For the convenience of studying, the process of Unification of Germany can be divided into three phases.

1. 1815 – 1848

War Marz Zollverein - 1834 1848 German revolutions - March 1848 Declaration of Heidelberg - 5th March 1848 Vorparlament or preparatory parliament - 31st March Frankfurt parliament - May 1848 Prussian parliament - May 1848 Dissolution of the Prussian parliament - Nov. 1848 The constitution of king William iv - late 1848

2. 1849 – 1862

Dissolution of Frankfurt parliament - June 1849 Prussian Union Plan - 1849 The Three Kings Alliance - late 1849 Establishment of Erfurt union - March 1850 Capitulation of Olmutz - Nov. 1850 Formal re-establishment of the Diet of the German Confederation – May

1851 Economic success of Prussia Extension of Railways Reforms of the countryside and the towns by Manteuffel Reform of the army Ascendancy of Frederick William as William the 1 of Prussia - 1861 Constitutional crisis 1860-1862 Appointment of Bismarck as Minister President - Sep. 1862

3. 1863 – 1871

Death of king Frederick vii of Denmark - Nov. 1863 succession of Christian ix to the Danish throne Nov. 1863 Occupation of Schleswig and Holstein by combine Prussian and Austrian

army - Jan. 1864 Failure of London Conference - April-June 1864 Surrender of Denmark - July 1864 Treaty of Vienna - October 1864 Convention of Gastein - August 1865 Meeting at Biarritz with Napoleon iii - October 1865 An alliance with Italy - April 1866 Intrusion of the Prussian army into the Austrian controlled Holstein - June

1866 Battle of Sadowa [Koniggratz] - July 1866 Treaty of Prague - August 1866 The establishment of North German Confederation - July 1867 Luxemburg Crisis - 1867 The Hohenzollern candidature crisis 1867-1870 The Ems telegram - July 1870 Franco Prussian war/Battle of Metz, the French army retreated into the

fortress and defeated in Oct.. 1870 and Sep.1870 battle of Sedan Proclamation of German second Empire and William 1 or Wilhelm 1

proclaimed German Emperor or Kaiser - 18th January 1871 The treaty of Frankfurt - May 1871

Phase 1

1815 -1848 Characterized by reaction and repression.

Free speech, democratic movements, political liberties, university freedom and liberalism in government and religion were strongly suppressed.

Educated people and intellectuals who wanted to participate in govt. increased and circulation of their ideas were speeded up by development of railway net work in Germany/Lines connecting Silesia to Vienna and Berlin.

These were also the major reasons for 1848 German revolutions and also the establishment of Frankfurt parliament.

Incidents that led to the formation of the Frankfurt parliament.

- The demands for liberal constitutions, representatives elected on franchise, & a German peoples’ parliament ( By Liberals ), fairer taxation, education for all, better wages and establishment of a united German republic by Radicals intensified.

- March 1848 meeting in Heidelberg. 51 representatives from 6 states Prussia, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, Nassau, and Frankfurt discussed changes to German political institutions.

- March 5 – 1848 – These decisions were published in the Declaration of Heidelberg.

- Invitations were sent for ‘an assembly of German’ to serve as a preparatory parliament to reach an agreement on how to elect a national parliament that would draw up a constitution for a united Germany.

- 31st March 1848 – 574 representatives from almost all the states of confederation meet at Pauluskirche (St. Paul’s Church in Frankfurt.) This assembly came to be known as Vorparlament.

- After 5 days of debate members reach an agreement as to how representatives should be chosen for the National Parliament.

-It would meet in Frankfurt. -Should consist of one rep. for every 50,000 inhabitants.

-Should be elected by citizens who were of age & economically independent.

May 1848 the Frankfurt Assembly / Parliament met in Frankfurt – 596 members – educated.

-Most of the members were prominent figures in the local communities.

-Over 80% of the members had ‘university’ degrees.

-Most were teachers, lawyers, professors or govt. officers. – Only 4

Craftsmen, one peasant and few land owners.

-75 – 90 % of men voted.

-They elected ‘electors’ who chose representatives.

Key tasks of the Frankfurt Parliament:

-Draw up a national constitution

-To agree on a series of ‘Basic rights & Demands

Key Intentions:

--To establish a united Germany under a constitutional monarch.

-The new Germany to have a stronger central govt. (unlike the Diet of the Confederation with individual states having a very high degree of independence from Federal Control. )

--Greater control over the actions of states.

-- For the national constitution to be Sovereign which meant, that while the individual states have the right to make their own laws and the laws are valid only if they don’t conflict with those of the constitution.

The Frankfurt assembly / parliament declared their authority over the states, monarchs & their parliament.

The Frankfurt assembly / parliament found it difficult to draw up a constitution due to indecisiveness of its members.

The outcome was the setting up of a provisional government in June 1848, to rule until the constitution is drawn up by the Frankfurt parliament.

- An Imperial Regent of the empire to be elected by the parliament.- An elderly Austrian Arch due, John was elected as the Regent.- The region was to govern through Ministers appointed by him. But this

provisional govt. was quite ineffectual. (It lacked confidence and it was unable to get things done.) For the Regent’s ministers did not have staff or money, nor their duties were clearly defined.

Achievements of the Frankfurt parliament:

- Dec.1848 - 50 articles of fundamental rights of German citizens were approved and became law.

Problems that the Frankfurt parliament encountered when drawing up the national constitution:

- Territorial extent – The existing territories of the confederation did not confirm to any logical definition of Germany.

- Those parts that were within the boundaries of confederation contained many Czechs and Poles while provinces which contained overwhelmingly German speaking population were excluded.

- Some members of the Frankfurt Assembly / Parliament wanted predominantly German speaking provinces of Austria to be included in the New Germany- Grossdeutschland - This plan would maintain the leadership of Catholic Austria.

- Other members wanted only to exclude Austria but to include whole of Prussia- (or a Kleindeutschland). This plan would have Protestant Prussia as the leading state of Germany.

- Frankfurt Assembly was unable to decide & the debate dragged on inconclusively.

Reasons as to why Frankfurt Assembly / Parliament could not reach any decision.

- Lacked real muscle/strength for it did not have financial power being unable to collect tax.

- It did not have an army of its own. E.g. When Denmark made the decision to incorporate Schleswig & Holstein although noisy protests were made the Parliament could do nothing & had to look to Prussia to defend German interests. Prussian troops did occupy the two duchies in April – May 1848 but sensing the Russian & British opposition agreed to the armistice of Malmo in August. This withdrawal was regarded as a betrayal of the

German National cause by the Frankfurt deputies, but they could do nothing.

- Lack of popular support – The industrial code put forward by the Artisan Congress in Frankfurt was rejected by the Frankfurt parliament and many workers lost their faith in the parliament.

- Majority liberals, Minority Radicals & the small conservative groups who wanted to preserve the rights of the individual groups did not see eye to eye at any time.

- In addition to these there were yet others who were independent & politically uncommitted.

- The leader of the Frankfurt parliament, Heinrich Gagern was not forceful enough to dominate the assembly.

- It was impossible to resolve the differences among the members to reach any decision.

While this indecisiveness continued the radicals within & outside the Frankfurt Parliament continued to demand for broader political & social reform.

18th Sept. 1848 a radical mob stormed St. Paul’s church & in the ensuing fight 80 got killed which discredited the Radicals in the eyes of many Germans.

Moderate Liberals joined hands with the Conservatives to combat Radicals.

Counter – revolution was in full swing because Radicals were divided into various rival factions.

March 1849 Constitution for German Empire was finally agreed on:

- There were to be 2 houses – The lower to be elected by men over 25 with a good reputation.

- Upper house to be made up of reigning monarchs & princes.- Two houses to have control over legislation & finance.- The new Germany to be a Kleindeutschland.

March 1849 Frankfurt Parliament voted to elect the Prussian king – Frederick William IV as the emperor of the new empire. Out of the 530 – 290 voted in favour of the proposal with 240 abstentions.

William IV refused to accept the German Crown on the grounds that it was not in the hands of the Parliament to offer it to him.

- The king believed that the Parliament had taken it upon itself to speak for united Germany without legal authority.

- If he accepted he would have to be under the control parliament.- If he accepted the crown he may have to face serious foreign policy

implications. ( anger of the rulers of the other German states )- Might offend Austria

The rulers of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover together with Prussia refused / rejected the constitution.

Most members lost heart & went back, left / abandoned the Parliament.

The remnants, about 130 called for the election of the first new German Parliament or ‘ Reichstag ‘ – Nobody responded.

The Frankfurt Parliament which was driven out of Frankfurt moved to Stuttgart, the capital of the kingdom of Wurttemberg.

June 1849 – Frankfurt Parliament was forcibly dispersed by the king’s soldiers.

The reasons for the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament:

- Did not overthrow the existing power structures accused Engels, Max’s friend – but most members were moderates.

- Wasted time on discussing fundamental rights of Germans & failed to fill the power vacuum felt in 1849.

- Parliament had to depend on the willing co-operation of individual states – hence lacked power to enforce decrees.

- Austria had no wish to see a more united or democratic Germany for, to retain her power over German states they had be kept divided & weak.

- Prussia failed to make use of the opportunity available to them with chaotic situation in Austria in 1848.

- The unwillingness of Frederick William IV & most of his subjects to be merged in a united Germany according to / on Frankfurt Parliament’s terms.

- The dislike of most individual states to lose their independence & be controlled by a central authority.

- Absence of an army.- No financial strength.- Austria regaining power in 1849.

The causes of the 1848 revolutions in German states:

- Sparked off by France upon being declared a republic after Louis Philippe was overthrown on Feb. 24th 1848 and Louis Napoleon being elected as the President of the new Republic.

- Immediate Cause- The proclamation of people’s Sovereignty ( Highest independent power ) brought established authority into question.( People who accepted the ultimate power of their rulers started questioning the validity of it ) Louis Philippe was replaced by Louis Napoleon who became Emperor Napoleon iii in 1852.

- 13th March – Mass demonstrations in Vienna – situation got out of control. Metternich fled.

- Metternich’s fall added fuel to revolutionary conflagrations in most German states.

- Most German rulers lost their nerve & gave in easily to the demand for more representative governments.

- Urban liberals were appalled by the destruction wreaked / caused by peasants to private property.

- Liberal government sent troops to put down the peasant uprisings

Long term causes of the 1848 revolutions

1. - Widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership & set up which was largely / to a very great extent autocratic.

2. - The demand for more participation in governance of the country and for democracy

3 . - Desire for more political freedom.

4. – Grievances of the working class (Better wages, housing and less working hours etc.)

5. (Economic crisis) failure of crops 1n 1846 and the price hike in food prices.

(a) 1846 – 1847 corn harvest failed

(b) This situation was made worse by a serious outbreak of potato blight – potato being the main food item of peasants & failure of crops meant starvation.

6. Across Germany when food prices rose, it led to a reduction of consumer spending on items other than food stuffs – As a result crafts & other industrial products suffered a sharp fall – Employers responded to this situation by making workers redundant / by dismissing workers no longer needed – hence dismissed.

7. Rate of unemployment rose up.

8. The discontent of the traditional craftsmen.

- Hand crafts such as cloth weaving was being mechanized by this time and that put the traditional craftsmen out of work such as Silesian craftsmen.

9. Nationalism:

- Desire for a unified Germany.

10. Exclusion of middle class educated Germans from participating in the political process.

11. Not listening /yielding to liberal demands.

12. Growing demands of the radicals.

13. Restriction of free expression of people of their aspirations and their grievances by the censor and the secret police.

14. Dissatisfaction of workers and peasants at growing capitalist practices that pushed them into greater poverty.

15. Failure of repeated attempts at economic and political change by legal means.

The course of the revolution of Prussia:

13th March 1848 – A demonstration by workers mostly by self employed craftsmen took place in the Palace Square in Berlin. Shots were fired by the troops & fighting continued in a confused way for the next two days. The workers now demanded the maintenance of workers’ rights.

16th March 1848 – News of revolution in Vienna & Metternich’s fall fuel led fighting.

When fighting first began a deputation of leading citizens asked the king to make political concessions & new the king agreed to recall the United Diet & end censorship.

On 18th March 1848 a large crowd that gathered outside the Royal Palace & they cheer the king when he appeared on the balcony.

The king ordered the crowd to be dispersed & again shots are fired by the troops that triggered serious fighting & troops won the control of the city but about 300 are killed.

The king who hated bloodshed & the army & military matters made a personal appeal to the Berliners & promised to withdraw troops if street barricades erected by the fighters / rioters are removed.

Troops are withdrawn due to a misunderstanding. King guarded by Berlin citizens. March 19th 1848 king left with no option appear on the balcony & salutes

the dead rioters taken in a procession. March 21 St 1848 -The King of Prussia, Frederick William IV appeared on

the streets wearing the Black red & gold armband. In the following days king granted a series of reforms appointing a new

liberal ministry & agreeing to the election of an assembly to draw up a new constitution for Prussia.

People hoped that Frederick William IV would become a constitutional monarch.

The king escapes to Potsdam & there he went back on all what he had said. He talked of humiliation at the way he was forced to grant a constitution.

Meanwhile the new liberal ministry declared war against Denmark. (Supporting German claims to the 2 duchies of Schleswig and Holsteins. )

May 1848 – The new Prussian parliament met (whose election was supervised by the Liberal ministry.) dominated by liberals, one third radicals could not agree about the nature of the new constitution – The new parliament achieved in abolishing the feudal privileges of the Junker class.

August 1848 – To defend the interests of the landowners & Nobles they formed local associations & met in Berlin. It was called the league for the protection of landed property & it pledged to work for the abolition of the Prussian Parliament & the dismissal of the Liberal Ministry.

The conservatives urge the king to win back power they stressed that reforms should come from the king – They too wanted to modernize Prussia. The conservatives, Junkers, army officers & higher govt. officials became powerful – People lose the enthusiasm for revolution.

April – May 1848 Prussia declared war – Liberal Ministry. Prussian troops occupy Schleswig & Holstein.

August 1848 king regain control over foreign policy concluded an armistice (armistice of Malmo) with Danes to the disgust of the Frank Parliament.

Oct. 1848 – Riots in Berlin by workers drew middle classes to the ruling class – Hapsburg.

Success in Austria encouraged the king to put an end to Prussian Parliament & dismissed the liberal Ministry ( December 1848 by a Royal decree )

Nov. 1848 King regained power in Berlin. The king then offered a constitution that was a mixture of Liberalism &

absolutism which Prussia received well.

Causes of the failure of the revolution in Prussia:

Revolutionary divisions – wide differences in political aims.a) Liberals wanted constitutional governments in all states & a united empire

with a national parliament.b) Radicals wanted a complete social & political change within a republican

frameworkc) Nationalists too were divided : unified states or a federation,

Grossdeutschland or Kleindeutschland, monarchy or republic.d) While popular movements were at the root of the revolution, it was the

classes with means who seized power. They too were afraid of social revolutions as the conservatives.

e) Radicals themselves were not united – the ones in the lower rung had practical aims such as better living conditions – higher wages, but their leaders, the intellectuals wanted to realize their political ideologies.

f) Across Germany the vast majority of the population were the peasantry & their support was not much – 1847 – 1848 harvests were reasonably good – once the remaining restrictions of feudalism had been removed they lost interest in the revolution & even helped suppress the rioters as loyal military conscripts.

g) Local loyalties were strong – it was an obstacle in the way of national unity.h) The slow progress of Frankfurt parliament also weaned the enthusiasm for

a unified state.i) Popular enthusiasm is always short lived.

The strength of the conservatives, they were better organized & had military power – In Prussia. The king regained power because of the well trained army loyal to him – on the contrary the revolutionaries were divided – disorganized & uncoordinated.

Erfurt Plan:

1849 – General Radowitz, an ardent nationalist came up with the Prussian Union Plan.

Features:

(a) Kleindeutschland

(b) Under Prussian leadership

(c) A strong central govt. based on the constitution drawn up by the Frankfurt Parliament – And this would be the German Federal Reich (empire)

(d) Austria though excluded would have a special relationship.

Austrian chief minister, Schwarzenberg opposed but internal problems kept him from taking action.

This situation coupled with the fact that Prussia had the strongest army in 1849 enabled them to go ahead with the plan.

An alliance called the’ Three kings Alliance’ between Prussia, Saxony & Hanover was made & several smaller states were persuaded to accept the Prussian proposals.

March 1850 encouraged by this success called a meeting at Erfurt, of representatives of all German states to launch the new Reich.

28 states agreed to the creation of Prussian dominated Erfurt plan. Several important states refused to join being suspicious of Prussian

ambitions & fearing the anger of Austria. Once internal problems were resolved the Austrian chief minister

Schwarzenberg put forward a plan – a Grossdeutschland governed jointly by the delegates from Austria, Prussia & larger German states – Favouring this plan of Austria the larger German states abandoned the Erfurt plan & joined the Austrian plan ( Saxony, Hanover )

1850 May to summon the Diet of old German Confederation a meeting was convened by Austria in Frankfurt – Now 2 assemblies claimed to speak for Germans. -----Prussian led Erfurt Parliament / Austrian led Frankfurt Diet.

The first act of open hostility between Prussia and Austria

Hesse – Cassel a member state of Erfurt Union asked for help from the Frankfurt Diet to take action over a revolution in it – Prussia Opposed.

Hesse - Cassel was of strategic importance to Prussia, in the sense it stands between Rhineland & the eastern part of Prussia & Hesse - Cassel controlled communication between the two parts.

Prussian army mobilized – Aus. Issued an ultimatum saying only the troops of old confederation had the right to intervene.

Small scale fighting broke out between the two armies & F. William iv who did not wish for war dismissed Radowitz – Even the new Prussian minister president Edwin Manteuffel ardently wished to avoid war.

Nov. 29th 1850 at Olmutz a meeting between Manteuffel & Schwerzenberg took place where Prussian agreed to abandon Erfurt plan – They also agreed to a conference of states to discuss the future of Germany at Dresden in early 1851 –While Austria had won a huge diplomatic victory & Prussia had suffered huge humiliation.

Developments after Olmutz

Prussians blamed Austria for the surrender to Austrian terms & some Prussians became determined that Prussian should one day dominate a united Germany - & they realized that Austria stood in the way of achieving it.

Schwerzenberg proposed an Austrian dominated middle Europe incorporating the 70 million people of all German states & the Hapsburg Empire.

Smaller states rejected it There was a strong pressure for a return to the situation pre 1848. Prussia

supported it – this was acceptable to Prussia than accepting the Austrian counter plan.

May 1851 the German Confederation of 1815 was formally re-established & alliance between Prussia & Austria was made – signaling a return to a policy of close – co-operation

SITUATION AFTER MAY - 1851

But relations between the two states were far from close.

Prussia 1856 - Bismarck - An emerging Prussian statesman foresee a confrontation with Austria.

DEVELOPMENTS WITHIN PRUSSIA BEFORE THIS TIME IN 1850s

1849 realizing the political implications (what it suggests or implies) of Prussian economic success Schwarzenberg suggested a Zollunion, an extended customs union between Austria & Zollverein – It failed.

1851 – he tried to form another Customs Union with those German states still outside the Zollverein.

That too failed.

Though Austria had the political leadership of the Confederation, it was effectively isolated from the Prussian dominated economic coalition ( action of uniting into one body, group alliance )

1850s PRUSSIAN ECONOMY – BOOM

Industrial productions Railway building Foreign trade more than doubled.

Reasons for Economic Boom:

Had a good education system from primary schools to University level. There was a plentiful supply of coal, iron (steel) and chemicals. Had a good system of communication. A number of key individuals like Alfred Krupps the great iron & steel

magnate ( person who has a powerful attraction playing important roles)

The influence of Zollverein The measures taken by Manteuffel to make life easier & better for

peasants & workers. By mid 1850s Prussia was economically strong & was in a position to

finance a full scale war (with Austria) was increasing. Manteuffel thought that the best way to stabilize the society &

reduce the chances of revolution was to uplift the living conditions of peasants & workers.

Granted limited changes in the constitution Introduced beneficial measures in the country side & in the towns.

Reforms in the Countryside (as a basis of popular support)

All peasants freed from feudal obligations to their landlords. Granted govt. loans at special low interest rates for peasants to buy their

land – 600,000 did so. Giving financial help to peasants to move from overpopulated areas to less

populated areas ( when peasants flocked to towns seeking jobs )

Reforms in the Towns : Govt. helped the factory workers. A standard minimum wage was encouraged Financial help given to industry Children under 12 were forbidden to be hired to work in factories Inspectors appointed to improve working conditions in factories Industrial courts set up to settle disputes

The Growth of Liberalism: Despite the repressive & reactionary policies after 1848 – 49

Liberalism grew. The middle class in large numbers joined the liberals.

Though these were disparities among right & left wing liberals, they agreed on one thing – that was that National Unity was priority.

1850 – 58 Manteuffel governed the country without the parliament – but he believed in governing well which meant acting in the best interests of all people.

So in 1850 though Prussia was politically reactionary (imposed strict censorship & restrictions on political meetings) it was socially reforming & economically prosperous.

AUSTRIA’S ECONOMIC & INTERNATIONAL SITUATION IN 1850s.

1854 – At the Crimean War (Fought by Britain, France & Turkey against Russia) though Austria was neutral, with wavering diplomacy lost Russia’s friendship & neither gained the friendship of either France or Britain.

By the end of the Crimean war Austria was economically & financially in a bad/poor condition state.

Keeping a large army mobilized during the war had a crippling effect on the economy.

Taxation was not sufficient to run the country Depression across Europe in 1850 1859 war against joint Piedmont & French army – Losing

at Magenta & Solferino & losing Lombardy – Austrian prestige (reputation) was shaken – Cost of war had a terrible effect on the already strained finances.

Situation in Prussia after William 1st takes over in 1858 as the regent and king in 1861:

1858 became Regent ( a ruler invested with authority on behalf of another ) – He was practical – hard headed & inflexible

1858 – He dismissed Manteuffel and replaced him with a ministry containing both liberals & conservatives – held elections that gave moderate liberals a small majority.

Seeing how inefficient the Prussian army was – could not mobilize the army during the 1859 war (Austro-Italian)

In 1860, General Roon, the new minister of war of William 1, an administrative genius introduced a bill to reform the army

Reforms that were made aimed at:

a) Doubling the size of the regular armyb) Increasing the period of military service from 2 to 3 years.c) Reducing the role played by the inefficient Landwehr. (A middle class

reserve force that could be called up for service in an emergency. Many of its officers were old and poorly trained.)

d) Re-equipping the troops

This bill of reform led to constitutional crisis of 1860 – 62

Reasons:

Liberals believed this expansion was not for the defence of Prussia from foreign invasions but to suppress its own people like in 1848 - 49

Landwehr was popular with Liberals Because the parliament believed it should have the control over the

expenditure of the army & if it couldn’t the powers of the parliament was nothing.

William 1 was determined that the army expenditure would not be the concern of the parliament.

1861 Dec. in the newly elected parliament the radical liberals – (the progressive party as they were called) became the largest party.

They refused to pass the bill. William the 1 dissolved the parliament & replaced the positions with

Conservatives. At the 1862 elections progressive party in alliance with other opposition

groups became the majority – again the parliament refused to pass the bill William even thought of abdicating 1862 – On the advice of General Albrecht Roon – King William 1 appointed

Otto Von Bismarck as the Chief Minister – This was one of the momentous occasions in the process of German unification.

How Bismarck overcame the opposition from the parliament

30th Sept. 1862 – The first speech to impress the liberals & to convey that if Prussia was to fulfill its role as the leading German state towards greater unity that it could be done through ’ iron & blood ‘ and not through ‘speeches & majority decisions’ misfired. They misinterpreted it as ‘blood and iron ‘.

Liberals turned his bitter enemies. When parliament refused to pass the bill he declared that it was not

needed & the army reforms could be financed from taxation. He collected taxes & the army was re-organized.

1863 elections gave 70 % of the parliament seats to liberals. Yet for 4 years - & through 2 wars Bismarck directed Prussian affairs

without parliamentary approval.

Who was Bismarck?

From the land owning nobility ( Junkers ) A good linguist fluent in French, English & Russian Excellent sportsman, a crack shot, expert fencer, proud and arrogant Imperious & of dominating temperament 1859 Appointed Prussian ambassador to Russia 1862 Became Minister – President 1864 initiated war against Denmark 1867 initiated war against Austria 1870 initiated France – Prussian war 1871 – 90 served as the chancellor of the new German empire – He argued

in support of the King ‘s capitulation at Olmutz as saying a war for Hesse Cassel was useless – this made him the Prussian envoy to the newly revived old Diet of the confederation – He remained in Frankfurt till 1859 – away from conservatives who thought of Austrian & Russian friendship necessary to put down revolutions – still thinking the suppressing revolutions as the 1st priority – Initially Bismarck’s main aim was Prussian domination of north Germany. By late 1850 he accepted the ideas of German unification

Believed Great issues are decided by ‘might & not right. ‘ Worked to end Austrian primacy within the confederacy.

Loyal to Prussia & Prussian monarchy. Believed the end justified the means. Realized that a conservative regime could not survive without popular

support, at least that of Bourgeois – liberals. He made the process of unification easy – By 1858 he was arguing that Prussia should seek the support of German nationalists – 1860 that Austria should be driven away & Kleindeutchland should be established under Prussian control. To make this a reality he was not overly committed to war.

Realpolitik was the term used to characterize Bismarck. Political career from the beginning to the last. (Realpolitik – the term used to describe the ruthless & cynical policies of the politicians, whose main aim is to increase the power of a state.)

By1862 the relations between Austria and Prussia had become much strained.

Dec.1862 Bismarck warned Austria of catastrophic consequence if Prussia was not recognized as its equal in Germany.

But owing to several factors Prussia was not in a position to have war with Austria.

Bismarck’s Position was unstable. Liberal Germans across Germany hated him.

Prussia’s territories were spread all over the central Europe. Austria’s population was twice as that in Prussia. Most German states did not like to be under / dominated by Prussia. 1863 Polish revolt. Poland divided among Russia Prussia Austria – Russian

dominated Polish rose up in revolt. Bismarck offered helps to put it down. Tsar Alexander I refused saying he is strong enough – but agreed to a convention that rioters crossing the border would be handed over.-

Austria, Britain, France protested. Liberals were wild with Bismarck. He rejected the allegations saying the convention was not ratified. Tsar, Austria, France, Britain all were displeased with Prussia.

The factors that led to German involvement in Schleswig & Holstein

Danish + German Predominantly German speaking

For 400 years under king of Denmark 1848 Hol. Rebelled against Denmark – Prussian troops were sent in aid of

Hol which was condoned by Frankfurt Parliament & Prussian parliament. – But withdrew at Russian intervention – armistice of Malmo August 1848.

1852 at London Treaty agreed by the Great powers that :a) Frederick would be the ruler of Denmarkb) Christian of Gluckssberg would become heir to the Danish throne through /

by marriage to the king’s cousin he would be the ruler of 2 duchies. Nov.1863 – Frederick iiv died – Christian becomes the king of Denmark The 2 duchies refused to pledge allegiance to Christian on the grounds that

heir through female line is unacceptable to them. They put forward a claimant the prince of Augustan berg son Duke

Augustan berg who overlooked his name not being mentioned in the treaty ( he was paid ) yet formally did not renounced his rights

Duke Augustan berg claiming on the grounds his father formally did not renounce the position now came forward.

Duke Augustan hailed by Germans – Germans projected him as a symbol of Nationalism uniting both Liberals & Conservatives.

Nov. 1863 Christian became king of Denmark Dec. 1863 He corporate Schleswig into Denmark. Bismarck Viewed this situations as ideal for his expansionist agenda,

ultimate aim being annexing the 2 duchies.

Austro – Prussian co-operation in Danish Crisis:

Austria was suspicious of growing nationalist feelings with Schleswig / Hols. Crisis

Aus. Wanted to prevent Bismarck allying with nationalist. Bismarck too pretended he wanted to support Duke of Augustan berg. Issued a joint ultimatum to withdraw the new constitution within 48 hours,

they would occupy the 2 duchies. King Christian refused. 1864 combined Prussian and Austrian armies marched into 2 duchies Denmark agreed to a European conference to resolve the matter 1864 April – June London Conference failed to resolve the matter.

Counting on Britain’s support Denmark refused to make concessions & fighting recommenced.

The expected help was not received.

1864 Denmark surrendered.

Oct. 1864 – Treaty of Vienna – king of Denmark renounced his rights over 2 duchies & they were to be jointly administered by Prussia & Austria.

Public opinion of Germany & Duchies & Austria wanted / expected Duke to takeover.

Pr. Wanted to lay down conditions which were unacceptable to Duke, Duchies & Austria.

Aus. Refers the matter to the Diet & the Diet passes the motion in favor of Duke – But Prussia Doesn’t allows the matter to be settled – By 1865 matter was not settled.

Aus. 1865 – Convention of Gerstein: Holstein to be administered by Austria ( nearer Prussia. ) Schleswig to be administered by Prussia. Two states would retain joint sovereignty over 2 duchies. Historians argue that Bismarck used this crisis to maneuver Aust. into war. But Bismarck did not want war at this stage. So he strengthened Prussia’s

position internationally. Bismarck being confident that neither Britain nor Russia would support

Austria In the event of a war – he turned to France to gain its support. Oct. 1865 – Bismarck met French emperor Napoleon iii Biarritz gained the

emperor’s good will. Perhaps Napoleon thought of gaining more by being neutral in the event of a war between Aus. & Prussia so that he could mediate when the combatants were exhausted.

1865 – 6 Aus / Prussian relations further deteriorate. April 1866 made a secret alliance with Italy- if attacked within 3 months of

the treaty Italy agreed to supply a south – front for Prussia / declare war on Austria – for Venetia.

Austria position on the eve of the war:

No allies On the verge of bankruptcy Holstein sandwiched between Prussian territory Immediately after signing the alliance with Italy Bismarck Started building

tension between Austria & Prussia. Bismarck made unacceptable proposals to reform the German

confederation. April 1866 in response Austria started mobilizing its army Britain, France & Russia proposed a congress – Bismarck agreed – Austria

Refused – Austria – referred the matter to the Diet. 9 June 1865 – In response to Austrian action an army was sent to Austrian

controlled Holstein & Austrian troops were allowed to depart peacefully. War did not start. Soto stirs things up. Bismarck made proposals far worse.

Austria to be excluded from the Confederation -- National parliament elected by universal suffrage. All troops in north Germany to be under Prussian control.

Austrian advised the Diet to reject the proposals & mobilize its army. Prussia declared Confederation dissolved & requested other German states

to ally them with Prussia. Mobilize their armies against Aust. Most states mobilized against Prussia. & refused to ally against Aus. Saxony, Hanover & Hess Cassel reject the request – soon surrendered by

Prussia. By this time the Prussian army was under the command of General

Helmuth Moltke. Gifted military leader of advance planning &preparation – deploying troops with the use of railway.

Positive aspects of the Austrian position:

Aus – soldiers – 400,000 – Prussia – sold. – 300,000 Most of the German states supported Aus. Had the advantage of a central position – between Prussia & its other

territories. Initially many Prussians lukewarm about war.

Factors that ensured Prussian success:

Italy declared war – so Aus. Had to be at 2 battle front – North front with Prussians – South front with Italians – June 24 ,1866 Italy defeated.To prevent victorious Austrian troops joining those in the North Moltke plan to invade Bohemia.Austrians had a single railway track to take troops to Bohemia where as Prussia Used 5 tracks bring troops to south.For the convenience of moving the army – Moltke split it in to smaller forces & concentrated them only on the eve of the attack.Fortunately for Prussia, Austrians missed several opportunities to annihilate / wipe out these separate Prussian armies.

July 3, 1866 Battle of Sadowa / Koniggratz ( by Prussians ) Position of Austria & Prussia

Nearly ½ million men involved. Both sides equally balanced. Austrians well equipped with artillery used it well at the beginning. Prussian breech – loading needle gun which could be loaded at the breech

rather than the barrel which could fire 7 shots in a minute & its rate of fire being 5 times grater than anything that Austrian possessed very fatal to Aust.

Austria casualties 45,000 to 9000 Prussians Though Austria was now at the mercy of Prussia Bismarck refused to pursue war any longer to the annoyance of the king & the war cabinet – Aust. Lost only Venetia. So this decision brought the war to a speedy end – war lasted only 7 weeks.

Aust. 1866. The treaty of Prague: Prussia annexed a great deal of territory including

Hanover,Nassau,Holestein, Hesse Cassel, Hanover, Frankfurt All German states north of river Mein including Saxony to be formed into a

North German Confederation under Prussian leadership. 4 catholic states Bavaria, Württemberg, Hesse Darmstadt & Baden retained

their independence – But they signed a secret military alliance with

Prussian – in the event of war support Prussia & put their armies under the command of the Prussian king.

After 1866 Germans separated into 3 distinct units.a) N. German confederationb) 4 catholic statesc) Austria 1867 July the new constitution drafted for the N.G. Confederation – by Bis.

Come into effect. Lasted only 4 years.

The structure of the North German confederation:

President / Commander in chief of N. Ger.n Con.

King of Prussia

Had the powers

Of

- Declaring war & making peace- Appointing & dismissing the Federal Chancellor

The Parliament of the North Ger.n Confederation

_________|__________________________________________|______________

Upper House / Bundesrat Lower House / Reichstag

Elected by universal manhood

Suffrage

Represented by delegates appointed

By their states. No. of delegates in relation

to the size of the state – 43 votes

Prussia – 17, Saxony 4, others 01 each.

Decisions were made by a simple majority

Federal Chancellor – not responsible to

Reichstag did not need majority

support of Reichstag – Responsible

only to the President of the Confederation

All laws needed the approval of President / Bundersrat / & Reichstag

Individual States – their powers and rights :

To keep their own rulers To be governed by their own laws & constitutions Entitled to their own Parliamentary assemblies To improve local taxes to meet the govt. expenditure

Effects of the victory at Sadowa

Elections held on the same day in Prussian – conservative seats from 34 to 142, Liberal 253 – 148

Liberals change their attitude towards Bismarck – this ensured a harmony between him & the Parliament.

A split occurred within parties – a large section of old Liberal party formed into National Liberal party, pledged support to Bismarck in his nationalist policy. Junker party blamed Bismarck for betraying his own party 7 losing the identity of Prussia In the confederation – Part of conservatives calling themselves free conservatives pledged support to Bismarck Along with National Liberals.

Feb. 1867 1st Reichstag was elected. Liberals became the single largest party. They win a number of concessions from Bismarck.

Military budget would remain outside Reichstag until 1872 for 5 years after which it would require the consent of the Reichstag.

The gains of the victory at Sadow on July 3rd 1866

1. Austria was forced to withdraw from German affairs.2. German states could now be influenced dominated by Prussia3. 2/3 of all Germans now became part of North German confederation.4. Disharmony between Liberals & Bismarck Lessened to a great degree since

they found no irreconcilable differences between their Kleindeutsch Nationlinalism & Bismarck Prussian policy.

5. After 1866 South German states showed a strong keenness to work for Unity with Prussia.

6. 1867 --- 4 southern states were incorporated into Zollparliament – a parliament elected to discuss the policy of Zollverein.

But by 1867 a deep suspicion about Prussia motives badly thwarted a closer union with northern states.

The factors that helped to win over Austria:

German unification, the result of 3 wars – so it was obvious that the army played a major role.

The efforts made by war minister Roon & Chief of the General staff General Moltke to improve fighting capacity of the army.

Roon ensured that Prussian forces were increased better trained & well equipped / armed.

Under Moltke the General Staff became the brain behind Pru.n army laying plans for mobilization & military operations.

Potential of Railway was identified by them & improved for rapid movement of troops.

Prussian Economic success : Economic success of Prussia between 1850 – 60 outstripped that of Austria

France. By mid 1860s produced more coal than Aus. Or France Had a wider railway network

- In 1865 Prussia. Had 15,000 steam engines – Aus only 3400- The engines of Prussia had a total horsepower of 800,000 Austria by

contrast only 100,000 horsepower The economic & financial power supplied the resources the military

needed. E.g. Alfred Krupp’s iron foundries in Ruhr produced high quality armaments.

The spread of railway, the growth of financial & commercial network brought a closer economic unity.

The weaknesses of Austria:- Economy largely agricultural – Little industry - Plagued with the problem of minority nationalism

Diplomatic position deteriorating with Crimean war.

- Defeat at the North Italian war – a blow to the prestige.- Lack of political & diplomatic skill displayed by Austrian leaders. Favourable international situation- Britain pursuing a non interventionist’s policy in European Continental

affairs.- Britain’s belief that Prussia was no threat

Russia’s hostility towards Austria over the Crimean war policy

The Unification of Germany

Continuation from the orange – yellow book Napoleon iii.

Son of Louis Bonaparte – King of Holland – Brother of Napoleon Bonaparte

1848 – Elected President of the new French Republic, following the over throw of king Louis Philippe

1852 Became Emperor Napoleon iii

Lacked ruthlessness & the will to carry things through to their logical conclusion

The situation in 1866

Oct. 1865. Bismarck met Nap iii at Biarittz Nap. Iii promised to remain neutral Nap iii may have had the intention of mediating when the two combatants

were war – weary He may have had ideas on Rhineland But Austro – Prussian war ended in just 7 weeks with a decisive victory 1867 July. The North German Confederation came into effect. All the German states north of River, Main were incorporated into the

confederation. Only 4 Catholic states in the south . Hesse Darmstadt, Baden, Bavaria & Wurtemberg remained independent

For being neutral Nap iii was presented with this new division & Nap iii was assured by Bismarck that , the Germans were concentrating only on the North Germany –to allay (zlei) make 5 th less – relieve trouble, fears, suffering doubt & suspicion ) of Nap iii in thinking that new German unity was going to pose a threat to French Security & prestige – Bismarck assured that Prussian expansion would be limited to North Germany.

But now, since two thirds of Germany was controlled by Prussia – it was unlikely that the remaining third would continue an independent existence – and this was Nap iii’s great worry

While the situation remained thus, the 4 independent states distrusted Prussia & France as much as they distrusted each other. --- The 4 states thought Nap.iii wanted part of Rhineland for its neutrality

In fact in July 1866 France asked for part of Rhineland which belonged to Bavaria & Hesses

Bismarck rejected this & advised Nap.iii to turn his attention on French speaking areas of Belgium & Luxemberg

The king of Belgium was also the Duke of Luxemberg

Since 1815 the German Confederation had the right to garrison the fortress in Luxemberg

Having missed the chance to check Prussia’s growth of power in 1866, nap iii now needed a diplomatic & territorial success to prove that France was still Europe‘s greatest power.

Nap. Iii requested king of Netherlands to relinquish ( let go ) Luxemberg – to which the king readily agreed.

The king of Netherlands agreed to sell Luxemberg to France subjected to permission from Germany.

Bismarck used this opportunity to stir nationalist fervour among Germans by calling Luxemberg a territory of Germany & if Luxemberg became, part of France it would be a Humiliating injury to German National feelings. Bismarck strongly advised king of Netherlands not to relinquish Luxemberg.

In the meantime Nap iii roused people of Luxemberg to demonstrate against the hated domination of Prussia.

Although Bismarck was not at all ready to wage yet another war – he encouraged the nationalist hysteria to grow – because he knew the only way to raise national consciousness in order to bring all Germans together & speed up unification process was a war with France.

Despite all differences - Germans raised against French. Bismarck then appealed to the Gt. Powers to settle Luxemburg question The outcome of the London Conference was (a) The Prussian garrison

should be removed (b) Luxemburg’s independence & neutrality would be guaranteed by the great Powers.

This was a great blow to Nap iii But 1867 – 70 period remained peaceful Sep. 1867 Bismarck at an interview with a British journalist reiterated his

intention of being peaceful.

The Hohenzollern Candidature:

1868 Isabella queen of Spain driven out by a revolution

The Spanish govt. looking for a new monarch from the Royal families of Europe pick Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern – who comes from the Catholic branch of the Prussian Hohenzollern family.

Leopold’s father refer this to William I since he was the head of the Hohenzollern family.

William I of Prussia did not like it since he knew France would see it as encirclement of France by 2 Hohenzollerns

But Bismarck made him change his mind. King William I of Prussia gave his consent provided Leopold himself liked

accepting it. But Leopold had no such intension & the matter was about to be finished.

But Bismarck got the Spanish govt. & the Hohenzollern family to press Leopold to accept the offer

Leopold accepted it. Bismarck planned to send Leopold’s acceptance to Spain & immediately put

it to ‘Cortes’ (Spanish parliament) for ratification then news to be announced among general rejoicing.

This was done to prevent France acting against Leopold’s acceptance. But the message which was relayed in code was not deciphered properly by

Cipher clerk and the Cortes was not in session when the document arrived. The news thus got leaked out. July 3, 1870 – Nap.iii & his foreign minister Antoine Gramont found it highly

unacceptable. France sent an angry telegram to be delivered to Count Benedetti ( the

French ambassador ) to be delivered to William I who was at Ems a Spa town.

William I assured of Prussia’s Friendship towards France – 12th July 1870 Leopold’s candidacy is withdrawn. Leopold’s renunciation was communicated to Spain.

Goaded by Gramont Nap iii demanded from William an official renunciation for all time.

The French ambassador communicated Nap iii message but William I, since he had given his word not to pursue Leopold’s candidature refused to give the official assurance.

But the reply was conciliatory And Bismarck was notified of the king’s reply to the French ambassador. Bismarck was asked to release the telegram to the press. Before releasing the contents of the telegram Bismarck strike off certain

words – which make the telegram insulting to the French. France erupts in anger – French press incensed the nation. 19th July 1870 France declared war on Prussia.

France – Prussia war

Was the war Franco – Prussian or Franco – German ?

Franco - Prussian 1. Dominated by Prussian expertise 2. It was Bismarck & General Moltke who organized the war & its strategies.3. Prussian army outnumbered all other troops in the army4. The French – hatred was brought about by govt. propaganda. Franco – German1. All German states fought. 2. All Germans were united by a blind hatred of France3. All German states wanted to be associated with Germany’s triumph.

Battle at Metz :

1871 August 14 – Prussian armies cut off escape routes of the French army (180,000 French soldiers) now withdrew into the Fortress of Metz.

The Fortress of Metz lay besieged until Oct. 1871. In October the French army surrendered. Nap iii ‘s chief commander Marshall Bazoine & his best troops could not

help since they were trapped in the Fortress.

Nap iii who had escaped Metz as he left when war broke out – reached River Marne collected an army of 130,000 put them under general Mac Mahon & marched to save troops breaking out of Metz.

But German troops intercept the French army drove them towards Sedan near the Belgium border and defeated the French army.

Sept. 1, 1870 – The French army along with the emperor surrendered. Mid Sep. 1870 German troops besieged Paris – starved it until it agreed to

an armistice 28 Jan 1871 – Desperately short of food & being subject to bombardment

by German Guns. The govt. of new French Republic agreed to an armistice.

Prussian Gains:

William I of Prussia became the emperor of Germany. The four southern states agreed to unite with the rest of Germany. Bismarck became the new Imperial Chancellor. The 4 heads of southern states were made to agree to a union by bribes or

threats.

The destiny of the individual states:

The new Reich was to be a Federal state. The constituent states retained their monarchies. They could retain extensive power over internal matters. 18th Jan 1871 – William I of Prussia was proclaimed Kaiser or German

Emperor at the palace of Versailles. May 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt Alsace & Lorraine was annexed to Germany.

The unification of Germany

Before 1871 there wasn’t an independent German state with fixed geographical boundaries & its own government

German unification was the immediate result of 3 short wars waged by Prussia

1. 1864 against Denmark2. 1866 against Austria3. 1870-1 against France

1806 Napoleon 1st reorganized the hotchpotch of 314 German states of varying size into a much smaller manageable number.

1813- Battle of Leipzig – Napoleon 1st defeated.

June 1815 establishment of German confederation.

-Comprising 39 states

-Prussia emerged the largest in the German confederation

-Under Austrian control- presidency of German confederation awarded to Austria.

1815-1848 Vormarz or pre March generally spoken of as period of reaction & repression. ( Refer to my hand written notes )

For the next 50 year Austria- regarded as leading German state.

Reasons:

-Austrian Empire the dominant force in central Europe.

- Matternich’s repressions.

- Prussia still a relatively small country in north-eastern Europe.

How Prussia attained a position of power.

What it lacked in size & numbers it always made up in discipline & organization.

The word Prussia came to be synonymous with(a) Strict attention to details(b) Obedience to orders

The changes made to the Prussian army

How the Prussian army was reorganized & who were the key figures responsible

1858 Frederick William declared insane, his brother William became regent (a ruler invested with authority on behalf of another)

1861 William succeeded to throne & rules till1888 strengthening of the army one his main concerns.

1.King William the 1st who ascends in 1861.

2.General Albrecht Von Roon minister of war

3. General Helmuth Von Moltke.

Backed by

(a) The tactics of Otto Von Bismarck(b) Economic development within Prussia 1850 & 1860(c) Extensively laid out railways connecting strategic points with military

necessities in mind

2. General Roon- an administrative genius

-increased the force

-trained conscripts better

-made conscripts better armed

Since 1815 little had been done to reform or increase the size of the Prussian army

But since 1820 to 1850 the population grew from 10,000,000 to 18,000,000

-As against the old organization of the army

1.40,000 each year

2 .Spent 3 years in front ljne regiments

3. Two years in reserve

4. 14 years in the

-Roons new measures

1. Double the army’s size Landwehr a middle class reserve force that could be called up for service in an emergency

2 Increase conscripts from 40.000 to 63000

3.Conscripts would spend 3 years in front line regiments.

4.Four years in the reserve ( Throughout this period received training)

5. Reduce the role of inefficient Landwehr.

6. Re-equip troops.

7. Led to the creation of 39 new infantry regiments & 10 new cavalry regiments.

To learn about the opposition to the new army reforms (refer handout – para 5)

Prussian gains war experience

1 .1859 north Italian war disaster.( participation in the Austro Italian and Franco war)

Re equipping the army

1. Introduction of breech – loading needle gun – could fire 7 shots a minute-hence quick and efficient ( For more details para 7 of handout)

2. Gen Moltke –

1. Under him the general staff becomes brains of the Prussian army.2. Laying plans for mobilization & military operations

1864 war with Denmark

King- Frederick vii of Denmark Over- Schleswig & Holstein Two duchies for 400years were ruled by king of Denmark Frederick vii announced Schleswig as part of Denmark And the decision to separate the duchies German confederation decides to send troops. 1863 Frederick the 7th dies & Christian ix becomes king. Govt. officials refuse to pledge allegiance to king Christian Schleswig & Holstein put forward Prince of Augustenburg & he supported

by German nationalists. King Christian incorporates Schleswig into Denmark. He violates 1852 Treaty of London (Refer to para 9 of handout 1)

consequences January 1864 combined Austro Prussian army advance through Hol & Sch.

July1864 Denmark defeated.

Outcome

-Oct. 1864- Treaty of Vienna.

-Everyone expected Prince of Augustenberg to become Duke ,but Prussia laid down conditions that would leave Duke under Prussian power if he is to be the Duke

-Austria outraged – Duke refused to comply with Prussian demands.

-Austro-Prussian relations strained.

-August 1865 to resolve this-convention of Gastein takes place

Terms of the Con. Of Gastein

-Holstein to be administered by Austria

-Schleswig by Prussia

- For 2 powers to retain joint sovereignty over both duchies.

-Since Prussia wants annexation of the 2 duchies Bismarck saw this arrangement as a means to manoeuvre Austria into war

-Besides this not only about the fate over duchies but the wider issue of who should control Germany.

How Bismarck laid groundwork for Austrian war.

Took measures to isolate Austria Took measures to see no power intervenes in case of Austro-Prussian war

How Bismerck ensured isolation 0f Austria.

Oct 1865 - Bismarck meets Napoleon iii at Biarritz Offered Venetia & hinted that Rhineland might be given to France for

staying neutral Ensured Russia on Prussian side by helping to suppress Polish uprising in

1863 Russia and Austria hostile over Balkans April 1866 – signs a treaty with Italians. For providing a second front in the

south Italians promised with Venetia.

Bismarck did his utmost to provoke Austria. Relations between Austria and Prussia further deteriorated Britain- France and Russia proposed congress to discuss.

Austria Refused Immediately Austria referred the problem of Duchies to the Diet. Prussia took this as a breach of promise. June 1866- Pr. Army occupies Holestein – but Autrian army allowed to leave

peacefully. This does not lead to war. Bismarck then presents a reform of the federal constitution to the diet.

Reforms:

1. Austria - Excluded from German confederation2. Form a national parliament elected by universal suffrage.3. All troops in Nothern German states to be under Prussian command.

Austrian response

Asks the Diet to reject Pru.n proposals & to mobilize federal army Pru.n withdrew from conf. declares it dissolved & ask for the assistance of

other states. Bismarck sends an ultimatum to Hesse- Cassel,Saxony & Saxony to side

with Prs.n – They refuse 1866 June 15th – Pru.n troops invade & defeat them

July 3rd 1866 - Battle of Sadowa /Koni Gratz:

Prussian breech loading needle gun proved that its rate was 5 times greater than Austrian guns.

Austrian suffers 45,000 casualties – Prussians 9000 Though Prussia had the chance to invade Vienna & further humiliate

Austria, Bismarck stopped it.

July 1866 – The Treaty of Prague

Terms of treaty

Pru.annexed a good deal of territory including Holstein Schleswig Hesse –Cassel Hanover Nassau Frankfurt

All other Ger.n states north of the river,Main including Saxony formed into North German Confederation under Prussian leadership.

The 4 Catholic states south of river Main (a) Bavaria (b) Wurtemberg (c ) Baden (d) Hesse – Darmstadt retained theirPrussia in the event of war & also

promised put their armies under the command of king of Prussia.

1866 Germans were separated into 3 distinct units. (a) The north German Confederation (b)The 4 south German states. (c )The Austrian empire.

It is evident that Bismarck had shown a calculated moderation in his treatment of Austria.

Hesse – Cassel, Hanover, Nassau and Frankfurt were not even consulted to know whether they liked uniting with Prussia . They were just annexed.

1. Kleindeutschland – Germany without Austria-Protestant2. Grossdeutchland- Germany with German speaking provinces in Austria.

Why did this problem arise

One of the problem beset / faced by the national parliament apart from the constitution was, the territorial extent of Germany.1. The existing boundaries of German Confederation did not conform to any logical definition.

2. Parts of Pru.n & Austrian was included

3. The included parts contained Czeches,poles,Magyarsck while Ger.n speaking areas were not included.4. Including the entire Aus.n empire was impossible because of a host of different nationalities there.

Hence over this problem Parliament was divided.1. Klein… would leave the Protestent Pru.n as the dominant Ger.n state.2. Gros…. Would leave the Catholic Austria as dominant Ger.n power.

How did Frankfurt Parliament come into being

- 5th 1848 – The Declaration of Heidelberg- 51 representatives from 6 states, Prussia, Bavaria,

Wurtemberg,Badan,Nassan & Frankfurt meet to express the need to form a National Parliament, that would draw up the national constitution. So to do it they proposed assembly of German men to be appointed first.

- 31 March 1848- Vorparlament 574 rep. from all 39 states of the Gr.n confederation meet at Paukeskirche ( St. Paul’s Church)

How the National Parliament was selected:

They defined the along what lines the National Parliament should be formed.-Would meet in Frankfurt.-Should consist of 1 rep. for every 50,000

-Should be elected by citizens who are economically independent

May 1848 Frankfurt Parliament meets 596 members1. Vast majority middle class educated – 80% degree holders2. Few land owners3. 4 Craftsmen4. 1 peasant

Par. Essentially moderate & liberal. Old Diet of the German Confederation agree to its own demise &

nominated Fr. Parliament its successor

Tasks of the key issue of the Fr. Par. To draw up a national constitution.

-Look into Basic rights & demands.

Decisions made by the Fr. P.

-National constitution framed by Fr. Par. Would be sovereign

-State Par. Free to make their own laws.

-But those laws valid only if they don’t conflict with National constitution

-It has authority over states their parliaments & Princes

Dec. 1848 - 50 articles put forth by the Frankfurt Parliament of fundamental rights of Ger.n citizens - approved & became law.

-equality before the law

-freedom of worship

-freedom of press

-freedom from arrest without warrant

-an end to discrimination because of law

Weakness of the Frank. Parliament.

No strength Unable to collect tax No financial strength No army of its own Fr.parliament made up of liberals & out of tune with views of the working

class or lacked popular support Division within the Frank. Parliament,hence impossible to resolve

differences between the members to reach any decision. Leader of the Fr. Parl. Heinrich Gagern no force of character needed to

dominate the assembly.

The collapse of Fr.parlin.

Radicals continued to demand political and social reforms Sept. 1848 a radical mob stoned Pauluskirche defended by Aust.n Pru.n &

Hessian troops 80 killed- This violence discredit Radicals Liberals join conservatives to combat radicals considering law & order more

important than freedom & equality. Radicals rejected Frank. Parliament. March 1849 Frank. Parliament agrees to a National Constitution

Terms and Conditions:

Consists of 2 houses Upper house made up of reigning monarchs & princes of the

Confederation

Lower house made up of member elected by secret ballot of men over 25 years of good reputation

Is to be an Emperor who had considerable power who would be able to hold up legislation for a limited time

New Germany to be “ Kleindeucheland” Accordingly 1849 March Frank. Parliament vote halfheartedly to elect

Frederick William the iv as Emperor of Germany. King refuses

Reasons for refusal:

(a) It was not for the Parliament to offer the position to king.(b) Frank. Parliament without having legal authority had taken upon itself to

speak for a united Parliament.(c) If accepting means putting he & Prussia under control of Frank. Parl.He

was not prepared to do so. King also aware of serious foreign implications & of Austrian displeasure which might even lead to war.

(d) Situation after the King’s refusal to accept Emperorship Most members leave the parl. Rulers of Bavaria Saxony Hanover along with Pru.n rejected German

Constitution About 130 the remnents called for the election of the first new German

Parliament or the Reichstag No response from anyone Fr. Parl. Driven out by Frankfurt City Govt. Fr. Parl. Move to Stuttgart capital of Wurtemberg June 1849 the king’s soldiers forcibly disperse it..So ended Frankfurt

experiment.

Revolution in Berlin

March 1848 start with demonstration of workers in Berlin

-King agrees to new German Constitution to recall united Diet & end censorship

March 22, 1848

Grants a series of reforms Appoints a liberal ministry Once he leaves Berlin for Potsdam he adopts a different stance New Prussian Parliament & liberal ministry brings the riots & the

demonstration of the workers under control Radicals in the new Parliament gets feudal privileges of the Junker class

abolished. Parliament & the liberal ministry ( as a counteract for Radical clamours )

Prus. Landowners & nobles form into a League Aug.1848 & pledge to work for the abolition of the Prussian

In Potsdam F. William surrounded by Conservatives. Most of the conservatives were not reactionaries-Believe in modernization

But believed it should come from the king & not from people. 1848 April- May as an act of conceding to a request by Frank. Parli. To

declare war on Denmark sent Prussian army to occupy Schleswig & Holstein

By Aug. 1848 king resumed control over foreign poly Aug. 1848 concludes an armicetice with Dones Riots by workers in Berlin October draw middle classes to the traditional

ruling class Habsberg success over 1848 revolutions encourages king. By Nov. 1848 Prussian Parli. Ordered out of Berlin Dec.1848- Prussian parlia. Dissolved by king Later King brings in a constitution for Prussia King retains his divine power to rule-but by himself his freedom to act It was well received by the Prussians hoped it would be a better model for a

united Germany

The Erfurt plan

King Federick William iv was interested in a United Germany with himself as its head

1849 Gen. Radowitz an ardent nationalist came up with a union plan

Radowitz Proposals

Federal Reich (German word ) for empire with Austria excluded ( Kleindeutscheland)

Strong central govt.(based on the constitution drawn up by Frank. Parlia. Special relationship- a permanent union with Reich & Habsburgs

Austrian responce