UNIT 2 – THE ANCIENT NEAR EASTChapter 3 – The Fertile Crescent – Key Terms (Vocabulary & Notes)

Key Terms (Vocabulary):Section 1:

1. Fertile Crescent - a region with good conditions for growing crops that stretch from the Mediterranean coast east through Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) to the Persian Gulf.

2. Mesopotamia - wide, flat plan in-between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in present-day Iraq

3. irrigate - to supply water to4. city-state - independent state consisting of a city and its

surrounding territory5. barter - trading system in which people exchange goods

directly without using money6. polytheism - worship of man gods or deities7. ziggurat - brick pyramid-shaped Mesopotamian temple8. cuneiform - Mesopotamian system of writing that uses

triangular-shaped symbols to stand for ideas or things

Section 2:9. empire - state containing several countries or territories10.ally - independent state that works with other states to

achieve a shared military or political goal11.cultural trait - idea or way of doing things that is common in a

certain culture12.Hammurabi’s Code- set of laws that governed life in the Babylonian

empire13.rule of law - idea that all members of a society, even the rich

and powerful, must obey the law

Section 3:14.cavalry - soldiers who fight while riding horses15.standing army - a permanent army of professional soldiers16.tribute - payment or gift to a stronger power17.currency - money that is used as a medium of exchange;

usually bills or coins18.stele - grand stone pillar

Section 4:19.import - good or service sold within a country that is

produced in another country20.export - good or service produced within a country and

sold outside the country’s borders21.navigation - art of steering a ship from place to place22.colony - group of people living in a new territory with ties

to a distant state23.cultural diffusion - spread of cultural traits from one culture to

another24.alphabet - small set of letters or symbols, each of which

stands for a single sound

Section 1 – The Civilization of SumerObj: Students will know the Fertile Crescent sustained the first known civilization; Sumer had a class system in which priests and kings held power; students will be able to identify main ideas ad details about the Standard or Ur; identify and create a modern “standard.”Expectations: In this section, students will read “The Civilization of Sumer”; identify and evaluate picture writing signs; go “On Assignment” in ancient Sumer and gather information about life in the region.Key Ideas:

Fertile land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers supported the earliest known civilization

Priests and kings held great power in the city-states of Sumer Sumerian achievements included new technology, a written language, and

epic poetry

Chapter 3 – Section 1 – The Civilization of SumerThe Fertile Crescent is located in the Middle East and it stretches in a large, crescent-shaped curve from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea.It includes:

Mesopotamiao A wide, flat plain in present-day Iraqo This plain lies between two great rivers

The Tigris The Euphrates

o Mesopotamia means “land between the rivers” in Greeko It was here thousands of years ago, that the world’s first civilization

began to form… it was called Sumer. Sumer

o Sumer is located in Mesopotamia

Agriculture in MesopotamiaAs its name suggests, the soil is rich and fertile. Some of the most productive land in the region is in Mesopotamia.Sumerian farmers:

Grew many grains and vegetables Raised sheep, goats, and cattle

Geography of MesopotamiaNorthern Mesopotamia:

Includes foothills of the Taurus and Zagros mountain chains. To the South,these foothills flatten into plains that stretch southeast toward the Persian Gulf.

Southern Mesopotamia: Hot, dry region with little rainfall At first glance, it looks like a desert, but the soil is not desert soil

o The soil is rich in nutrientso This is due, and owed to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers

The begin in the mountains of southeastern Turkey and flow south and east, through present-day Iraq.

The rivers unite in southern Iraq and continue to the Persian Gulf as a single waterway known as the Shatt-al-Arab

Each spring the rivers flood their banks, spreading floodwaters and silt across the plain.

When the flood waters end, they leave behind a fresh layer of moist, fertile earth that is perfect for growing crops.

Mesopotamia’s geography also gave Sumerian farmers many challenges: Heavy spring floods could wash away crops and even whole villages Summer heat baked the ground rock hard with little rainfall for months

o Plants diedFarming the LandDespite challenges, the Sumerians used technology to turn Mesopotamia into productive farmland.

Irrigation – they dug many miles of canals to bring water from rivers to their fields.

o This allowed crops water during the hot, dry summerSumerians developed a new way of planting crops:

First – earlier farmers used a plow pulled by oxen to cut a long furrow, or trench, in the soil

Then – farmers dropped seeds into the furrow by hand. But – Sumerian farmers developed a seed funnel that attached to their

plows.o As the plow moved forward, seeds automatically dropped from the

funnel into the soilo This made planting faster and easier

City-States of SumerBetter agricultural techniques helped the Sumerians produce more food.More food meant:

a dependable food supply the population of villages began to grow

o around 3400 BC cities started to form in southern MesopotamiaCities EmergeUruk – the first Mesopotamian city

had a population of more than 40,000 peopleThere were others:

Ur Lagash Nippr

Some cities grew large and powerful and became the world’s first city-states.Each city-state had:

Its own government and laws Its own main god A center for trade

TradeAlthough southern Mesopotamia had fertile soil, it had little wood or stone ad no metal ores.Sumerians traveled far to find these important resources and bring them to their cities.Most trade was done by barter.Early traders often used the rivers and major canals to transport their goods.

They loaded goods onto barges, or large rafts Workers on land used ropes to pull the barges along the water

As with agriculture, the Sumerians used new technologies to make widespread trade easier:

They used wheels on their carts They used sails on their boats These technologies make transporting goods easier. Some goods included:

o barleyo wheato dateso cloth

They could also bring home trade goods like:o lumbero metalso precious stones

Social ClassesThe Sumerians developed a social order with three classes.People of each class had distinct roles within Sumerian society.Upper Class:

the ruler ruler’s top officials powerful priests wealthy merchants owners of large plots of land

Middle Class: farmers skilled workers

Lowest Class: mostly slaves

The city-states’ governments and Sumerian religious beliefs, which were firmly connected, helped support this social order.

Sumerian ReligionSumerians were polytheists.They believed these gods controlled every aspect of life.

Rain, wind, and other elements of nature Agriculture and other activities

Sumerians believed that gods behaved just like people. They believed they; ate, drank, slept, and married.However, they also believed that gods lived forever and had great power.

If the gods were happy with people’s prayers and offerings, they might bring good fortune to the city

If not, they might bring war, floods, or other disasters.o As a result, Sumerians felt they needed to keep the gods happy in

order for their cities to grow and prosper.Sumerians believed that only priests could communicate with the gods.

They depended on the priests to tell them what the gods wanted.o As a result, priests had an important role in Sumerian society

o They lived in, and ran the temples where people worshiped the gods. In larger Sumerian cities, temples were pyramid-shaped brick towers

known as ziggurats. (see picture on pg 114)Ziggurats could be as high as seven stories tall.They rose upward in steps, each level small than the one below.Some were filled with beautiful paintings and statues.Large areas of farmland that surrounded the temple, was controlled by the temple, which was controlled by the priests,, who kept grain and other goods belonging to the temples in large storehouses.

Sumerian WritingSumerian priests needed a system to keep track of their stored goods.

At first they drew pictographs on clay (for example: if they were track of fish given to a temple, they would draw a fish and them add marks to represent the number of fish.

o In time this would develop into the world’s first system of writingCuneiform (pg 115)By 3400 BC – Sumerian priests created this new system of writing

Used triangular-shaped symbols (lines and wedges) to stand for ideas or things.

It was done on clay tablets It contained thousand of symbols

Epic of GilgameshCuneiform first used to record sales, taxes, and agreements.Later it was used for more than keeping records.Around 2000 BC – a long poem appeared, “Epic of Gilgamesh”.

This poem tells about the adventures of a Mesopotamian hero named Gilgamesh.

o The stories of Gilgamesh are myths, made up tales of gods and heroes.

o However, some scholars believe that Gilgamesh may have been a real king who ruled the Sumerian city-state of Uruk sometime after 3000 BC.

Sumerian GovernmentThe first leaders were priests, not kings.Conflicts would lead to changes in the way cities were ruled.Development of KingshipAs city-states grew, people in different city-states began to argue over control of land and water. These conflicts sometimes led to war.

In times of war, priests helped choose the best person to lead the city-state into battle.

After the war was over, the leader was expected to give up his power and return to normal life.

o Some kept control even after the war ended. These military leaders became the first kings.

Kings and PriestsTo stay in power, kings needed the support of the priests.They were careful to respect the priests’ rights and powers.In return, priests declared that the gods sent the king to rule the city.

This idea would become common in SumerTogether, kings and priests created religious ceremonies that supported royal power.Sumerian kings eventually would take over many jobs the priests once did.

They hired workers to build new canals, temples, and roads Each king also served as the city’s chief lawmaker and judge

Written LawsThe earliest of law codes, or written set of laws, was around 2100 BC by Ur-Nammu, the king of Ur.The Ur-Nammu law code included laws about:

marriage slavery causing harm to other people

AchievementsAnother important advance in technology was the development of bronze.The Sumerians were one of the first cultures to make bronze by mixing copper and tin, which makes bronze harder than copper so it is better for making tools ad weapons.Bronze weapons would later play an important role in the growth of cities into large, powerful states.

Section 2 – The First EmpiresObj: Students will know Sargon conquered Sumerian city-states to create an empire; Hammurabi’s Code defined law that united the empire; students will be able to analyze causes and effects of the first empires; draw conclusions about Hammurabi’s Code and its impact on modern laws.Expectations: In this section, students will read “The First Empires”; make connections between ancient and modern laws; go “On Assignment” in empires of the Fertile Crescent and explore their culture and laws online.Key Ideas:

Sargon formed the world’s first empire by conquering the Sumerian city-states

The Babylonian emperor Hammurabi created an important legal code

Chapter 3 - Section 2 – The First EmpiresCity-states of Sumer grew in size, power, and wealth, and fought among themselves for hundreds of years.In time, strong rulers conquered the whole region, creating the world’s first empires.

The Conquest of SumerBy Sumerian kings fighting among themselves over years, this frequent fighting made the city-states grow weak, which eventually led to the conquest of Sumer.Conflict in SumerUmma and Lagash, along with their allies fought to control a fertile region on their shared border around 2450 BC.Soldiers used bronze axes and long spears with sharp metal points. Thousands of troops died before Lagash won the battle, and to celebrate their victory, Lagash soldiers looted and burned Umma and its captured prisoners were to be sold as slave.It took Umma years to recover, and around 2375 BC, a powerful king of Umma would defeat Lagash and several other Sumerian city-states, but his rule would be short-lived

Sargon Builds an EmpireAs Sumerian city-states struggled for power, a new society arose in Mesopotamia.The Akkadian people lived to the northwest of Sumer, but were not related to the Sumerians.

They spoke a different language They had different customs

2300s BC – Akkadian names Sargon became king of the Sumerian city-state of Kish He changed the language of the government to Akkadian His Akkadian army conquered other Mesopotamian city-states. He placed loyal Akkadians in important government and religious positions These moves helped solidify his power Under his rule, Sargon united much of Mesopotamia, creating the world’s

first empireo The Akkadian empire

Akkadian CultureThe Akkadians and Sumerians shared some cultural traits.

They had similar religious practices Both societies used the cuneiform system of writing

As Sargon’s troops moved throughout the Fertile Crescent, they brought their cultural traits with them.Akkadians began to trade with people as far away as the Indus Valley (in modern-day Pakistan).Result: the ways of Akkadians and Sumerian spread throughout the region.The Akkadian Empire EndsSargon was able to control the Akkadian empire for more than 50 years.He controlled such a large empire, he had each local leader serve as king of the land he oversaw.2279 BC – Sargon dies and the rebellions and invasions for control begin.100 years later – Sargon’s empire collapses.Warriors from the Zagros Mountains

The Babylonian EmpireAfter the destruction of Ur, many groups invaded Sumer.One group from northern Mesopotamia were the Amorites who took control of several Sumerian cities, including Babylon (near present-day Baghdad, Iraq).At first Babylon was a small unimportant city on the Euphrates river, but under a king named Hammurabi, it became a center of a new Mesopotamian empire.

The Empire FormsAround 1792 BC – Hammurabi became king of Babylon.

He ruled for the next 30 years and solidified his power and built up his army He launched a series of attacks against other city-states and within a few

years, he had united southern Mesopotamia into what we now call the “Old” Babylonian empire, or Babylonia

He was an excellent military leader Like Sargon, he created a government strong enough to hold it together He sent his own governors, tax collectors, and judges to rule distant cities He spread his well-trained troops over the empire He oversaw the public building projects. He encouraged growth of trade

Hammurabi’s CodeHammurabi is best remembered for his creation of a set of laws that governed life in the Babylonian empire.They became known as Hammurabi’s Code:

Many of these laws existed since Sumerian times, but he wanted to make sure everyone in Babylonia knew the laws were expected to live by

It included nearly 300 lawso Some had to do with crimes (robbery and murder)

Specific punishments (“an eye for an eye”, see pg 122), although cruel by today’s standards, they did encourage social order

o Other laws dealt with private matters Business contracts Taxes Marriage Divorce

o Many of these laws treated various groups of people differently For example: the penalty for harming someone of the same

rank in society was greater than harming someone of lower rank, such as a slave.

Hammurabi’s laws were more detailed than the Ur-Nammu law code It was the first major attempt to organize and write down all the laws that

governed a society. It established and enforced the rule of law

o This idea is a key part of modern democratic principles

Daily Life in BabyloniaHammurabi’s Code and other Babylonian writings give historians a great deal of information about life in Babylonia.

Most people’s lives revolved around agricultureo Grow and distribute food, keep irrigation canals clear of silt, and

collect wool In the cities, some people bought and sold goods (merchants)

o Used new technologies to make tools, weapons, pottery, perfumes, and medicines.

Babylonian artists were known for:o Stone and bronze sculptureso Using gold and precious stones to make jewelry

Legacy of SumerSumerian culture stayed alive in BabyloniaDespite Hammurabi’s efforts, the Babylonian empire eventually collapsed after his death in 1750s BC.Sumer’s once great civilization slowly faded away, but its influence did not disappear.

Many people in contact with Sumerian civilization learned from it They brought back ideas and customs to their homelands In this way, Sumerian advances in technology, farming, writing, learning,

and the law lived on.

Section 3 – The Assyrian and Persian EmpiresObj: Students will know Assyrian and Persians created and governed vast empires; Mesopotamian cultures made lasting contributions to the arts; students will be able to summarize how Assyrian and Persian empires were governed; work in teams to plan Babylon’s restorationExpectations: In this section, students will read “The Assyrian and Persian Empires”; identify elements of Babylon’s infrastructure and culture; go “On Assignment” in Assyria and Persia to explore the regions onlineKey Ideas:

Assyrian armies conquered a vast empire that stretched from Mesopotamia southwest into Egypt

The Persian empire balanced local self-government with central power The cultures of Mesopotamia created a rich artistic tradition

Chapter 3 - Section 3 – The Assyrian and Persian EmpiresInvaders swept into Mesopotamia after Hammurabi’s death in 1750 BC.Hundreds of years passed before a people from northern Mesopotamia, the Assyrians, united the region again.Then, in time, the Assyrian empire would give way to the powerful Persian empire

The Assyrian and Noe-Babylonian EmpiresAssyria was north of Babylon along the Tigris River

It was influenced by Sumerian empire Later it was part of the Akkadian and Babylonian empires

A Military StateAfter Babylonia fell, frequent invasion and conflict let the Assyrians to become fierce warriors.

Their armies:o Included some of the world’s earliest cavalryo Used iron weapons and tools

They learned ironworking from the Hittites (people who had invaded Mesopotamia from Asia Minor)

800s BC – the Assyrians built up a strong military stateWithin 200 years, they turned that state into an empireMid 600s BC – the Assyrian empire stretched north from the Persian Gulf across the entire Fertile Crescent and southwest into Egypt.

Governing the EmpireLike Sargon and Hammurabi before the, the Assyrians found controlling a large empire difficult.They divided the empire into 70 smaller units of government called provinces

Each province had a governor who reported directly to the Assyrian ruler This helped keep control of distant lands

Ruler Ashurbanipal made the city of Nineveh his capital. He built a library and filled it with cuneiform tablets

o Tablets were mainly texts and letters from Sumer and Babylonia on subjects such as:

law literature mathematics science

o 20,000 of these tablets survive today They are important sources of knowledge about

Mesopotamian history.Babylon RestoredAshurbanipal dies – civil war and enemy attacks weakened the Assyrian empire.604 BC – Nebuchadnezzar becomes king of Babylon.

He expands his power as far west as Egypt He captures Jerusalem

o Destroyed the Jewish Templeo Exiled many Jews to Babylon

His empire is known as the Neo-Babylonian empire (New Babylonia) He spend much money on large building projects in Babylon

o Guilt great walls, gates, and templeso His most famous project was the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (see pg

130) Elaborate gardens built on a series of stone terraces

Rise of the Persian EmpireEven with its thick walls and strong gates, Babylon was not able to keep out ew conquerors539 BC – Babylon and the rest of Mesopotamia fell under the control of the powerful Persian empire

Within a few decades, the Persian empire would be the largest the world had ever seen

Cyrus the GreatPersia formed to the east of Mesopotamia (present-day Iran)For years the Persians were ruled by northern neighbors, the MedesThe Medes’ empire stretched from present-day Iran, northwest across the Zagros Mountains.550 BC – Cyrus the Great would lead the Persians to victory over the Medes, winning the empire.Cyrus wanted to build an even larger empire

He began in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey)o Went to war with the kingdom of Lydia, defeating king Croesus.o He pushed south into Ionia, a region settled by Greeks, capturing

Ionia’s city-states one by oneo He later extended Persia’s border in the east, toward India

At this point, the Persian empire reached deep into AsiaIt was Persia’s large standing army that is credited for Persia’s rapid growth.

At the core of this army was a force of 10,000 elite solders known as “Immortals”

Conquest of BabylonUnder the rule of Cyrus the Great, Babylon grew into the wealthiest province of the Persian empire.He treated the Babylonians and other conquered peoples well.

He allowed them to keep their own customs and religions He allowed the Jewish people to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their

Temple

Further Expansion530 BC – Cyrus died in battleHis son, Cambyses II, continued his father’s dream of increasing the size of the Persian empire.

He moved his troops into northeast Africa and conquered Egypt He traveled south to try to capture Kush, but it was a failure

o He marched his army through the desert with little food or other supplies.

Some men were forced to kill and eat their pack animals Many died of starvation

After Cambyses died, Darius took the throne by forceUnder his rule:

Persia grew even larger He became known as Darius the Great In the east, he extended to the Indus Valley In the west, he defeated Thrace (Persia’s first European victory)

Later campaigns against Greece ended in Persia’s defeat The Battle of Marathon

Persia’s Government and ReligionPersia’s empire included peoples with many different cultures.Persian rulers had to find a way to unify the empireInstead of forcing people to follow the same customs and obey the same laws, Darius took a different approach and created a political structure that gave local people some control over their own government.Local Self-GovernmentDarius divided his empire into satrapies, or provinces.

He chose a leader for eacho These leaders had a great deal of independence

He allowed them to keep their local laws ad traditions He allowed them to make many of their own decisions

Central ControlDarius also reformed the empire’s central (overall) government

First, he improved its financeso Creating a fairer system in which each province paid tribute

according to wealth Next, he created a common currency

o A gold coin that would be accepted across the Persian empire as payment for goods and services

This made is easier for distant provinces to trade with one another

New RoadsDarius built roads across the empire

Trade, goods, and tribute traveled on these roads Armies, government officials, and royal messengers also traveled the roads

The Persians set up postal stations along the 1500 mile long Great Royal Road. Messengers on horseback brought messages from one station to the next It took 3 months for a message to travel from one end of the road to the

other. Still, this system was the fastest communication system in the ancient

worldReligionIn ancient times, most people were polytheist600 BC – Persian Zoroaster taught that there was one supreme god, Ahura Mazda, who has an evil opponent.This belief would develop into the religion Zoroastrianism, which would eventually become the official religion of the Persian empire.Zoroastrianism:

Sacred text – Avestao Included prayers, hymns, and other writings

Central belief – the universe is in a constant struggle between good and evil

Belief in the afterlife**historians believe that the teachings of Zoroastrianism later influences Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Arts of MesopotamiaArt of ancient Mesopotamians give us a glimpse of daily life.It shows activities from a number of Mesopotamian societiesSealsCarved stone seals would be used to identify the owner of an object, especially before the development of cuneiform.A “seal” left the owner’s personal mark (could be an animal or geometric shape) that was stamped in clay.Some seals were shaped like cylinders or tubesSculpturesSumerians carved statues of people that, for the first time in history, look like real humans.Other people created “relief” sculpture (see pg 131)

The scene sticks out from the base material Could be found on a stele. The Assyrians created large, colorful reliefs on the sides of buildings

o Colorful tiles and bricks used to form elaborate patterns and images of cattle, dragons, and other animals

Assyrians also decorated walls with cone-shaped pieces of baked clay painted in white, black, and red.

Section 4 – The PhoeniciansObj: Students will know Phoenicians spread Mesopotamian civilization through ocean trade; the Phoenician alphabet was a significant contribution; students will be able to summarize information about the Phoenicians; categorize information to conduct a Phoenician trade exerciseExpectations: In this section, students will read “The Phoenicians”; categorize information to trade using the Phoenician alphabet; go “On Assignment” in Phoenicia and explore the region, culture, and trading methods onlineKey Ideas:

The Phoenicians were ocean traders who spread their culture over a wide area

The most lasting contribution of the Phoenicians was the development of the alphabet

Chapter 3 - Section 4 – The PhoeniciansThe Mediterranean Sea forms the western boundary of the Fertile Crescent.The Phoenician civilization began here (present-day Lebanon)Like Sumer, Phoenicia consisted of city-states, and although small in size, it had an important influence on the region’s history.

The Phoenician PeoplePhoenicians were fearless sailors who, for hundreds of years, dominated sea trade across the Mediterranean, just as the earlier Greek Minoans had.OriginsPhoenicians developed from the earlier Canaanites

Canaanites were people who lived in parts of present-day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria

Egypt had a strong influence on Canaan.o Ruled off and on for many years beginning around 1500 BC and

ending around 1150 BC, and it was here that Phoenician society began to emerge.

1150 BC – Phoenician society emerged and its city-states soon prospered.Rulers, in general, were priest-kings.

Each priest-king shared government power with leading merchant families and a citizen assembly

Farming and ManufacturingGeography greatly influenced its development

Its eastern border – the Lebanon Mountainso These heavily-forested mountains sloped down close to the

Mediterranean coast, leaving little flat land for farming.Phoenicians manufactured a number of goods

Weavers created cloth colored with a rare purple dye made from tiny sea snails

o This cloth sold at high prices Skilled craftworkers made pottery and glass and metal objects and also

used trees to make wood furniture and other items.Phoenician Traders (see map on pg 133)Because of a few natural resources, the Phoenicians traded with other cultures for resources and goods, bringing back many imports.Phoenician imports:

Gold Silver Tin Copper Iron Ivory Previous stones

Phoenicians use their resources and the imported raw materials to create goods to export to ports across the Mediterranean Sea:

Pine and cedar logs Wine Olive oil Salt Fish Other goods

Phoenicians and the SeaPhoenicia’s location ideal for trade

western edge of Asia within sailing distance of Europe and Africa several overland trade routes from the east

Many peoples came to depend on the Phoenicians to ship their trade goods across the Mediterranean.NavigationBecause of its location, between the Mediterranean Sea and Lebanon Mountains, Phoenicia turned to the sea to trade.They became experts at navigation.Phoenician sailors developed a thorough knowledge of wind patterns and ocean currents.Phoenician sailors are believed to be the first people to use the North Star to guide their voyages and calculate their location.Exploring Unknown WatersFrom Phoenicia, the Phoenicians sailed: (see pg 134)

south and west past Egypt and along the Northern Africa coast north and west past the Balkan and Italian peninsulas explored Mediterranean islands of Sicily and Sardinia in time, they reached Iberia, at the western end of the Mediterranean Sea

o today this land included Spain and Portugal After passing the southern tip of Iberia, they sailed north along the coast ad

a few traveled all the way to Britain. Others headed south to West Africa

Phoenician sailors showed great courage by sailing far into unknown waters.Colonies and City-StatesPhoenician sailors found many sheltered harbors along the Mediterranean coastAt first they served only as trading stationsAreas with fertile land or other resources attracted Phoenician farmers and other settlers.Those settlements grew into colonies.

when Phoenicia came under attack by Assyrians and others, many Phoenicians migrated to their colonies for safety

A few colonies developed into wealthy city-states one was Carthage (present-day Tunisia)

o this city-state would: become rich and powerful set up its own colonies fight three wars against the powerful Romans

**Over time, the Roman empire took over all of the Phoenician city-states and colonies.

Legacy of the PhoeniciansAlthough it did not survive, some of Phoenicia’s achievements did last.Greece and Rome absorbed key elements of Phoenician culture (cultural diffusion)The Phoenician legacy included the spread of its culture and a new way of writing.Spread of CultureThrough trade, diverse peoples and cultures were linked around the Mediterranean region and beyondIn the process, Phoenicians:

helped ideas spread passed parts of their culture on to the Greeks, whose influence continues

todayThe AlphabetThe Greeks also adopted the Phoenician way of writing.Cuneiform was the main writing system before the Phoenicians developed an alphabet.The Phoenician alphabet had 22 symbols, each stood for a consonant sound.Instead of having to remember hundreds of cuneiform symbols, the Phoenician alphabet made writing much easier.Around 500 BC, the Greeks added letters to represent vowels, which were absent in the Phoenician alphabet.The word alphabet comes from Greek, the first two letters are alpha and beta.Around 100s BC – the Romans adopted the Greek alphabet, changed some letters, and the result is an alphabet that looks much like ours today.