Praxis II Study Prep

Reading Terms

Reading StrategiesActivating prior knowledge; predicting or asking questions; visualizing; drawing influences; determining important ideas; synthesizing information; repairing understanding; confirming; using parts of a book; reflecting

Activating prior knowledgeThinking about connections between the text, real life experience, and the larger world. Readers pay more attention when they relate to the text.

Predicting or asking questionsThis strategy keeps readers engaged. It clarifies understanding and makes meaning. It is at the heart of thoughtful reading

VisualizingActive readers create images based on the words they read in the text, which increases understanding.

Drawing inferencesOccurs when the readers take what they know, garner clues from the text and think ahead to make a judgment, discern a theme, or speculate about what is to come.

Determining important ideasThoughtful readers grasp essential ideas and important information when reading. Readers must differentiate between less important ideas and key ideas that are central to the meaning of the text.

Synthesizing informationInvolves combining new information with existing knowledge to form an original idea or interpretation. Reviewing, sorting, and sifting important information can lead to new insights that change the way readers think.

Repairing understandingIf confusion disrupts meaning, readers need to stop and clarify their understanding. Readers use a variety of strategies to "fix up" comprehension when meaning goes awry.

ConfirmingAs students read and after they read, they can verify the predictions they originally made. There is no wrong answer. Determining whether a prediction is correct is a goal.

Using parts of a bookStudents should use charts, diagrams, indexes, and the table of contents to improve understanding of the content

ReflectingAn important strategy is for students to think about what they have just read. This can be simply thinking or more formal, such as a discussion or writing in a journal.

3 Cueing Systems to increase comprehensionSemantics, Syntax, Activating prior knowledge

SemanticsAs students read they can guess at words they do not know by considering the rest of the passage.

SyntaxStudents should learn to ask Does it make sense?, Does it sound right in the passage/sentence?, and Does it look right?

Miscue analysisA way of acquiring insight into children's reading strategies by studying the mistakes they make when reading aloud.

4 Levels of Comprehension1. Literal, 2. Interpretive or Inferential, 3. Critical, and 4. Creative

Literal ComprehensionThe lowest level of understanding. It involves reading the lines and understanding exactly what is on the page. Students can repeat or paraphrase what they have read.

Interpretive/Inferential ComprehensionThe second level of understanding. It requires the student to read between the lines and may require readers to define figurative language or identify terms. They may have to figure out the meaning on their own. Ex. determining author's purpose, main idea of a passage, point of view of the author, or essential message of the piece.

Critical ComprehensionOne of the highest levels of understanding. Requires readers to think beyond the printed page. Ex. indicating whether text is true or false, distinguishing between fact and opinion, detecting propaganda, judging whether the author is qualified to write the text, recognizing bias and fallacies, identifying stereotypes, making assumptions.

Creative ComprehensionThis level of understanding requires readers to respond to something they are reading.Ex. stating another way to treat a situation, indicating another way of solving a problem in the story, speculating whether the plot could have occurred in a different place or time.

Story mappingmaking graphic representations of stories that make clear the specific relationships of story elements.

Venn diagramsEnables a reader to compare two characters, concepts, places, or things by placing specific criteria or critical attributes in the appropriate places on the diagram.

Fishbone organizerHelps the reader illustrate cause and effect.

Methods of Assessing Reading ProgressDaily observation, Checklist, Rubric, Running record, Informal reading inventory, Diagnosis of errors,

Rubricalso known as a scoring guide. It is used as a set of guidelines for evaluating a student's work.

Running recordAn assessment method that documents a child's reading as he or she reads aloud and allows the teacher to evaluate the reading level as well as to not explicit types of miscues. Specific marks are made to indicate the types of errors. Training is required, but once trained, it is quick and easy to do.

Informal Reading InventoryStudent reads aloud while teacher notes miscues. Student then answers comprehension questions. Then the student is timed while reading the passages silently and answering comprehension questions.

Diagnosis of ErrorsFiguring out why students make the reading mistakes they do. Is it because they read without regard for meaning or without regard for the visual appearance of the word?

3 types of sentencesDeclarative, Interrogative, Imperative

Declarative sentence

Makes a statement.

Interrogative sentenceAsks a question.

Imperative sentenceGives a command or makes a request.

4 sentence structuresSimpleCompoundComplexComplex-compound

Simple sentenceSentence that has a subject and a verb

Compound sentenceMade up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating (and, but, for, or, so, yet) or correlative (either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also) conjunction or a semicolon.

Independent clauseClause that contains both a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.

Complex sentenceContains a dependent clause and an independent clause. Ex: Because I do not feel well, I will not be attending the concert.

Dependent clauseContains a subject and a verb and does NOT express a complete thought.

Complex-compound sentenceContains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Ex. I am going to town, and Bill is going when he gets his car repaired.

Run-on sentenceSeveral thought incorrectly joined are not grammatically correct. Ex. I like to ice skate my brother does not.

Sentence fragmentAn incomplete thought is not grammatically correct. Ex. Making his way in the world today.

NounA person, place, thing, or idea.

PronounA word that can replace a noun. Ex. I, you, who, one, any, myself...

Personal pronounsI, you, she, she, it, we, you, they, them, us, my, mine, me, your, yours, her, hers, its, our, ours, us, their, theirs

Relative pronounswho, whom, whose, what, which, that

Interrogative pronounswho, what, when, where, how

Demonstrative pronounsthis, that, these, those

Indefinite pronounsone, any, each, anyone, somebody, all...

Reciprocal pronounseach other, one another

Intensive pronounsmyself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves

VerbA word or phrase (was writing, has been sewing) that shows action (writing, sewing) or a state of being (is, are, am, was, were).

Transitive verbsMay take a direct object: Bob BEAT the rug.Some can be used as active or linking verbs

Intransitive verbsDo not require an object: The chorus WAS SINGING as they entered the building.

Active verbExpresses action done by its subject: Jane FELT the prickly bush.

Linking verbVerb followed by an adjective: Bill FELT dizzy.

AdjectiveModifies or limits a noun or pronoun. Answers the questions which one, what kind, and how many.

Descriptive adjectiveNames a quality of an object: BLUE notebook

Limiting adjectiveRestricts the meaning or indicates quantity or number.

Possessive adjectiveHER jacket, THEIR house...

Demonstrative adjectiveTHIS automobile

Interrogative adjectiveWHICH cat belongs to you?

ArticlesA, AN, THE

Numerical adjectivesONE ticket, SECOND half of the game

Comparative and Superlative adjectivesBIGGER house, ROUNDER shape, HOTTER weatherBIGGEST house, ROUNDEST shape, HOTTEST weather

AdverbA word that limits or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Ex. Herman walks QUICKLY.Jane colors VERY WELL.Billy out the cat OUTSIDE EARLIER. (OUTSIDE modifies "put" with regard to location; EARLIER modifies "put" with regard to when it happened)

PrepositionRelates a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence. (Anywhere a squirrel can go)

Prepositional phraseThe preposition and its object form a _____________.Ex. Bill drew a circle AROUND THE SUBJECT. (AROUND is the preposition, SUBJECT is the object of the preposition)

ConjunctionA word that may connect words, phrases, and clauses.

Coordinating conjunctionJoins words, phrases or clauses of equal rank: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.

Subordinating conjunctionJoin subordinate clauses with main clauses: although, after, because, if...BECAUSE he was better, Billy went home from the hospital. ("Billy...hospital" is the main clause; "Because...better" is the subordinate clause.

InterjectionsWords inserted to show emotion: Wow!, Ouch! Hey!

ModifiersMay describe or limit the meaning of a word or group of words.

Both adjectives and adjective phrases or clauses can...modify a noun

Both adverbs and adverbial phrases or clauses can...modify a verb

PhraseA group of words without a subject and predicate. It can function as a noun, ,an adjective, an adverb, or a verb. They may be prepositional, participial, gerunds, infinitives, and verbs.

Prepositional phrase (adverb)The team ran ACROSS THE FIELD.(_____used as _____)

Participial phrase (adjective)The horse WINNING THE RACE belongs to me.(_____ used as _____)

Gerund phrase (noun and subject of the sentence)WRITING THE BOOK was a pleasure. (_____ used as _____)

Infinitive (noun and subject of the sentenceTO WALK was his goal. (_____ used as _____)

ClauseContains a subject and a verb. It may be independent or subordinate (dependent).

Do not capitalizesystems of government or individual adherents to a philosophy; compass directions or seasons

When to use a comma1. In a series2. With a long introductory phrase (not a short phrase, unless

it includes a verb form being used as another form of speech: "When eating, Mary..." or "Having decided to leave, James...")3. To separate sentences with two main ideas4. To separate an introductory subordinate clause: "Whenever I can, I try to..."5. To slow the flow of the sentence: appositives, interjections, direct address, tag questions, geographical names and addresses, transitional words and phrases, parenthetical words and phrases, unusual word order)6. With nonrestrictive elements7. To set off direct quotations or contrasting elements.8. In dates

Nonrestrictive elementsA word or group of words that are not vital to the meaning of the sentence. These are set off by commas: My sister, THE GIRL WHO WROTE THE STORY, has always loved to write.

Restrictive elementsA word or group of words that are vital to the meaning of the sentence. These are NOT set off by commas: The girl WHO WROTE THE STORY is my sister.

Contrasting elementsHer intelligence, NOT HER BEAUTY, got her the job.Your plan will take you a little further from, RATHER THAN CLOSER TO, your destination.It was a reasonable, THOUGH NOT APPEALING, idea.

SemicolonsUse this punctuation to 1. Separate independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction2. Separate independent clauses separated by a conjunctive adverb 3. Separate items in a series with internal commas

Conjunctive adverbsaccordingly, besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, in fact, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, now, on the other hand, otherwise, perhaps, still, therefore...

ColonSignals the reader that a list, explanation, or restatement of the preceding will follow. It is like an arrow, indicating that something more is to come. Information preceding this mark should be a complete sentence.

clozeassessment to determine instructional, independent or frustration reading levels. A great way to assess the whole class at once. Passages need to be > 275 words. Teacher deletes every fifth word. Independent = 60% or more of the words, Instructional = 40-60% of the words, Frustration = less than 40% of the words.

phonologicalPertaining to a speaker's knowledge about sound patterns in a language.

graphonicsrefers to the sound relationship between the orthography (symbols) and phonology (sounds) of a language.

similescomparison using like or as

morphemessmallest meaningful units of speech; simple words, suffixes, prefixes; examples: red, hot, calm, -ed, pre-

expositorythe purpose of the author is to inform, explain, describe, or define his or her subject to the reader.

three features of expository writingThis is an essay that may describe a thing or a process.It can analyze people, events and objects.It can provide facts and notions that can be supported by proofs.

metaphorscomparison between two unlike things WITHOUT using like or as

syllablessections of a word that can be said by themselves

long vowel soundsthis vowel sound "says its letter name." the vocal cords are tense when producing the long vowel sound. The linguistic term for these sounds is tense.

short vowel soundsevery vowel has two sounds, the vocal cords are more relaxed when producing the short vowel sound because of this the sounds are often referred to as lax. They can be heard at the beginning of these words: apple, Ed, igloo, octopus, and umbrella.

nonsense wordswords or parts of words which do not exist in the language you are usingThe child repeated the nonsense syllables 'boo di doo doo'.

context cluesA vocabulary strategy in which the reader looks at the words around an

unfamiliar word to find clues to its meaning.

historical fictionA fictional story with real and invented characters that takes place during a historical time.

mysteryA suspenseful story about a puzzling event that is not solved until the end of the story.

fantasyA story including elements that are impossible such as talking animals or magical powers.

folktaleA story, often with a message, that was initially passed on by word of mouth.

poetrya verse written to inspire thought by the reader.

non-fictionAll of the information is based on true facts and not made up.

autobiographyThe story of a real person's life that is written by that person.

biographyThe story of a real person's life that is written by another person.

realistic fictionA story using made-up characters that takes place in modern times.

science fictionA story that blends futuristic technology with scientific fact and fiction.

word familiesPhonograms or words that share the same rime (ex; fast, past, last, blast, all share the -ast rime). In the derivational relations stage, this can refer to words that share the same root or origin, as in spectator, spectacle, inspect, inspector.

guided readingInstructional support including immediate corrective feedback as students read orally.

literature circlessmall, temporary, and heterogeneous groups of student that gather together to discuss a book that each of them are reading with the goal of enhancing comprehension.

4 Ways to build Phonemic Awareness?1. Tell Rhymes 2. ABCs & read alphabet books 3. Alliteration 4. Give the ability to sound and blend their letters (slap, trap)

3 levels of comprehension?1. Literal 2. Interpretive 3. Applied

5 Steps in the Reading Process:1. Pre-Reading 2. Reading 3. Responding 4. Exploring 5. Applying

5 Systems of Language:1. Sound- Phonology 2. Meaning -Semantics (vocabulary) 3. Word Order - Syntax 4. Grammar - Morphology 5. Social Uses -Pragmatics

6 thinking processes:1. Connect 2. Organize 3. Image 4. Predict 5. Self monitor 6.Generalize

7 Crucial Understandings About Print1. Children who have had many print experiences know why we read & write. 2. Greater knowledge to make sense of the info they read. 3. Understand the conventions & jargon of print. 4. Have higher levels of phonemic awareness. 5. Can read some important-to-them words. 6. Know some letter names and sounds. 7. Are eager and confident in their reading and writing

How many phonemes are there in the English language?44

Accuracy and Fluency affect the ability to...read smoothly and quickly.

Activating prior knowledgeuse of a concrete experience or object pretesting discussions anticipation guides

Affixessubordinate additions to rood words with grammar-like functions. They can either be added to the beginning (prefixes) or the end (suffixes)

Alliteration:Producing groups of words that begin with the same initial sound;

alliteration and rhyming are at the beginning of the phonological awareness continuum.

Allusionan indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or event considered to be known to the reader

Analogy Based PhonicsChildren learn to use parts of word families they know to identify words that have similar parts.(root words, suffixes, prefixes)

Analytic PhonicsLearn to understand letters-sound relationships in previously learned words. They do not pronounce words in isolation.

Applied Level of Comprehensionusing information to express opinions and form new ideas.

Assessment Tool Categories1. Student Profile 2. Auditory Discrimination and Phoneme Awareness 3. Emerging Literacy assessment 4. Sight Word Assessment 5. Formal Reading Assessment

Assonancerepetition of a vowel sound

Authentic AssessmentAssessment activities which reflect the actual workplace, family, community and school curriculum. Involves using tasks that are typical of the kinds of reading or writing that students perform in school and out.

Awareness of Printunderstanding that the squiggly lines on a page represent spoken language. They understand that when adults read a book, what they say is linked to the words on the page, rather than to the pictures.

Balanced Approach characteristics1.Literacy is viewed as involving reading & writing 2.Lit is the heart of the program 3. Skills & strategies are taught both directly & indirectly. 4. Reading involves learning word recognition, fluency, vocabulary & comprehension. 5.Writing involves learning to express meaningful ideas & use conventional spelling, grammar & punctuation. 6.Reading & writing for learning in the content areas. 7.Goal is to develop lifelong readers and writers.

Balanced Reading Program

Reading to children, reading with children,& reading by children

Basal Reading ProgramCommercially produced reading programs. May include guided reading, workbooks, practice books, manuals, tests

Base Wordsmeaningful linguistic units that can stand alone and contain no smaller meaningful parts (free morphemes)

BehaviorismSkinner- Students learn a series of discrete skills. Stimulus, teacher/response, teacher centered, set up standards, teach to the standards. How we use it: worksheets, basal readers

Bottom-Upprogressing from the parts of language (letters) to the whole word (meaning) (letters, Words, Sentences, Paragraphs, Texts, Meaning)

Components of a Reading Program1.Reading-engagement of the written word 2.Oral Language-connection between oral & written 3.Writing-allow students to practice 4.Spelling- correlates w ability to identify words

Components of strategy instructionAssessment, Explanation, Awareness, Modeling and Demonstration, Guided practice application

Concrete wordsWords that most children can recognize by cite. (Their name, Mom, Dad)

Consonant BlendTwo or three consonants blended together. The sound that this blend makes is the sound of the consonants blended together.

Consonant ClusterA group or sequence of consonants that appear together in a syllable without a vowel between them.

Consonant diagramsTwo consecutive consonants that represent one new speech sound. In the word "digraph" the "ph" sounds like /f/. This is a digraph.

Consonant DigraphA pair of consonants that makes a single sound that is different from each individual letter sound.

ConstructivismStudents construct own frames of thought. Modify cognitive structures/schemata. Non-authorization. Student centered. Indirect instruction.

Critical literacyLanguage is a means for social action. Teach grammar, standard English. Value dialects. Read & discuss books that involve social issues. Write letters to the editor.Decoding CluesSemantic- Syntactic- Picture- Graphophonic- Syllable Division

Differences between Indirect and Direct Vocabulary instructionIndirect: students learn word when they hear or see words used. Best learning takes place after being exposed to many different types of contexts. Directly: explicitly taught, words and word strategies.

Differences between more fluent readers and less fluent readersMore: able to focus on making connections between ideas and the text. Less: most have their primary focus on decoding words. Leaves little time for comprehension. Reading is choppy and halting.

DigraphA pair of characters used to write one phoneme (distinct sound) or a sequence of phonemes that does not correspond to the normal values of the two characters combined.

DiphthongA complex speech sound beginning with one vowel sound and moving to another within the same syllable. (boy-oy noise- oi).

Directed Reading Thinking Activity1. Sample the Text 2. Make Predictions 3. Sample the Text to Confirm or Correct Predictions

Discussion circlesAfter a text is read the teacher prompts the student, perhaps asking for funny or unusual words.

Distinctions between phonological awareness and phonemic awarenessPhonological: includes phonemic awareness. Understanding & manipulating larger parts of speech, words, syllables, onsets & rimes as well as phonemes. Phonemic: identifying & manipulating individual sounds in words.

Early Readers1. ID most high frequency words. 2. Use pics to confirm meaning . 3. Use Syntax & Phonics to figure out most simple words. 4. Use spelling patterns to figure out words. 5. They are gaining control of reading strategies. 6. Use their own experiences & background info to glean meaning.

Eclectic ApproachTeachers borrow elements from two or more approaches to create their own approach.

Embedded PhonicsChildren learn letter sound relationships by reading. Not systematic or explicit.

Emergent Readersunderstand that print contains a message, recognize some high frequency words using context, realize pics can be used to predict meaning.

Encodeto put words into print.

Factors that affect a student's ability to understand reading text1. Accuracy and Fluency 2. Reading Level of Text 3. Word Recognition skills 4. Prior Knowledge or Experiences 5. Vocabulary 6. English Language Development

Fluencythe ability to read a text accurately and quickly. It frees students to understand what they read.

Fluent ReadersID most words, read chapter books with good comprehension, consistently monitor cross-check and self, correct reading. They can offer their own interpretations of text based on personal experience and prior reading.

concepts children must recognize in order to be phonemically aware1.Rhyming 2. Word Blending 3. Phonemic Segmentation 4. Sound addition and Subtraction 5. Sound Manipulation

Four main components of a reading program1. Reading 2. Oral Language 3. Writing 4. Spelling

Frustration Reading Levela level students shouldn't read (below 85%)

Grapheme

The unit of writing that represents a single phoneme. It can be a letter or a group of letters. The smallest part of WRITTEN language that represents a phoneme in the spelling of a word. A grapheme may be just one letter, such as b,d,f,p,s or several letters, such as ch, sh, th, -ck, ea, -igh.

Guided ReadingStudents do the reading w/ teacher guidance. Teachers meet w/ small homogenous groups using instructional level books to observe & support students use of strategies

HomographsWords that have identical spellings but sound different and have different meanings.

HomonymA word which is spelled & pronounced identically to another, but has a different meaning.(Swimming POOL- POOL table).

Informal Reading Inventory (IRI)An informal instrument designed to help teachers determine a child's independent, instructional, frustration,& capacity levels.

levels of readingIndependent- reading is at 95% success. Instructional- reading is at 90% success. Frustration- reading is below 90% success, child becomes too focused on decoding, loses comprehension.

Summative Assessmentoccurs after learning has taken place and summarizes students' progress at the end of a unit or a semester or at some other point in time

Formative AssessmentTakes place during learning and is used to plan or modify instruction

EvaluationThe process of using the results of tests, observations, work samples, and other devices to judge the effectiveness of a program. A program is evaluated in terms of its objectives. The ultimate purpose of evaluation is to improve the program.

High-stakes TestResults are used to make an important decision such as passing students, graduating students, or rating a school.

AssessmentThe process of gathering data about an area of learning through tests,

observations, work samples, and other means.

ReliabilityThe degree to which a test yields consistent results. If students took a test again, the results would be the same.

ValidityThe degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure

Content ValidityThe tasks of an assessment device are representative of the subject or area being assessed.

Listening CapacityThe highest level of reading material that students can understand with 75 percent comprehension when it is read to them.

MiscueAn oral reading response that differs from the expected (correct) response.

Running RecordAn assessment device in which a student's oral reading errors are noted and classified in order to determine whether the material is on the appropriate level of difficulty and to see which reading strategies the student is using.

Group Reading InventoriesUsed when it is impractical to administer individual IRIs. Three tests: Degrees of Reading Power (DRP), The Scholastic Reading Inventory, and STAR

Maze PassageThe student chooses from three or more words the one that is the correct replacement for a deleted word.

Norm-Referenced TestStudents' performances are compared with a norm group, which is a representative sampling of students.

Criterion-Referenced TestStudent's performances are compared to a criterion, or standard.

Raw ScoreThe number of correct answer or points earned on a test.

Percentile RankThe point on a scale of 1 to 99 that shows what percentage of students

obtained an equal or lower score. A score of 75 means that 75 percent or of those who took the test received an equal or lower score.

Grade Equivalent Scoreindicated the score that the average student at that grade level achieved.

Norm Curve EquivalentThe ranking of a score on a scale of 1 through 99

StanineA point on a 9-point scale, with 5 being average.

RubricA written description of the traits or characteristics of standards used to judge a process or product

Think-AloudsProcedures in which students are asked to describe the processes they are using as they engage in reading or another cognitive activity.

Anecdotal RecordThe recording of the description of a significant incident of student behavior

Holistic ScoringA process for sorting or ranking students' written pieces on the basis of an overall impression of each piece.

Analytic ScoringA process for scoring that uses a description of major features to be considered when assessing a written piece.

The first step in building higher-level literacyDetermine your students' level of literacy development by using an informal reading inventory, running records, or other placement measures to find out their general reading level.

Ways to foster emergent literacyCreate an environment that promotes active reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Examples: A student-run post office so that children can correspond with each other. E-mail (if computers are available). Modeling (allowing students to observe you as you write notes to parents, the principal, etc.). Encourage adults to write to the class and post their letters.

Stages of Language DevelopmentSensorimotor stage (0-2 years), Preoperational Stage (2-7 years), Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years), and Formal Operational Stage (11-15 years)

OnsetAll the sounds in the syllable before the vowel

RimeThe vowel and everything that follows it

PhonemesThe smallest units comprising spoken language. Combine to form syllables and words. For example, the word 'mat' has three phonemes: /m/ /a/ /t/

Phonemic AwarenessThe ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words

GraphemesRepresented by symbols or letters

Alphabetic PrincipleThe principle that letters in written words represent sounds in spoken words.

Phonological AwarenessA broad skill that includes identifying and manipulating units of oral language-parts such as words, syllables, and onsets and rimes.

Ways to assess phonemic awarenessRecognizing Rhyming words, Oddity Tasks (which one does not belong), Syllable and sound counting task, initial consonant sound test, same different word pair task, auditory sound blending task, segmenting sounds

Strategies for teaching phonemic awarenessPlaying with rhymes and alliteration, grab the odd one out, picture box sound counting (Elkonin Boxes), beginning with children's names, add a sound/take a sound, sing it out, word rubber banding

PhonicsTeaching practices that emphasize how spellings are related to speech sounds systematically. (Letter-sound relationships)

Synthetic Approach to phonics instructionTraditional instruction where students change letters into speech sounds and blend them together (sounding out).

Embedded Approach to phonics instructionLess explicit, embedded into the text. Authentic reading for enjoyment.

Analogy approach to phonics instructionA variation of onset and rime instruction, using prior knowledge of word families (ed. -eep, peep, sleep, weep).

Analytic Approach to phonics instructionStudents study previously learned whole words to discover letter sounds relationships. (pl, play, plan, plot consonant blends).

Phonic through spelling approach to phonics instructionSegmenting words into phonemes and writing letters that represent the sounds.

SyllableA word or part of a word that contains one vowel

6 syllable typesClosed, open, vowel-consonant-silent e, vowel pair, R-controlled, and consonant-le.

Closed syllableA short vowel, followed by at least one consonant: much, vet, shell, insect, publish, sunset

Open SyllableEnd in a vowel that is usually long: Shy, go, me, silo, zero.

Vowel-consonant-silent e SyllableVowels are long and the final e is silent. Lime, those, snake.

Vowel Pair SyllableVowels sounds are spelled with digraphs such as: plain, coat, cowboy

R-Controlled SyllableA vowel followed by an r. The r affects the sound the vowel makes, and both sounds are heard within the same syllable: or, ir, er, ar, ur

Consonant-le syllableAKA final stable syllables. Bubble, maple, kettle, and fiddle.

Sight wordsWords that occur frequently in print and are usually best learned through memorization.

Structural AnalysisThe ability to study words to identify their individual meanings.

Activities for Phonics InstructionLetter-sound cards, Phonics fish card game, spelling in parts, sound swirl, button sounds, stomping, clapping, tapping, and snapping sounds, tongue twisters, creating nonsense words, word boxes, etc.

7 Aspects of our Language SystemPhonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics, Orthography, Vocabulary

PhonologyThe basic sound units of language (phonemes)

MorphologyUnits of meaning within words; the way words are formed (morphemes)

SyntaxPhrase and sentence structure

SemanticsThe way language conveys meaning

PragmaticsAppropriate word choice and use in context to communicate effectively

Orthographyspelling patterns

VocabularyKnowledge of the meaning and pronunciation of words (lexicon)

Reading VocabularyWord is in the student's listening and speaking vocabularies but is not yet recognized in print

Writing VocabularyWord is in the student's listening, speaking, and reading vocabularies but is not yet known well enough to be used when writing compositions.

Concepts/SchemaThe student does not comprehend the new word because of a lack of conceptual knowledge related to the word

Receptive VocabularyListening and Reading

Expressive VocabularySpeaking and Writing

Technical VocabularyThe new word is unknown to the student and is directly related to a content area

Contextthe student has trouble using context clues to figure out the meaning of an unknown word

Morphemic AnalysisStudent lacks sufficient knowledge about word parts such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words (also known as structural analysis)

Using vocabulary to enhance comprehensionTeachers should preteach new words that are associated with the text they are about to read

Levels of Word KnowledgeUnknown- Don't recognizeInitial recognition- have sen or heard word but does not know meaningPartial word knowledge- knows one meaning of word and use it in a sentenceFull word knowledge- knows more than one meaning of word and can use it in several ways

The largest source of increasing one's vocabularyReading

Sustained silent readingencourages a wide variety of reading

How students learn vocabulary wordsIncidental word learning, independent reading, sustained silent reading, and being read aloud to

SynonymsWords with the same meaning (cold, cool, chilly, frigid, frosty, freezing)

AntonymsWords that mean the opposite (loud-quiet)

HomonymsWords that sound or look the same but have different meanings (to-too-two) (right-write) (there-their-they're) (bear-bare) (wind-wind)

Semantic Maps

Useful in tying together new vocabulary with prior knowledge and related terms

EtymologiesThe history of the English Language

IdiomsGroups of words that have special meaning ("in hot water")

Free MorphemeA freestanding root or base of any word that cannot be further divided and still have meaning. (Farmer, farm is the root word)

Bound MorphemeThe part of the word that carries meaning only when attached to a free morpheme (the -er in farmer)

Most common bound morphemesPrefixes- in, pre, monosuffixes- er, ous, ologyinflectional endings - s, es, ing, ed, est

Ways to assess student's vocabulary knowledgeObservation, conferences, rubrics, tests, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Expressive Vocabulary Test, Informal Reading Inventories

3 reasons why some students struggle to become fluentReading books too difficult, Reading very little, Frequently asked to read aloud and then teachers interrupt and correct them

4 principles to promote reading fluencyTeachers should model reading, Teacher should provide support while students are reading, teachers should have students do repeated readings of brief texts, and teachers should focus students' attention on chunking words into meaningful phrasing

Cloze PassagesShort (250 word) passages drawn from typical reading materials found in your instructional program. Student's asked to read passage and see if they can fill in the missing words based on what they believe makes sense using context clues.

Maze TestSimilar to cloze test with one exception: there are three choices for the students to choose from for each blank in the passage

Vocabulary Flash Cards

One of the most traditional ways to do a quick assessment of a student's vocabulary knowledge

Enhancing Accuracyword reading must be accurate and automatic. Taught through mini lessons and words walls. Students need daily opportunities to practice the words they're learning in reading and writing

Improving reading speedBest way to improve is through repeated readings. Practice reading at independent level, record progress monitoring data, have guided reading lessons, and listening centers

AccuracyThe ability to recognize familiar words automatically, without conscious thought

Reading SpeedRefers to the rate at which students read. Readers should adjust their speed depending on the difficulty of what they're reading and their purpose

ProsodyThe ability to orally read sentences expressively, with appropriate phrasing and intonation

Components of FluencyAccuracy, Identifying unfamiliar words quickly, To read fluently a student needs to read a piece of text that is independent level 95% accuracy, Reading Speed and Prosody

Teaching ProsodyTeach students to phrase or chunk together parts of sentences. Practice expression and choral or unison reading

Reading PracticeStudents need many opportunities to practice reading and rereading books to develop fluency (choral reading, readers' theater)

Promoting Reading FluencySustained silent readingRound Robin Reading no longer recommended

Prerequisites for ComprehensionBackground knowledge - need word and literature knowledgeVocabulary - important to comprehensionFluency- read quickly and efficiently; can devote time to comprehension

Assessing FluencyDIBELSFluency ChecksInformal Reading InventoriesRunning Records

ComprehensionThe ultimate goal of readingThe reason why people readInvolves different levels of thinking

Ways to Activate prior knowledgeAnticipation guidesexclusion brainstorminggraphic organizersKWL chartsPrereading plans

3 ways to connect to a storytext-to-texttext-to-wordtext-to-self

Demonstrating Comprehension SkillsCompare/ContrastCause/EffectSequencingParaphrasing

Ways to develop comprehensionStudents spend lots of time reading authentic texts independentlyStudents need to discuss their reading with classmates and teachersTeachers need to read aloud to students

Assessing ComprehensionCloze ProceduresStory RetellingsRunning RecordsThink-Alouds

Types of Literacy CentersListening Center, Drama Center, Writing Center, Publishing Center, Reading nook, play center, computer center

Guided Reading InstructionSmall, homogeneous groups of children who reflect a similar range of competencies, experiences, and interest in book reading and word study.

Shared ReadingThe teacher reads a book aloud with a group of children as they follow along in the text, often using a big book.

Reading RateThe speed at which a person reads; generally measured as words per minute or words correct per minute. (is able to read and comprehend)

FluencyReading with proper speed, accuracy, automaticity, expression, and intonation - aids in comprehension

Readability

The level of comprehension and visual comfort when reading printed material. Readability is concerned with how the type is arranged on a page. Readability is affected by line length, word spacing, character spacing and leading.

High Frequency WordsThe words most commonly used in reading and writing. Examples: Can, See

invented spellingsspelling children use early in their reading and writing development as they begin to assciate letters to sounds

automaticityability to respond quickly and efficiently while mentally processing or physically performing a task

repeated readingsStudents read the same text repeatedly, until a desired level of fluency is attained

Stages of Spelling developmentPrecommunicative, semiphonetic, phonetic, transitional, conventional

Concepts of printprint represents spoken language; print is directional from left to right and top to bottom; books are read from front to back; the strings of letters separated by spaces in text are words, and individual letters are different from words; sentences begin with capital letters and end with periods, etc.....

Emergent literacyKnowledge and skills relating to reading that children usually develop from experience with books and other print media before the beginning of formal reading instruction in school.

onsetsany consonant sounds before the vowel

rimesPart of a syllable that contains the vowel and all that follows it ( the rime of bag is ag and the rime of swim is im)

WCPMHow many words a student can read in a minute (Word Count Per Minute)

VAKT

Fernald (-Keller) method - to identify a printed word, see it (visual), say it (auditory), trace it (kin/tactile)

Grapheme-Phoneme CorrespondenceThe sound-symbol relationship between letters and sounds

Sense of storyexpose children to high quality literature.dialogic reading, reading with the children.reading lots of kinds of books. pattern books, rhyming books, illustrations, alphabet.Influences the child't prediction of syntax and comprehension (background knowledge)

self-correctionWhen students are able to correct language mistakes they have made when asked without help from the teacher or other students

segmentationbreaking apart sounds in words and ability to recognize these separations

Elkonian BoxesSeries of boxes or tiles to represent a series of phonemes. Reinforce the shape of letters and words.

Environmental Printwritten text that's observable in one's surroundings, such as signs, labels, stickers, billboards, and brand names.

Echo Readinga strategy where the teacher reads a line or passage with good expression, and calls on students to read it back. This is a good technique to use with Emergent Readers to help them build reading fluency.

Alphabetic PrincipleThe idea that letters represent sound and that the printed letters can be turned into speech

BrainstormingA method of shared problem solving in which all members of a group spontaneously contribute ideas

ConsonantA letter and a sound. All letter except for the vowels, a, e, i, o, u and sometimes y and w

LEA (Language Experience Approach)An approach to literacy in which the teacher asks the student to dictate a

sentence or story based on some past experience. The teacher prints the student's dictation and reads it back to the student. The student rereads it until he/she can read it independently

DR/TA (Directed reading/thinking activityStudents are taught how to understand information in the text by engaging in a series of predictions prior to reading specific segments

VowelA letter and a sound. All letters, except the consonants

Guided ReadingInvolves students reading a text while simultaneously hearing the text read aloud in a fluent manner

Readers TheatreStudents read aloud and concentrate on voice intrepretation and characterization

DRA (Directed Reading Activity)Includes the teaching of several new sight words prior to the reading of each new story

Literature circlesA students' equivalent in the classroom of an adult book club. The goal it to encourage student choice and a love of reading in young people

PreviewTo see beforehand; specifically: to view or show in advance of public presentation: read the front and back cover of the book first

predictionTo declare or indicate in advance; foretell on the basis of observation, experience, or scientific reason

Reader's WorkshopThe program emphasizes the interaction between readers and text. This program includes peer/teacher conferences; student's independence; encourages successful reading outside of the classroom

Request procedureThis strategy gives the teacher and students opportunities to ask each other their own questions following the reading of a selection

DL/TA (Directed Listening/Thinking ActivityStudents are prepared to listen to a story that will be read by their teacher

by being given specific information that they are to focus on as they listen. The strategy utilizes prereading, reading, and post reading questions and discussions

metacognitionThinking about one's own cognitive processes

macroprocessesA global understanding of the text

text structuresTemporal and spatial arrangement of elements in a written, oral, or visual text

schemaprior knowledge and experiences that the reader brings to the text

schemataInternal organization of concepts and actions that are revised by new information (internal diagram that helps you visual learned information)

prior knowledgeknowledge that stems from previous experiences

monitoringan awareness of one's understanding of text while the text is being read

levels of comprehensionThree levels of understanding that include literal, interpretative, and applied (surface knowledge, reading between the lines, and applying facts and meanings to other concepts and situations)

Bloom's levels of ComprehensionA classification of intellectual behaviors important to learning (knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation)

Barrett's levels of questionsQuestions asked during a reading text that consist of literal comprehension, influential comprehension, evaluation, and appreciation (questions that prompt recall of information, shapes understanding, and encourages reflection)

Fry's readability scaleA reading formula used to determine a person's reading level (averaging the number of sentences and syllables correctly read withing a one hundred word passage)

comprehension strategiesstrategies used to help students understand and remember text, self-monitoring, re-reading, summarizing, note-taking and outlining, mapping, learning logs where they generate questions about the text

connotative meaningThe meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase.

denotative meaningthe literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase

main ideaThe main theme of a text

supporting ideassmaller ideas that help support your main idea

word familiesgroups of words that have the same ending sound (rime) but a different beginning sound (onset), such as can, man, fan.

spelling patternsknowledge of common letter patterns that skilled readers use rapidly and accurately to associate with sounds (ex.: CVC, CV, VCe, CVVC)

miscue analysisassessment, reading errors (miscues) are the basis for determining the strengths and weaknesses of students' decoding ability and word analysis skills (correction, insertion, omission, repetition, reversal, substitution)

Cue systemThe Three Cueing System model suggests that there are three cues that good readers make use of to identify individual words in text (Sementics, Syntax, Grapho-phono)

Cue System semantics(Context) The range of possible words is restricted by the context, so when children come to a word they do not know, they can "guess" based upon context (ex.; using a picture to help identify a word)

Cue Systems syntaxMaking an even more educated guess about individual words in the passage based upon word placement and or word order

Cue Systems Grapho-phonoPart of the cue system - the letter-sound information. To decode text, good readers use the orthographic information the visual information contained in the letters in the word

consonant blendconstists of two or more consonants sounded together in such a way that each is heard- like the blend of b and l in the word blend.

dipthong2 vowels in which the sound begins at the first vowel and moves toward the sound of the second vowel (snout=ou/boy=oy)

phonemic awarenessThe ability to hear, identify,and manipulate the individual sounds, phonemes, in oral language.

phonicsn. The study of the sounds of the letters of the alphabet. Reading instruction that teaches sound-symbol correspondences

root wordA word to which prefixes and suffixes can be added (example: HELP - helpful, unhelpful, helpless, helper)

closed syllablea syllable that ends in a consonant soundExamples: rake, mean/ing

open syllablea syllable ending in a vowel sound (e.g., sea). They also produce long vowel sounds (e.g., frozen)

syllablea unit of spoken language larger than a phoneme, a vowel or a group of letters containing one vowel sound

Think Aloudsverbalizing aloud the thought processes present as one reads a selection orally; to enhance children's comprehension monitioring;used with all levels of recipricoal teaching

Phonological Awarenessan awareness of an the ability to manipulate the sounds of spoken words; it is a broad term that includes indentifying and making rhymes, recognizing alliteration, identifying and working with syllables in spoken words, identifying and working with onsets and rhymes in spoken syllables.

EncodeTo change a message into symbols. Changing oral language into writing

DecodeThis is when we analyze a spoken or written word to discover its pronunciation or meaning.

synthetic phonicsA part-to-whole phonics approach to reading instruction in which the student learns the sounds represented by letters and letter combinations, blends these sounds to pronounce words, and finally identifies which phonic generalizations apply (a.k.a. inductive phonics, Bottoms-Up)

Analytic phonicsWhole to part approach to word study- first taught a number of sight words, then relevant phonetic generalizations, which are applied to other words; deductive phonics(a.k.a. implicit phonics)

rimesPart of a syllable that contains the vowel and all that follows it (i.e., the rime of bag is ag and the rime of swim is im.)

onsetsinitial consonant sound of a syllable (the onset of bat is b-; of swim is sw-).

analogic phonicstaugh to notice patterns in words known to figure out other words; spelling based and making words

embedded phonicsproviding phonics instruction while using whole text or passages. Children begin with the use of whole texts involving shared literacy activities with an adult and move to the identification of phrases and words and the examination of word parts. Emphasis on meaning is maintained even as children examine word parts, because the purpose is to help them see the patterns in the language so they can apply the knowledge to new situations. (Strickland, D.S. (1998). Teaching Phonics Today: A Primer for Educators)

isolated phonicsThis type of instruction would fall under the definition of systematic phonics where instruction is given a part-to-whole approach. Students learn the sounds, represented by letters and letter combinations, blend these sounds to pronounce words, and finally identify which phonic generalizations apply.

word sorts

a vocabulary-development and word-study activity in which words on cards are grouped according to designated categories, as by spelling patterns, vowel sounds, shared meanings, etc.

text structurethe way text is organized; cause/effect, problem/solution, etc.

context clueis information from the immediate sentence, paragraph, or surrounding words that might help readers determine the meaning and/or pronunciation of an unknown word.

expository textText written to explain and convey information about a specific topic. Contrasts with narrative text.

narrative textA text that tells a story

story grammarNarrative framework that specifies the underlying relationship of the story components. The internal structure of a story. (story grammar= setting+episode structure) Each story begins with an introduction contained in the setting, and episode consists of an initiating event, and internal response, a plan, an attempt;consequence;reaction.

alphabetic principlean understanding that letters and letter patterns represent the sounds of spoken words.

consonanta speech sound that is not a vowel

vowelthe letters a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y

short vowelsounds represented by vowel letter as in the word bat.

long vowelA vowel that says its name

consonant digrapha consonant cluster that makes only one sound (sh, ch, th, wh, ph)

vowel digraph

consists of two vowels that together represent one sound- like the oa in boart tht makes the long o sound.

r-controlled vowela vowel followed by an r in the same syllable EX-car, fir, or, hurt, perch

schwaThe unaccented vowel and unaccented syllable. Makes an "uh" sound. Ex: The u is schwa in medium.

phonogramsalso called rimes- letter patterns that help form word families (ad, at, ack, ag an ap ess, en). A grapheme whih represent a phoneme or compbination of phonemes.

phonemein a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

graphemeletter or letters that represent one phoneme (CAT, c-a-t, contains 3 graphemes)

morphemein a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

bound morphememorpheme that only has meaning when attached to a word (like the 'un' in unlikely)

free morphemea morpheme that can occur alone (ex. ship; in "shipment"

morphologythe study of word formation and structure

morphemic analysisThe study of the meaningful parts of a word including its prefix, root, and suffix

prefixa syllable or word that comes before a root word to change its meaning

affixa prefix or suffix (a morpheme that is added to a stem or base to give it a new meaning)

suffixan affix that is added at the end of the word

inflected endingsSuffixes that change the verb tense (walk, walked, walking) or number (dogs, boxes) of a word

antonyma word that means the opposite of another word

synonymWords that have similar or the same meaning

homonymtwo words are homonyms if they are pronounced or spelled the same way but have different meanings

homophoneOne of two or more words pronounced alike, but different in spelling or meaning (e.g., hair/hare, scale (fish)/scale (musical)).

homographtwo words that have the same spelling but different meanings (ie. the bow in your hair and the bow with the arrow)

root wordsMain part of the word that provides the word's basic meaning also known as 'base words'.

grammarin a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

figurative languageWriting or speech that is used to create vivid impressions by setting up comparisons between dissimilar things, [examples are metaphor, simile, and personification.

literal languageA form of language in which writers and speakers mean exactly what their words denote.

analogydrawing a comparison in order to show a similarity in some respect

similea figure of speech that expresses a resemblance between things of different kinds (usually formed with 'like' or 'as')

metaphora comparison without using like or as (ex. You are my sunshine.)

allegoryA narrative in which the characters and events represent an idea or truth about life in general.

autobiographyA narrative in which the author writes about his/her own life

biographyA narrative in which an author writes about another person's life

comedyA genre of literature in which life is dealt with in a humorous manner, often poking fun at people's mistakes

drama (play)Uses dialogue to present its message to the audience and is meant to be performed

essaya nonfiction piece that is often short and used to express the writer's opinion about a topic of to share info on a dubject

FableA short stroy, often with animals as the main characters, that teaches a moral or lesson to the reader

FantasyA genre of literature in which the story is set in an imaginary world, involving magic or adventure in which the characters often have supernatural powers

FolktaleA story that has been passed down orrally form one generation to another; the characters usually follow the extreme (all good or all bad) and in the end are rewarded or punished as they deserve.

MythA story that was created to explain some natural force of nature, religious belief, or social phenomenon. The gods and goddesses have supernatural

powers but the human characters often do not

novelA fictional narrative of book length in which characters and plot are developed in a somewhat realistic manner

ParableA simple, short story thats used to explain a belief, a moral, or spiritual lesson

poetryliterary work which uses colorful concise, rhythmic language and focuses on the expression of ideas or emotions

ProseLiterary work that is in ordinary form and uses the familiar structure of spoken language, sentence after sentence

RealismWriting in which the reality of life is shown

Science FictionA genre of literature in which real or imaginary scientific developents and concepts are prevalent and is often set in the future

Short StoryA narrative that can be read in one sitting. Has few characters and often one conflict or problem. The characters often go though some sort of change by the end of the story

Tall TaleA humorous and exaggerated story often based upon the life of a real person. The exaggerations increase and build until the character can achieve impossible tasks

TragedyA genre of literature in which there is a downfall of the hero due to a tragic flaw or personal characteristic; often ends with an unhappy ending.

PaceHow the details are placed and how transitions are made within the story. the function that moves along the story

Tonethe attitude or feeling that a pieve of literature conveys through the characters, word choice, and writing style. EX. humorous, sad, serious,etc

Point of View POVWho is telling the story or what angle the story is being told from. The POW impacts reader response to the story and the characters.

Objective (POV)The story is told through actions and dialogue; the reader must infer what the characters think and feel. The narrator is a detached observer.

Third Person (POV)The story is told through an outside voice ( the narrator is NOT one of the characters) but informs the reader about how the characters feel.

First Person (POV)The story is told through an inside voice ( the narrator is participating in the sotry as a character). The reader receives info from a narrator who is directly involved in the action, and the narrator may or may not be reliable; narrator is biased

OmniscientThe story is told be a narrator who is all knowing and knows everything about all the characters (inner thoughts included.

Limited OmniscientThe story is told by a narrator whose knowledge is limited to knowing all inner thoughts and feelings of one character (major or minor)

AntagonistThe person or force that works against the hero in the story

ProtagonistThe main character in the story who is often good or possesses heroic qualities

ThemeA view on life and of how people conduct themselves. In a narrative, the theme is not directly presented but left up to the reader to extract from the characters/events/setting

PlotThe sequence of events within a story. The plot is the reason that the events occur w. in a story. Has 8 elements

Exposition (plot element)The intro of the story in which the reader is introduced to the setting, the tone, the characters, and initial understanding of the story

Inciting forcethe character or event that triggers the central conflict

ConflictThe events from which the plost is derived. There are 5 types of conflict.

Rising actionThe series of events that builds up from the conflict ending with the climax

CrisisWhen the conflict reaches a turning point and the two opposing forces in the story met. The crisis is when the conflict is most intense and occurs either right before or at the same time as the climax

ClimaxThe point at which the outcome of the conflict can be predicted. It is the highest point of the story and often the one with the greatest emotion

Falling actionthe series of events that occur after the climax which wrap up the story

ResolutionThe conclusion of the story and the rounding out of action

Man VS. ManConflict in which one person is pitted against another

man vs. natureConflict in which a person or people have a run-in w. the forces of nature

Man vs. SocietyConflict in which societal values and custons are challenged by a person

Man vs. SelfConclict that centers around internal struggles of a character; a test of the values and inner strength of a character

Man vs. FateConflict in which the problem or struggle appears to be far beyond the person's control

NonfictionWriting in which the information is presented as a fact or as a truth. Does not necessarily mean that the info is accurate or valid. Examples: Essays, journals, textbooks, book reports, letters, menus

PoetryA creative form of writing. Meant to be read aloud. Written in lines called stanzas. Poetry has many techniques that are utilized

RhymeA scheme of low words organized into patterns: Internal Rhyme and End rhyme

MeterThe rhythm of the poem; the accented and unaccented syllables

AlliterationA repetition of the beginning consonant sound. Ex. The green grass grows.

AssonanceThe repetition of vowel sounds. Ex. What's the story morning glory

ConsonanceThe repetition of consonant sounds anywhere within words.

OnomatopoeiaWhen a word sound relates to it's meaning. Ex. Buzz, hiss, woof, zip, swish

RepetitionThe stating of a word or phrase more than once which adds rhythm or focus.

IambicAn unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable (da-dum, da-dum)

TrochaicAn accented syllable followed by an unaccented syllable (dum-da, dum-da) EX. PETer PETer, PUMPkin, EATer

SpondaicTwo accented syllables (dum-dum, dum-dum)

AnapesticTwo unaccted syllables followed by an accented syllable (da-da-dum, da-da-dum) Twas the NIGHT before CHRISTmas and ALL through the HOUSE

DactylicAn accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables (dum-da-da, dum-da-da)

VerseA line of poetry written in meter and named for hte number of feet per line. there are 8 common types

StanzaThe sections or lines of a poem. There are six common stanzas: couplet: 2, triplet: 3, Quatrain: 4, sestet: 6, septet: 7, octane:8

BalladA poem that tells a story usually written in quatrains.

Blank VerseA poem that is unrhymed but as meter. Each line is usually 10 syllables

CinquainPoems that are five lines in length. There can be both syllable and word cinquains

CoupletTwo lines of verse that often rhyme an convey on complete idea

ElegyA poem about death or the sadness related to the death of an important person

EpicA poem of length proportions that is a story or tells the adventures of a hero; it must have a hero and villlain

Free VerseA poem with out meter or rhyme scheme

HaikuA form of Japanese peotry often about nature. It contains stanzas of three lines with 5,7,5 syllables

LimerickA humorous poem of 5 lines. Lines 1,2,5 rhyme and lines 3 and 4 rhyme

LyricA short poem with personal feeling; most often put to music

OdeLong lyric with imagery and full of poetic devices

Sonnet

A 14 line poem that states the poet's personal feelings. Shakespearean(english) and Petrarchan (Italian)

AcrosticThe letters of a word are used to begin each line in the poem, can be comprised of adjectives or phrases

Letter KnowledgeGiving sounds for an individual letter and writing letters in response to their individual sounds

Logographic foundationreading familiar and common words (sight words)

Alphabetic foundationreading aloud and having the studetn write the letter spoken based upon the sound spoken or the letter name uttered

Print ConceptsLetters have sounds, and they form words

Phonemic awarenessSpeech is broken into individual sounds; in the English language there are 44 found within the 26 letters of the alphabet. Exposure to nursery rhymes or common jingles

Alphabetic PrincipleLetters represent sound and speech. Exposure to text and print

Word identificationVarious strategies are used to recognize vocab. Decoding by sound decoding by comparison to known words

FluencyReading is done with expression, is automatic and flowing (does not require comprehension)

comprehensionCritical thinking and processing of content read.

Context cluesThe ability to use words, meanings, and context to extract the meanings of unknown words.

Semantic CluesMeaning. Based upon the subject read, the reader can determine what type

of language will be used

Syntactic cluesWord Order. Looking at the order and structure of words the reader can determine meaning based upon the part of speech.

Symbolic CluesPictures. Illustrations and graphics can provide assistance in the identification of words

Word structure cluesRecognizing frequent letter groups.

Analogy cluesReaders are able to draw connections between patterns, simple words, and syllables.

Prefixword or letters placed at the beginning of a root or base words to create a new word. EX un-, pre-,non-

SuffixMorpheme added to the end of a root or base word to form a new word EX -ing,-er-tion,-ly

homonymwhen two words that have the same pronunciation and spelling but different meanings: Mouse (animal or computer) Mean (rude or average)

homophonewhen two words that have the same pronunciation but are spelled differently. EX two, too, to

homographwhen words have the same spelling but different meanings and may or may not be pronounced differently. EX dove (bird and swimming)

phonemeA distinct unit of sound b=buh

Hyperbolean exaggeration or overstatement that may or may not be realistic and is not meant to be taken literally

Imageryappeals to the readers senses

Idiomwhen words are used in a special way that is different than their literal meaning. To steal one's thunder, or cut corners

Phonology (Speech Sounds)Phonology: The rule system within a language by which phonemes can be sequenced, combined, and pronounced to make words.-eg: No English word begins with the sound ng, the sounds p and k are never adjacent in the same syllable

Orthography (Parts, prefix, root, suffix)A writing system for representing language. Every English word ending in v is spelled with -ve

Discourse: How we tie it all togetherOrganizational conventions in longer segments of oral or written language. (Paragraph structure; cohesive ties; genre conventions such as story structure.

Interrelatedness between print and speech- print is speech written down

Language Experience ApproachA student's dictated composition is written by the teacher and used as a text for reading instruction; it is generally used with beginning readers.

Shared WritingIn shared writing, the teacher and students compose text together, with both contributing their thoughts and ideas to the process, while the teacher acts as scribe, writing the text as it is composed.

Morning Messagedaily literacy routine that teachers use to teach literacy concepts, strategies and skills. Usually consists of a friendly letter to the class about what will happen during the day.

Interactive Writingapproach to writing in which students and teachers co-construct text during explicit demonstration of writing and writing strategies; they individually share the pen by contributing letters, words, or phrases to the written piece

Environmental printmethod for teaching emergent literacythe print we see in our environment outside of books- such as signs, labels, symbols, television shows, games etc...

One to one correspondenceFinger pointing to match word to word

Directionality of PrintAnother critical pre-reading skill..., read left to right and top to bottom, front to back. Tracking is evidence that it has been learned.

Environmental Influences that affect students development of print awareness.Socio-economic status, parent education level, prior reading experiences (being read to, talked to, books in the home, etc)

Importance of students ability to differentiate between words and spaces...

Concepts of Printprint represents spoken language; print is directional from left to right and top to bottom; books are read from front to back; the strings of letters separated by spaces in text are words, and individual letters are different from words; sentences begin with capital letters and end with periods, etc.....

Instructional Strategies for Teaching Letter Recognition(Graphemes)-letter name (Phonemes-letter sounds)

How do you assess print awareness?Hand child a book and ask them where is the front and back, what is a word, identify capital letters, punctuation marks. Have them turn page of book and point where to start reading.

Stages of Phonemic AwarenessFrom Simple to difficult-

Phonological awarenessAbility to identify, think about and manipulate the parts of words, including syllables, onsets and rimes and phonemes.

Progression of Phonological SkillsSimple to difficult- Phonemes, onset-rime, syllables, words, sentences

Speech PerceptionIs a receptive language skill.- ability to distinguish between words that sound almost the same and to recognize any word that has been said. Unconscious skill.

Speech productionexpressive language skill. Includes articulation or pronunciation of speech sounds and speech-sound sequences- unconscious skill

Progression of Oral Language Development0-3 Months coo, cries, smiles, 4-6 Months babbles are more speech like may include sounds such as p, b, m. 7mo-1 year Imitates different speech sounds, longer groups of sounds, begins saying words such as bye, and mama, dada

Progression of Oral Language Dev. continued1-2 years= uses more words each month. Puts two words together in to phrases, asks questions, Where Daddy? 2-3 yrs= words for almost everything uses 2-3 words together more easily understood

Progession of Oral Language Dev. continued3-4 Yrs- Says sentences with four or more words, talks about activities and or people is easily understood by all 4-5 yrs= Uses clear voice, detailed sentences, sticks to topic, uses appropriate grammar, says most sounds correctly

Ages of Phonological AwarenessAge 4 Rote imitation and enjoyment of rhyme and alliteration, Age 5 Rhyme recognition- odd word out, recognition of phonemic changes in words, Hey diddle fiddle- (child would recognize not correct) Clapping and counting syllables

Ages of Phonological Awareness continued 5 1/2Distinguishing and remembering separte phonemes in a series. Blending onset and rime- ch urch, Producing a rhyme- Tell me word that rhymes with ---. MATCHING INITIAL SOUNDS, ISOLATING AN INITIAL SOUND. SAY THE first sound in Hop

Age 6 Phonological AwarenessCompound word deletion say butterfly but don't say butter. Syllable deletion: Say parsnip but don't say par. Blending of two and three phonemes- m oo, sh ut, g ow n, Phoneme segmentation of words that have simple syllables with two or three phonemes- no blends h i p, f o g, (move a chip for each sound)

Phonological Awareness age 6 1/2Phoneme segmentation of words that have up to three or four phonemes (include blends) Tap fingers for each sound, Phoneme substitution to build new words that have simple syllables (no blends) Change the /j/ in cage to /n/

Phonological Awareness age 7Sound deletion in initial and final positions. Say heat without the h, say make with out the k

Phonological Awareness age 8Sound deletion in initial position, include blendsSay Frank without the f=

Phonological Awareness age 9Sound deletion (medial and final blend positions) Say snail without the n. Say fork without the k

Progression of phonics instruction1st- Word awareness- tracking the words in sentences2nd- Responsiveness to rhyme and alliteration3rd-stllable awareness=counting, tapping, blending or segmenting a word into syllables

Progression of phonics instruction part 24th Onset and Rime manipulation- ability to produce a rhyming word depends on understanding that rhyming words have the same rime. Recognizing is much easier than producing a rhyme. Phoneme awareness-

Progression of phonics instruction part 3Phoneme awareness: Identify and match the initial sounds in words, then final and mid. -Segment and produce the initial sound then the final and middle sound. -blend sounds into words- segment the phonemes in two or 3 sound words moving to 4 and 5 sound words as student becomes proficient. - Manipulate phonemes by removing, adding or substituting sound.

Phonological awareness activities for preschool or beginning Kindergarten1. Read aloud books w/ rhyme and alliteration, 2 Rhyme Judgment- give examples then ask what two words rhyme in this sentence? 3. Rhyme matching- what word rhymes with bake? Corn , cow, steak? 4. Alliteration- Peter Piper, etc, make up new ones. 5. Syllable blending- say a 2 syllable word slowly then have them guess what word you are saying

Phonological awareness activities for preschool or beginning Kindergarten cont'd6. Syllable deletion- break a two syllable word into parts eg: snowflake. What word do I have without flake? 7. Syllable counting: have them tap syllables when you give them a word. 8. Initial sound matching: Match first names with same beginning sounds. 9. Onset-rime division: say whole word and divide into two parts- use manipulatives 10- Rhyme production: say 3 words that rhyme and have students give 4th All activities must be modeled!!!! A lot!

Assessment of Phonological skills

Phoneme segmentation and blending tasks are the most reliable and accurate predictors as well as letter recognition. Students whose PA is underdeveloped will also have difficulty associating phonemes with graphemes during word reading and spelling tasks

Six Syllable typesopen, closed, VCe, vowel teams, r-controlled, consonant-le, 1. closed syllable (CVC): ends in at least one consonant; vowel is short (one vowel) [mag/net, pump/kin, at]2. open syllable (CV): ends in one vowel; vowel is long [no, be, me, BA/con]3. vowel-consonant-e (VCe or CVCe): ends in one vowel, one consonant, and a final e. Final e is silent and the vowel is usually long [cake, man/DATE]4. vowel +r syllable: has an r after the vowel, vowel makes an unexpected sound [car, star, bird, fern]5. vowel pair syllable: has two adjacent vowels. each vowel pair syllable must be learned individually [tea, bee, teach]6. final stable syllable

Why teach syllables?Knowing the syllable types helps readers know whether a vowel is long, short, a dipthong, r controlled or whether endings have been added.

Six Syllable types acronymCLOVER C-closed, L for le (ending), o for open (long vowel at end of syllable) v for vowel pair eg:teacup (two vowels go walking), e for magic/silent e, and r for r controlled.

Progression of teaching 6 syllable types1. Closed 2. Vowel consonant e 3. Open syllables, 4. Vowel teams, 5 Vowel _r or r controlled 6 Consonant Le

SchwaUnstressed, deemphasized sound that closely resembles the short u sound, it is written as an upside down e. Ex.) sounds like the a in about

Background Knowledge and comprehensionComprehension is increased when the reader has some background knowledge of the subject they are reading about- more background knowledge the more comprehension can take place

KWL Chart- activating prior knowledgeK: know W: want to know L: learn & still want to learn

Semantic Mapa graphic organizer that uses lines and circles to organize information according to categories

Strategies to activate students prior knowledgeKWL Charts, semantic maps, Anticipation Guides, Browsing, predictions="Anticipatory set"

Building Background knowledgeessential to comprehending reading; students' knowledge of broader concepts. Information contained in the text is compared with and filtered by this. Each reader's unique collection of background knowledge and experiences has the effect of emphasizing, disregarding, and connecting to different aspects of texts to create an individual interpretation.

Role Vocabulary Plays in ComprehensionComprehension is highly dependent on knowledge of word meanings. Knowledge of a word is learned gradually after multiple exposures to words in speech and print.

Systematic, explicit instruction to develop comprehension skillsBuild background knowledge, think alouds, modeling, questioning before, during, after. Critical thinking-finding the deeper meaning.

DRTAStands for directed reading thinking activity.This teacher directed strategy helps students to establish a purpose for reading a story or reading expository writing from a content book.The teacher models the process of creating and correcting predictions as the story progresses to strengthen comprehension.Step 1: sample the text to develop background knowledge and develop hypothesis about content of the text.Step 2: students make predictions based on their sampling of the text.Step 3: confirm or correct predictions by reading the text and engaging in follow up activities to corroborate if the predictions were correct.

Graphic Organizersa strategy for comprehension that helps readers focus on text structure, show relationships within text, organize ideas for better summarizing, and illustrate concepts (ex: Venn diagrams, story maps, story webs)

Ways to use Graphic organizers-guide students through a text, elicit what students already know about a topic, assist students in summarizing what they have read and prepare students for writing

Types of graphic organizersAttribute Wheel, Classification example map, process (time sequence Map), reason/explanation map, compare/contrast paragraph or essay

Components of fluency

accuracy, automaticity, rate, and prosody

Strategies to develop and improve fluencyuse of word lists, phrases and passages at appropriate instructional level, Modeling of fluent reading, paired reading, echo reading, readers theater

Instructional Strategies to Improve Oral Reading FluencyRepeated Readings on independent (95% accuracy) level up to 4 times for each passage. Modeling by an adult then have students read same passage echo/paired reading where students read chorally together or one after the other. Repeated reading w/ guidance- one on one with teacher.

Methods of assessing fluencyFormal measurement would be Timed passages- Words read per minute. Graph on a chart. Informally student reads to teacher and making a judgment-should use formal measures

Comprehension OverviewGood readers are purposeful and active as they read.

Comprehension StrategiesMonitoring comprehension: use graphic organizers, answering questions- generating questions, recognizing story structure & summarizing

Explicit teaching of comprehension strategiesResearch shows that explicit teaching techniques are effective. In explicit instruction, teachers tell readers why and when they should use strategies & how to apply them

Steps of Explicit Instruction of Comprehension strategiesDirect explanation, teacher modeling "thinking aloud", guided practice and application.

Direct ExplanationThe teacher explains to the students why the strategy helps comprehension and when to apply the strategy

Modeling (comprehension strategy)The teacher models, or demonstrates how to apply the strategy, usually by "thinking aloud" while reading the text that the students are using

Guided PracticeThe teacher guides and assists students as they learn how and when to apply the strategy.

Application

The teacher helps students practice the strategy until they can apply it independently

Relationship between fluency and comprehensionFluency is the bridge between word recognition and comprehension. When a student can break text into meaningful chunks, read with expression- they free up cognitive desk space and they are able to think about what they are reading instead of just focusing on decoding.

Vocabulary instructionMost vocabulary is learned indirectly and some must be taught directly

Indirect Vocabulary instruction-students are engaged is oral language daily- they hear new and interesting words- the more oral language experiences children have the more word meanings they learn. Adults reading to them- engages child in a book discussion after reading- helps them learn new words & concepts to relate them to their prior knowledge and experience

Indirect Vocab instruction cont'dReading extensively on their own- the more they read on their own, the more words they encounter and the more word meanings they learn

Direct Vocab instructionSpecific Word instruction and word learning strategies

Specific word instruction-deepens students knowledge of word meanings. Helps both vocabulary learning and reading comprehension- best when students are provided over an extended period of time and they work actively wit the words. Use in different contexts- more likely they are to learn the words. Repeated exposure

Word learning strategies-use of dictionaries & other reference aids, use information about word parts to figure out the meanings of words in text and how to use context clues to determine word meanings.

Use of dictionariesStudents need to know how to use dictionaries, glossaries, and thesauruses to broaden and deepen their knowledge of words, even though these resources can be difficult to use. The most helpful dictionaries include sentences providing clear examples of word meanings in context

Using word parts -Knowing some common prefixes and suffixes, basewords, and root words

can help students learn the meanings of man new words.

Four most common prefixesun, re, in & dis- have important clues about the meaning of about two thirds of all English words that have prefixes. They have clear meanings, -un means not and re means again

Word RelationshipsIt is best when teaching new words to show relationships between words (Antonyms, synonyms, etc)

EtymologyEtymology: Latin etymologia "etymology," from Greek etymon "true meaning of a word" and Greek -logia "study, science," from etymos "true" and logos "word, reason": the history of a word shown by tracing it or its parts back to the earliest known forms and meanings both in its own language and any other language from which it or its parts may have been taken

Word parts - Latin and GreekLatin and Greek words for m a large proportion of the new vocabulary that students encounter in their content area textbooks.

Criteria to be used when selecting words for Vocab instructionTier 2 words= words that students will need to know in order to comprehend/function. Teach approximately 8-10 a week- Important words- words needed for understanding a concept or the text. Useful words- words that students are likely to see again and again. Difficult words- words that are difficult for students to understand

Teaching Words with multiple meaningsWords with multiple meanings and idiomatic expressions are difficult for students. Dictionaries may provide to many definitions and students will have difficulty trying to figure out what context to use.

How do prefixes, suffixes and roots affect the meaning of English words?changes their type of word from and adjective to a noun or verb

Purpose of Phonemic AwarenessTo identify and manipulate the individual sounds in words (PA is under the umbrella of Phonological awareness.

Purpose of Phonological awarenessHas a broad purpose: Includes identifying and manipulating larger parts of spoken language; words, onset rime, as well as phonemes. Also encompasses rhyming, alliteration and intonation

Phonological awareness is evidenced byIdentifying and making oral rhymes, identifying and working with syllables, identifying and working with onsets and rimes in spoken syllables or one syllable words. Identifying and working with individual phonemes in spoken words.

Activities to Build Phonemic AwarenessPhoneme isolation: Recognize individual sounds in words.What is the first sound in Van (V)Phoneme Identity- Children recognize same sounds in different words: What sound is the same in fix, fall and fun

Activities to build phonemic awareness contdPhoneme categorizations; Children recognize the word in a set of three or four words that has the odd sound: "Which word doesn't belong? Bus, bun, rug?Phoneme blending: Children listen to a sequence of separately spoken phonemes and the combine the phonemes to form a word . What word is b/i/g- now let's write the sounds in big , then write word on board and read word

Activities to build phonemic awareness cont'dPhoneme segmentation: Children break a word into its separate sounds, saying each sound as they tap out or count it. Then they write and read the word. "How many sounds are in grab? g/r/a/b that's right 4. Lets write the sounds ins grab /g/ write g /r/ write r /a/ write a /b/ write b Now we are going to read the word grab

Activities to build phonemic awareness cont'dPhoneme deletion: Children recognize the word that remains when a phoneme is removed from another word. What is smile without the /S/ Children: smile without the /s/ is mile

Activities to build phonemic awareness cont'dPhoneme addition:Children make a new word by adding a phoneme to an existing word. "What word do you have if you add /s/ to the beginning of park? Children would respond Spark

Activities to build phonemic awareness cont'dPhoneme substitution: Children substitute one phoneme for another to make a new word. "The word is bug, Change the /g/ to n/ whats the new word= bun

When is phonemic awareness instruction most effectiveWhen children are taught to manipulate phonemes by using the letters of the alphabet. Teaching sounds along with the letters of the alphabet is important because it helps children to see how phonemic awareness relates

their reading and writing. Learning to blend phonemes with letters helps children read words. Learning to segment sounds helps them spell words.

Which methods of phonemic awareness instruction will have the greatest impact on my students learning to read?You can use a variety of methods but specifically blending and segmenting phonemes in words is likely to produce greater benefits to your students than teaching several types of manipulation.

Goal of phonics instructionIs to help children learn and use the alphabetic principle- the understanding that there are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds.

Levels of vocabulary knowledgeUnknown, Acquainted and established. Students can usually get by w/ some words at the unknown or acquainted levels. To understand the text fully students need to have an established level of knowledge for most of the words that they read

Unknown, Acquainted and Established VocabUnknown= The word is completely unfamiliar and its meaning is unknown. Acquainted= the word is somewhat familiar, the student has some idea of its basic meaning. Established: The word is very familiar; the student can immediately recognize its meaning and use the word correctly.

Four Different kinds of word learning have been identifiedLearning a new meaning for a known word, 2. Learning the meaning for a new word representing and known concept. Learning the meaning of a new word representing and unknown concept and 4, clarifying and enriching the meaning of a known word.

Clarifying and enriching the meaning of a known word.The student is learning finer, more subtle distinctions or connotations, in the meaning and usage of words. For example, he is learning the differences between running, jogging, trotting, dashing and sprinting.

Other ways to help students develop vocabularyFoster word consciousness- awareness and interest in words- call attention to the way authors choose words to convey particular meanings. Encourage them to play with words such as puns or palindromes. Help them research a words origin or history.

Reciprocal Teaching4 Comprehension strategies- Asking questions about the text they are reading, summarizing parts of the text, clarifying words and sentences they

don't understand and predicting what might occur next in the text.

Other Research based Comprehension strategiesMaking use of prior knowledge and Using mental imagery.

Universal GrammarNoam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a common underlying structure.

Language acquisition v. Language learningAcquisition: subconscious, has an emphasis on communication and reception, results in fluency.Learning: conscious, has an increased emphasis on syntax and grammar, and fluency is not a guarantee.

Chomsky's 6 Universal stages governing language acquisitionprelinguistic, holophrastic, two-word, telegraphic, intermediate development, and adult

Prelinguistic stageSilent period of language acquisition in which there is only crying and cooing.

Holophrastic stagePeriod of language acquisition in which there is one-word communication

Telegraphic stagePeriod of language acquisition in which the child may omit some syllables in words, substitute sounds, and use only a pivot word with other words--much like a telegram (about 28 months old)

Intermediate development stagePeriod of language acquisition following the telegraphic stage and prior to the adult stage

Jerome Bruner...holds that while there may be a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) as Chomsky suggests, there must also be a LASS, Language Acquisition Support System.

John Macnamara...holds that children have an innate capacity to read meaning into social situations, rather than having an in-built language device, that makes them capable of understanding language.

The 3 parts of Language acquisitionReceptive, Cognitive, Expressive

Receptive languageThe listener or reader is able to attend to, process, comprehend, retain, and/or integrate spoken or written language.

Phonemic awarenessthe ability to notice, think about, and manipulate the individual sound in words

Phonemesthe sound-symbol correspondence of words

Phonological awarenesssound-symbol recognition

Cognitive languageThat which is received is processed into memory, integrated with prior knowledge and made a part of the knowledge of the individual from which new ideas and concepts can be generated.

Expressive languagecommunication through speaking, writing, and/or gestures; selecting words, forming them into ideas, and producing them through speaking, writing, or gesturing. It involves word retrieval, rules of grammar, word and sentence structure, and word meaning.

Stephen Krashen's 5 Components of Second Language Acquisition Theory1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis.2. The monitor hypothesis3. The natural order hypothesis4. The input hypothesis.5. The affective filter hypothesis.

The acquisition-learning hypothesisKrashen concluded that there are 2 systems of language acquisition that are interdependent but related:Acquired - relates to the unconscious aspect of language acquisition. Speakers are less concerned with the structure of their utterances than with the act of communicating.Learned - relates to formal instruction. For example, studying the rules of syntax

The Monitor HypothesisIllustrates how the acquired system is affected by the learned system.Second language learners apply their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and initiate their communication.

The Natural Order HypothesisPeople learn language in four steps:1. They produce single words.2. They string words together based on meaning and not syntax3. They begin to

identify elements that begin and end sentences4. They begin to identify different elements within sentences and can rearrange them to produce questions.

The Input HypothesisArgues that learners of second languages progress along the natural order only when they encounter second language input that is one step beyond where they are in the natural order.

The Affective Filter HypothesisExternal factors such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety can act as a filter that impedes language acquisition.

PragmaticsInvolves three primary communication skills:1. Using language appropriately for different social situations.2. Changing one's language according to the listener's needs3. Following rules for conversing with others, such as taking turns, staying on-topic, not standing too close, and rephrasing when necessary

Ethno linguisticsA study of how language determines and reflects world views of people. Most contemporary linguists stress the importance of one's language to the group and the individual.

Analytic languagelanguage that relies on word order to convey grammatical relationships, rather than inflection (including inflectional morphemes)

Synthetic languagea language that makes considerable use of inflectional morphemes to convey grammatical relationships, and relies less heavily on fixed word order.

4 Levels of communication1. Concrete2. Semi-concrete3. Semi-abstract4. Abstract

Concrete level of communicationThe first way of preserving the memories of an event, the parts of a story, or the history of a person, family, or place was with souvenirs, or physical reminders. Without artifacts and living persons as remembrances, people began to search for another way to document.

Semiconcrete level of communicationPictography, the first stage in writing began to appear after speech began, about 30,000 BCE. Drawings in the sand, on cave walls, on papyrus scrolls

on pottery, on cloth and canvas, and later on paper communicated messages to their readers.

Semiabstract level of communicationThe next-to-highest level of representation consisting of notches or symbols etched into animal bones as a more sophisticated system of record keeping that pictography.

Abstract level of communicationThe highest level of representation. Writing began in Mesopotamia as picture writing, invented by the Sumerians. This evolved into cuneiform and eventually into a syllabic alphabet.

Ideographic writingWritten abstract symbols that represent ideas--not just concrete objects and actions.

449 CEThe accepted date of the birth of the English language.

InflectionThe ending of a word signals the use of the word. (3rd p. singular, present tense: -s; Plural of regular noun: -s; past tense of regular verbs: -ed...)

-erComparative case of adjectives

-estSuperlative case of adjectives

-ingIndication of present participle of regular verbs and/or the progressive aspect of a verb.

-enIndication of past participle of regular verbs and/or the perfect aspect of a verb (In weak verbs this is indicated by -ed)

Nominative casethe category of nouns serving as the grammatical subject of a verb.I, wehe, she, who, they

Objective casethe category of nouns serving as the direct object of a verb.me, ushim, her, whom, them

Noun caseindicate the role of noun-phrases

Pronominal Genitivemine, oursyour, yourshe she whohis, hers, its, theirs

Adjectival Genitivemy, ouryour, yourhim, her, whomhis, her, its, their

11 Processes of word formationAffixationCompoundingConversionStress shiftClippingAcronym formationBlendingBackformationUsing brand namesOnomatopoeiaBorrowing

AffixationAdding a prefix or suffix to a word.

CompoundingJoining two or more words, like "whitewash" and "skateboard"

ConversionUsing a word of one category in another category without change; for instance, using the noun "comb" also as the verb "comb"

Stress shiftChanging the stress from one syllable to another changes the meaning and the pronunciation, as in "reCORD" (verb) and "REcord" (noun)

ClippingShortening words, as in "math" for "mathematics" and "doc" for "doctor"

Acronym formationForming a word from the initials of a group of words: AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

BlendingCombining two words, such as "breakfast" and "lunch" to form "brunch"

BackformationA suffix identifiable from other words is cut off from a base which has previously not been a word: "burger" from "hamburger" or "self-destruct" from "self-destruction." Different from clipping b/c the bit chopped off is a recognizable affix or word (ham or -tion).

OnomatopoeiaWords invented to imitate the sound they represent.

BorrowingTaking a word from another language. Ex: yam and tote are taken from African languages, macho and spaghetti from European languages.

SemanticsThe study of meaning as conveyed through language.

AmbiguityThe use of words that allow alternative interpretations. It may expand the literal meaning of a passage, but it may promote errors in understanding.

EuphemismThe substitution of less-offensive words for words considered explicitly offensive. Using "passed away" rather than "died."

DoublespeakThe misuse of language often in a deliberate and even calculating way in order to mislead. Using "physical persuasion" rather than "torture."

ConnotationThe impression or feeling a word gives beyond its exact meaning.

JargonThe vocabulary of a particular profession or may refer to any speech or writing

that one does not understand.