (Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2004), 38.

54

twentieth century. This movement was especially popular among Protestant groups as it applied

the principles of Christianity to post-war social problems. The notion that people must emulate

the life of Jesus Christ by helping the needy became the core principle of the Movement.158

Followers of this movement enacted several reforms to aid others, including the creation of

settlement houses, access to education, and healthcare. Focused on meeting bodily needs, the

Social Gospel Movement harkened back to the USCC’s policy of “bread first, bibles later.” They

hoped that with public health measures and enforced schooling that poor children would develop

skills to lift them out of poverty. These reforms, similar in nature to those of the USCC, began in

the late nineteenth century and flourished at the beginning of the twentieth century along with

the Progressive Movement.

This aid came too late for a large number of Union veterans. By 1890, a full company of

Union veterans passed away each day.159 With the lack of charitable work and little, if any,

transition into civilian life, most newly minted veterans were doomed to live in squalor, living in

the shadows and memories of their war years. There was little honor to be had for those who

returned home. Aid and reform were promised only for the gallant young soldier, bravely risking

his life for a nation that dreaded his return home.

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Hodgman, Edwin R. A brief memoir of Rev. Joseph Bancroft Hill, who died in the service of U.S.

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