In the Case of Ethnic Studies at Kailua High School the Philosopher’s Pedagogy Offers a Meaningful Option for High School Reform

Amber Strong Makaiaumaniniz@yahoo.com

Abstract

Introduction

In 2004, the National Academies, Committee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn, published a comprehensive study regarding the current state of the American public high school. In their findings they wrote,

The instruction typical of most urban high schools nevertheless fails to engage students cognitively, emotionally and behaviorally. As typically taught in urban high schools, most subject matter appears disconnected and unrelated to students’ lives outside of school. Students spend much of their time passively listening to lectures or doing repetitive, formulaic tasks. Instruction and tasks are commonly very easy or impossibly difficult for many students, and getting right answers is stressed over understanding (Board of Children, Youth, and Families, 2004, p. 4 & 213).

They went on to explain, as a result of this type of instruction “it is common for fewer than half of the ninth graders who enter [our public schools] leave with a high school diploma” (p. 2). Based on this evidence, found in their report, it safe to say that the American public high school is in a full-on educational crisis.

This conclusion lead the committee to ask the question, what can be done to help our failing schools? Their response to educators, concentrate on student engagement.

Thus a focus on engagement calls attention to the connection between a learner and the social context in which learning takes place. Engaging schools promote a sense of belonging by personalizing instruction, showing an interest in students’ lives, and creating a supportive, caring social environment (Board of Children, Youth, and Families, 2004, p. 3).

Sounds good on paper, but what does an engaging school, engaging classroom, engaging teacher, or engaged students look like in practice?

The purpose of this article is to demonstrate how a p4c Hawaii approach to education has helped me answer these questions. I have been a public high school social studies teacher for over ten years. Through deep thinking, experimentation in the classroom, and feedback from my students I have come to believe that Philosophy for Children (P4C), as it is practiced in Hawaii, has both the theoretical and practical foundations needed for meaningful student engagement. In the following pages, I will elaborate on my experiences with teaching and researching p4c Hawaii in an effort to demonstrate how accessible p4c Hawaii is as a possible solution to our current educational crisis. I will do this by (a) describing how I have adapted Matthew Lipman’s version of P4C to create a “philosopher’s pedagogy” that better fits the secondary context

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that I teach in, and (b) reporting the findings of a qualitative study, which examined the impact of a “philosopher’s pedagogy” on students taking ethnic studies at Kailua High School. The data from this study will demonstrate how p4c Hawaii has the power to bring about meaningful high school reform in Hawaii and beyond.

From P4C to a Philosopher’s Pedagogy

In the late 1960’s Matthew Lipman, a professor of Philosophy, created Philosophy for Children in an effort to improve education for students across the globe. Through P4C, Lipman (1988) wanted to “enlist the social impulses of the child by creating classroom communities of inquiry” (p. 110). P4C, he wrote, “will cease to treat children as passive blotters whose education consists merely of learning of inert data and will instead stimulate their capacity to think” (Lipman, 1988, pg. 110). By 1984, P4C gained international recognition as a growing movement in education with several centers around the world and thousands of individual practitioners in countries from Austria to Zimbabwe. The p4c Hawaii center, at the University of Manoa is an outgrowth of Lipman’s original efforts.

It is important to recognize that over the past fifty years, in addition to expanding geographically, Lipman’s original conceptualization of P4C has evolved. Practitioners in diverse contexts like Hawaii have tailored P4C to meet the needs of their students. Thomas Jackson, at the University of Hawaii at Manoa has been devoted to pioneering fresh approaches to P4C in the Hawaii State Department of Education (DOE) since 1984. From the beginning of his work he identified several limitations of Lipman’s approach. Among them were: (1) the reliance of the curriculum on the presence of someone in the classroom with Philosophical training; (2) the perception of K – 12 classroom teachers that philosophy should be reserved for education at the college level; and (3) the cultural incongruence between Lipman’s novels and the experiences of many children in Hawaii. Awareness of these issues pushed Jackson to be inventive in many ways. The outsourcing of University of Hawaii graduate students of philosophy to Department of Education classrooms was his first move. This helped to create the Hawaii State Legislature’s “Philosophy in the Schools Project” (1987 – 2003), which funded a healthy partnership between the University of Hawaii and the DOE, ensuring the longevity of P4C in Hawaii. Second, Jackson created the handbook Philosophy for Children: A guide for teachers (1989). This handbook opened up the world of P4C making it accessible to a vast amount of educators who may or may not have had previous experience with philosophy. It did this by presenting a concise set of classroom conditions (community, intellectual safety, thinking, reflection, and inquiry), and a clearly presented set of flexible classroom practices (community ball, Plain Vanilla, The Good Thinker’s Tool Kit, Magic Words, and evaluation criteria). 1This handbook was my introduction to P4C.

Jackson’s version of P4C, now referred to as p4c Hawaii, gave me, a high school social studies teacher, flexibility not previously awarded by Lipman. Bound to specific content, and state standards measured through high stakes testing, I needed an approach to P4C that would allow me to select teaching materials that were specific to the courses I

1 For a more detailed description of Jackson’s approach see Jackson, T. (2001). The art and craft of gently socaratic inquiry. ASCD.

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taught. Jackson’s p4c Hawaii helped me to find methods that both helped my students to meet state standards and think philosophically about the content they were studying. What’s more, it helped my students build intellectually responsible relationships within our classroom community of inquiry. Since my original work with p4c Hawaii in the context of teaching high school psychology, United States history, and a contemporary issues course (Strong, 2003), many other high school teachers have found ways to make p4c Hawaii work in their content-driven classrooms (Miller, 2005; Jones, 2005). I like to call this style of p4c Hawaii, which is useful in a secondary setting, a “philosopher’s pedagogy” (Makaiau, 2010).

Theoretical Framework of a Philosopher’s Pedagogy

An extension of Lipman’s (1988; 1989; 1991; 1993a; 1993b; Lipman & Sharp, 1978; 1985; Sharp & Reed, 1992) and Jackson’s (1984; 2001) versions of P4C, the philosopher’s pedagogy applies what Miller (2008) refers to as “little p” philosophy to the art of teaching. “Little p” philosophy is characterized by each individual’s capacity for wonder, and the basic premise that the world is “problematic” (Lipman, 1991, p. 16; Peirce, 1955; Freire, 1970) and worth wondering about. Given the right circumstances, a sense of safety and the tools for critical analysis, “little p” philosophy means doing philosophy, and is experienced on high, when done within a community of others (Sharp, 1993; Lipman, 1991; 1993; Jackson, 2001; Brown & Campione, 1990; 1994). The philosopher’s pedagogy is an invitation to teaching that utilizes “little p” philosophy to engage high school students in learning about content (e.g. ethnic studies, biology or algebra), which is the basic requirement of most American public high schools.

The philosopher’s pedagogy is defined by a set of conditions found in a teacher’s curriculum and practice. They are: (1) time for conscientious reflection and philosophical activity; (2) an intellectually safe space; (3) a disposition for learner-centered inquiry; (4) tools for critical and problem-based philosophical analysis; and (5) a commitment to the social construction of knowledge. Each of these conditions is rooted in additional theoretical frameworks.

Time for Conscientious Reflection and Philosophical Activity

Time for conscientious reflection and philosophical activity is the first condition of a philosopher’s pedagogy. “Due to a variety of pressures, both internal and external, the typical classroom teacher does not appear to have time for children’s genuine wondering and questioning from which structured inquiries can grow,” (Jackson, 2001, p. 459). A teacher who uses a philosopher’s pedagogy recognizes that time spent wondering, and questioning is not wasteful. Instead, time allotted for conscientious reflection and philosophical activity is characteristic of authentic engagement in the learning process, and a teacher’s ability to foster these conditions are essential. Peirce (1940/1955) explains, only through philosophical activity do we realize that “there are certain flatteries to the vanity of man which we all believe by nature, until we are awakened from our pleasing dream by rough facts” (Peirce, 1940/1955). Opening ourselves to doubt, becoming aware of what we take for granted, and searching for “new truths” arms students with the tools they need for productive learning. Teachers who

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utilize a philosopher’s pedagogy recognize, “we aren’t in a rush to get anywhere,” (Jackson, 2001, p. 461), and they practice the art of facilitating their students’ genuine wonderment as it arises.

An Intellectually Safe Space

Teachers who use a philosopher’s pedagogy must also make sure that learning takes place in an intellectually safe space.

Certainly, classrooms must be physically safe places. For dialogue and inquiry to occur they must be emotionally and intellectually safe as well. In an intellectually safe place there re no put-downs and no comments intended to belittle, undermine, negate, devalue, or ridicule. Within this place, the group accepts virtually any question or comment, so long as it is respectful of the other members of the circle. What develops is a growing trust among the participants and with it the courage to present one’s own thoughts, however tentative initially, on complex and difficult issues (p. 460).

Intellectual safety is an agreement between class members, students and teachers, about how to engage with one another as they learn. It ensures that “all members of the community have the right to ask virtually any question or make any comment as long as respect for all persons is honored” (Jackson, 1989). This relationship between students, and students and teacher is a work in progress. If a teacher is devoted to the necessity of creating an intellectually safe classroom, it builds over time. From my experience, intellectual safety is a necessary condition for teachers and students to engage in meaningful learning.

A Disposition for Learner-Centered Inquiry

Dewey (1916) wrote, “engage [the student in] activities, and in the process of engagement he learns” (p. 168). Viewing learners as “self-activated makers of meaning, as actively self-propelled agents of their own growth and not as passive organisms to be filled or molded by agents outside themselves,” (Schiro, 2008, p. 103) learner-centered theorists, like Dewey remind teachers that students want to learn, and if they are given the freedom to follow their natural abilities they will do so. “What is required,” wrote Dewey (1916) of learner-centered methods “is that every individual shall have opportunities to employ his own powers in activities that have meaning” (Dewey, 1916, p. 172). Dewey (1916) recognized that each individual has a unique way of learning, particular interests, and “method[s] or way of attack upon a problem…found ultimately in his native tendencies and his acquired habits” (p. 173). “Imposing an alleged uniform general method [of teaching] upon everybody breeds mediocrity in all but the very exceptional” (Dewey, 1916, p. 173), and for these reasons the philosopher’s pedagogy asserts that teachers must have a disposition for learner-centered inquiry.

Learner-centered teachers create classroom communities of inquiry, where the teacher takes on the role of co-inquirer. In this “reflective paradigm, students and teachers query each other” (Lipman, 1991, p.14)

Through dialogue, the teacher-of-the-students and the students-of-the-teacher cease to exist and a new term emerges: teacher-student with student-teachers. The teacher is no

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longer merely the-one-who-teaches, but one who is himself taught in dialogue with the students, who in turn while being taught also teach. They become jointly responsible for a process in which all grow (Freire, 1970, p. 80).

“In charge of their own lives and learning,” (Schiro, 2008, p. 105) teachers and students are in the process of becoming educated together. There are no “recipes and models to be followed in” (Dewey, 1916, p. 170) this type of teaching. Instead, teachers and students must find their way together.

This does not mean that the classroom is an unstructured “free for all.” Teachers who have a philosopher’s pedagogy create well-thought-out strategies for cultivating productive communities of inquiry. Jackson suggests, “creating a community ball” (1989) to facilitate turn taking, and using a “plain vanilla” (2001) discussion outline to support philosophical discourse in the classroom. “Whenever possible, students and teacher sit in a circle during inquiry time. Students call on each other, no longer relying on the teacher to carry out this responsibility. Each has the opportunity to speak or to pass and remain silent. In this environment inquiry will grow” (Jackson, 2001, p. 460). With careful planning on the part of the teacher the inquiry can arise out of the “questions and interests of the children and move[s] in the direction that the children indicate” (Jackson, 2001, p. 462).

Tools for Critical and Problem-Based Philosophical Analysis

Having the tools for critical and problem-based philosophical analysis is the fourth condition of a philosopher’s pedagogy. In an effort to develop a critical consciousness (Freire, 1970) “the curriculum should bring out aspects of the subject matter that are unsettled and problematic in order to capture the laggard attention of the students and to stimulate them to form a community of inquiry” (Lipman, 1991, p. 16). Teachers begin by selecting texts, and classroom resources that stimulate students’ questions, and offer multiple perspectives. Then they provide students with “thinking” tools to be used during their engagement with the classroom materials. Provided with a tool kit for critical thinking students come to recognize that “no claims of fact will be made without evidence, no opinions will be proffered without accompanying reasons, and no judgments will be made without appropriately relevant criteria” (Lipman, 1991, p. 18). To Jackson (2001) these tools come in the form of the Good Thinker’s Tool Kit2 and “they are the means for giving shape and direction to the notion that, although we aren’t in a rush to get anywhere, we do have an expectation that we will get somewhere” (p. 462).

A Commitment to the Social Construction of Knowledge

2 Created by Thomas Jackson (2001) the good thinker’s tool kit consists of seven indicators for critical thinking which are: W- what do you mean by that? R- what are the reasons? A- what is being assumed? Or what can I assume? I – can I infer ____ from _____? Or where are there inferences being made? T- is what is being said true and what does it imply if it is true? E – are there any examples to prove what is being said? C – are there any counter-examples to disprove what is being said?

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The final condition for putting a philosopher’s pedagogy into practice is the teacher’s commitment to the social construction of knowledge. Social constructivist theory “rejects the notion of objective knowledge and argues instead that knowledge develops as one engages in dialogue with others” (Palinscar, 1998, p. 347). Building community becomes a necessity, an essential prerequisite to all other learning that takes place in the classroom setting (Vygotsky, 1978) and not just a feel-good activity at the beginning of a semester. Teachers facilitate relationships, practice equity pedagogy, and design curricular opportunities for students to learn alongside their peers. In a socially constructed learning environment we recognize that “people cannot separate how thinking takes place from what knowledge is available in the place where learning happens” (Oakes & Lipton, 1999, p. 77).

Using a Philosopher’s Pedagogy to Teach a Self-Concept Unit Within a High School Ethnic Studies Course

In 2004, I collaborated with a fellow social studies teacher to design and implement a high school ethnic studies course. We were commissioned by the Asian Pacific Islander Youth Violence Prevention Center at the University of Hawaii to create this the course to assist in a school wide effort to reduce incidents of violence both on our campus and within the larger communities that our high school serviced. The philosopher’s pedagogy was at the foundation of the course curriculum, which had six major units of study.

In an effort to demonstrate what the philosopher’s pedagogy looked like in action, this paper will focus on the third unit of the course. Titled, “Self-Concept from the Perspective of Ethnic Studies,” unit three of the Kailua High School ethnic studies curriculum built off of the first two units of the course. After establishing an intellectually safe community of inquiry (unit one), and learning fifty-four ethnic studies concepts, which were philosophically problematic (unit two), the students were asked to turn inward. Unit three provided an opportunity for students to “scratch beneath the surface” and “dig deeper” into the meaning of their self-concept.

To engage the students in this self-study (Beck, Freese, & Kosnick, 2004), the philosopher’s pedagogy was used to design a seven-step inquiry process.

Focus Question: What are some examples of my self-concept from the perspective of ethnic studies?

1) QUESTION themselves using the Good Thinker’s Tool Kit (Jackson, 2001) and the fifty-four ethnic studies terms;

2) GATHER INFORMATION using a variety of sources (introspection, interviews with family and friends, and primary documents);

3) ANALYZE their data (Strauss and Corbin, 1998) in an effort to construct a THESIS about their identity;

4) OUTLINE the evidence needed to support their identity thesis;5) WRITE an identity narrative;6) PRESENT their identity narrative to our classroom community inquiry; and7) REFLECT on the inquiry/intervention process.

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Figure 1. The learning steps taken by students during unit three of the Kailua High School ethnic studies curriculum

As I guided students through the process of generating their questions, conducting interviews, reflecting within, analyzing their notes, constructing their identity narratives, and sharing their writing out loud, I was blown away by the curriculum’s transformative effect on my students lives. Not only did my students develop a more sophisticated understanding of their self-understanding, they also learned tremendously about their peers. Inspired by my students’ work, and recognizing the course’s potential for addressing many of the issues facing our public high schools (Board of Children, Youth, and Families, 2004), conducting a formal study of the course’s impact became my main research interest.

Purpose of the Study and Objectives of This Article

From 2004 to 2007 a large qualitative study was designed, and carried out to study the impact of the ethnic studies curriculum on students at Kailua High School (KHS). The study focused on unit three of the curriculum, and was framed by a central research question asking, “What are the impacts of a secondary ethnic studies curriculum on the adolescent process of identity exploration within a multicultural community context?” To help with the large scale of this study, a series of sub-questions were also designed. Among them, “What do the identity narratives (created in unit three of the ethnic studies curriculum) tell us about the impact of a high school ethnic studies course that utilizes a philosopher’s pedagogy?” The purpose of this article is to report on the select portion of the study’s findings, which related to this sub-question.

School and Community Context

KHS is located in the State of Hawaii, on the windward side of the Hawaiian Island of Oahu. It serves the four communities of Kailua, Maunawili, Waimanalo and Waimanalo Beach. These communities range from suburban to rural, and are characterized by a broad socio-economic range, from low income to upper middle class residents. Within two of these communities are Hawaiian Homestead lands. This helps to explain why KHS services such a large portion of Native Hawaiian residents, most of which, come from the town of Waimanalo.

In general students from KHS school tend to self - identify with two main communities-Waimanalo (sometimes referred to as Nalo by students from both communities) and Kailua. Although these two communities are close in proximity, they do not share a common intermediate or middle school. It is at KHS that students from the more affluent community of Kailua meet students from the more rural community of Waimanalo for the first time. This separation, between students in the two communities creates a unique cultural context.

One aspect of this cultural context is tension between the students from the two communities. In minutes from Parent Community Collaboration Day (October, 2007) participants rated “communities fighting communities- Kailua vs. Nalo mentality,” as one

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of the top five challenges facing Kailua High School. This data demonstrates how the socially constructed differences between students from Kailua verses Waimanalo are perpetuated and used to justify conflict on campus.

The ethnic composition of KHS over the three years that the study took place was relatively stable. Native Hawaiians/Part Hawaiians compromised approximately 51 percent of the student body. Twenty – two percent of the students were of Asian descent (Japanese, Filipino, Chinese, Korean, Indo-Chinese), thirteen percent Caucasian, and Hispanics/Latinos represented two percent. In general the school can be characterized as multicultural, but as the U.S. Proximity Census 2000 showed, the school has more than twice the State’s average (23.33%) of Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander population.

In 2000, the U.S. Census data listed the median household income of the entire school community to be $57, 623 as compared to the State of Hawaii’s average of $49, 820 and at the same time the at – risk population3 in the school community was 4.5%, more than double the State of Hawaii’s average of 2.1%. Over the course of the study approximately 45%4 of the students received free and reduced lunch. While, academically the students demonstrated increased performance on the Hawaii State Assessment (HSA), given to 10th graders statewide every spring. It was in the 2006-07, during the third year of this study that KHS met Adequate Yearly Progress under the No Child Left Behind Act.

Social issues reflected in the KHS community over the course of this study were homelessness, spouse and child abuse, substance abuse, domestic violence, discrimination, poverty, teen pregnancies and crime. Economic/political problems, a reduced tourist industry affected by international political crises and failing markets, national and local scandals and limited resources available for public education also impacted students at KHS directly and indirectly over the course of the study. These descriptors and the others provided in this section may have impacted the study’s findings, but more importantly provide some insight into the lives of the student participants.

Methods

The methods used for this study were qualitative because of the need to “obtain the intricate details about phenomena such as feelings, thought processes, and emotions” expressed in both the students’ writing and oral discussions, that otherwise would be “difficult to extract or learn about through more conventional research methods” (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). A grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) approach was applied as data was collected, analyzed and then more data was collected to “fill out, refine, and check the emerging conceptual categories” (Charmaz, 2005, pp. 508). Grounded theory helps researchers “remain close to their studied worlds” in the hope that they will develop an “integrated set of theoretical concepts from their empirical materials that not only

3 An “At – risk,” school aged child is defined as an individual, age four to nineteen, and living with his/her mother, who is not a high school graduate; single, divorced or separated; and subsisting below the poverty level. 4 Students who receive free and reduced lunches increased from 27% in the 1995 –96-school year to a high of 45% in the 2003-04 school year. The increase in the number of students applying and receiving free or reduced lunch is directly related to the school’s concerted effort for all students to apply regardless of income.

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synthesize and interpret them but also show processual relationships” (Charmaz, 2005, p. 508). In this study qualitative (Patton, 2003; Creswell, 2007), constructivist, grounded theory methods (Bryant & Charmaz, 2007; Charmaz, 2005; 2006) were used to develop thematic qualitative outcomes about the curriculum’s impact and to generate a theory about adolescent identity exploration in a multicultural community context.

Participants

The student participants were selected based on their voluntary or involuntary enrollment in ethnic studies at KHS during the 2004-2005 SY (school year), the 2005-2006 SY, and the 2006-2007 SY. Out of the population who was enrolled in ethnic studies during each of those school years, it was the students who were randomly placed into one of my class sections, and not those of the second ethnic studies teacher, who ultimately became eligible for participation. The most important factor in selecting research participants was the students’ and their parents’ (if they were under 18) consent to participate. Consent and assent forms were distributed to, and collected from each of the students enrolled in my ethnic studies classes. At the end of the three school years spanning this study, eighty-nine out of one hundred and thirty seven students agreed to participate in the research project. The following table outlines and describes the details of this selection process.

Year One Pilot(2004- 2005)

Year Two(Senior Elective, 2005 - 2006)

Year Three(Ninth Grade Requirement,

2006- 2007): Ten out of eleven gave

consent to participate (but two essays were lost). N=8

Voluntary ½ elective credit provided After school Ages: fourteen to eighteen. Mixed grade level. Heterogeneously grouped in

regards to academic ability. Seven females/three males

Fifty – five out of one hundred and seven gave consent to participate (but eight out of the fifty-five did not turn in essays). N=47

Voluntary ½ social studies elective

needed for graduation. Regular school day. Ages: sixteen to eighteen. Primarily twelfth grade. Heterogeneously grouped in

regards to academic ability. Thirty-four females/twenty-

one males

Thirty-four out of thirty – six gave consent participate. N=34

Students were assigned to the course by counselors

½ social studies credit needed for graduation.

Regular school day. Ages: fourteen to eighteen. Primarily ninth grade (eight

seniors). Heterogeneously grouped in

regards to academic ability. Eight females/twenty-two

males

Figure 2. Year-by-year participant information

Role of the Researcher

My role in this study was dynamic. I was a participant observer who studied the impact of a curriculum that I co-authored, taught, reflected on, revised, and eventually created a formal program of research for. Patton (2002) writes, “the participant observer employs multiple and overlapping data collection strategies: being fully engaged in experiencing the setting (participation) while at the same time observing and talking with

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other participants about whatever is happening” (pp. 265 – 266). Juggling all of these roles, and studying my own backyard, as Creswell (2007) would say, had benefits and limitations (p. 122).

Data Sources

There are three sources of data in this study. The primary data were the eighty-nine, student-written “identity narratives.” Students who participated in ethnic studies at Kailua High School from 2005 – 2008 produced these narratives at the end of unit three of the curriculum. Considered “elicited text” (Charmaz, 2006), the social context (Charmaz, 2006, p. 40) or narrative reality (Gubrium & Holstein, 2009) in which the identity narratives were created required that I collect additional data. This second set of data was made up of my personal memos, written before, during, and after the collection of the eighty-nine identity narratives. In total, there were seventy-five pages of these memos. The third and final source of data, which was secondary to the study, included other forms of student work (journal entries, course worksheets, and student handouts), and video recorded class discussions.

Procedures for Collecting Data

For each year that I taught ethnic studies (2005-2006, 2006-2007, 2007-2008), IRB approval was granted and permission to participate was obtained by both students and their guardians. The following table gives an organized account of my procedures for collecting data over the three years that the study progressed.

Year One Year Two Year ThreeI wrote: Reflective

journals Observational

notes Analytic

memos

I collected and photo copied: All student

work from ethnic studies assignments

I video recorded: All ethnic

studies class discussions

I kept all of this data in a secure location.

I continued to write: Reflective journals Observational notes Analytic memos

I collected, photo copied, organized and catalogued: All student work from

ethnic studies assignments

I identified the students’ identity narratives as essential data.

I video recorded, copied, organized and catalogued: All ethnic studies class

discussions

I kept all of this data in a secure location.

I continued to write: Reflective journals Observational notes Analytic memos

I continued to collect, photo copy, organize and catalogue: All student work from ethnic studies

assignments

With the identity narratives I: Created special binders of the students’ work

organized by year Assigned each with a number and pseudo name

(a key was made and locked away) Eliminated all identifying information Commissioned a transcriber to put them into

electronic format

I video recorded, copied, organized and catalogued: All ethnic studies class discussions

I kept all of this data in a secure location.

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Figure 3. Procedures for collecting data

Procedures for Analyzing Data

Qualitative methods, characteristic of a constructivist approach to grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006) were used to analyze the data. This analysis progressed through four distinct phases. The following table gives an organized account of the specific procedures used for analyzing data in this study.

Phase One Phase Two Phase Three Phase FourCharacterized by: teacher assessments Teacher

assessment of identity narratives using ethnic studies course rubrics

Analysis of all eighty-nine identity narratives using ethnic studies course objectives

Conceptualization of initial qualitative labels

Memos

Characterized by: reorganization and open-coding Initial coding of each

identity narrative to produce eighty-nine “summative lists”

Reorganization of summative lists into four categories (Ethnicity, Place, Gender, Year in School) and sub-categories within each of the four categories

Open-coding between and within sub-categories

Some sub-categories dropped

Resulted in one set of initial codes for the between category analysis and ten sets of initial codes for within category analysis

Memos

Characterized by: axial and theoretical coding Axial and theoretical

coding were used to refine the initial codes developed during Phase Two

Help from a critical friend was employed

Resulted in three distinct sets of findings (Identity Mosaics, A Summary of the Qualitative Data Analysis, Pedagogical Impact of the Curriculum-Based Identity Intervention

Student quotes were found to support the qualitative themes under each set of findings

Memos

Characterized by: writing Writing up

the findings and referring to my analytic memos helped to refine the qualitative findings

Conclusions and theoretical models resulted from the writing process

Figure 4. Procedures for analyzing data

Findings

The results of this study provided many valuable insights into what happens when a teacher uses a philosopher’s pedagogy to inform her practice. In general, the findings demonstrated how a philosopher’s pedagogy created a supportive and caring social environment in which higher-level thinking and meaningful inquiry flourished. More specifically, because this study was set within the context of ethnic studies at Kailua High School, examples of the philosopher’s pedagogy related to self-concept exploration were used to demonstrate its impact.

Throughout the students’ identity narratives, there were frequent references to very specific aspects of the ethnic studies curriculum that the students found to be helpful to their social, cognitive, and emotional development. These comments, about the pedagogical impact of the ethnic studies curriculum, were not prompted (by me, the

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teacher/researcher), and at no time did I formally ask the students to evaluate their learning process. Instead, on their own accord, the students wrote about the curriculum as a part of their identity narrative. Quotes from their writing were highlighted and reorganized to show, from a students’ perspective how the philosopher’s pedagogy aided in engaging their learning on a profoundly deep level.

Concluding his identity narrative, Nick (2007) wrote, “I now believe that it is important as an individual to develop and discover you self-concept, and that ethnic studies is an excellent tool in that search.” He was not alone, in fact most of the students participating in this study commented directly on the impact of the curriculum on their exploration process. April wrote, “Ethnic studies has gotten me to focus on my identity and my background from a cultural perspective. It has gotten me to look at myself from a different point of view to see what is important and what has made me, me” (April, 2007). Kahala explained, “ethnic studies is to enlighten us about the different types of people that live all around us and it is a good learning experience to also find out about our own culture as well” (Kahala, 2007). To many of the students, their experience with the third unit of ethnic studies was meaningful, helpful, and definitely worth their while. As Marcus summarized at the end of his identity narrative,

Coming into ethnic studies class was out of nowhere. I really didn’t know anything about this class, I haven’t even heard of before. I thought would be a “cruise” class at first…it is a class where history is not just studied from the dominant race or gender point of view. At first I thought I wouldn’t really care about this class, but this class made me think beyond what I know about my self. Now I think the things that represent my self-concept the most are my family & friends, my culture verses my community, and how I changed (Marcus, 2008).

Each having a different take on the course’s impact, when reviewing the identity narratives as a whole, it was apparent that there were specific pedagogies that impacted the students’ quest for self-discovery.

Additional student quotes were broken down into two main themes. First, the students explained how the seven-part inquiry process had an impact on their learning experience. Second, the students commented on the importance of learning within a philosophical community of inquiry. Sub-themes were used for further organization.

Pedagogical Impact of the Curriculum in Student VoicesThemes Sub-Themes

The Seven-Part Inquiry Process Questioning and Information GatheringAnalyzing, Thesis Construction, and Writing

A Philosophical Community of Inquiry Reflection

Figure 5. Summary of the pedagogical impact of the curriculum-based identity intervention

The Seven-Part Inquiry Process

To begin with, many of the students saw the “Seven Part-Inquiry Process” as having an overall important impact. Kirsty (2007) explained, the “process helps you to

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better define yourself… Using the historical inquiry process has also helped me remember things” (Kirsty, 2007). Other students elaborated on this comment.

One of them was Orion (2007). Orion (2007) made sure to highlight the good things about having a project in school that related to an investigation into his self-concept. He wrote,

Now I'm a senior in Kailua High School's Ethnic Studies Class, a class that helps us learn through other perspectives of society other than the middle age white man. It is definitely an interesting class. One thing that I was interested about was the idea of identity and self-concept. I always thought that identity and self- concept was focused more in psychology. These concepts are actually proving to be meaningful in my life, because they are basically what I have been living by, without ever realizing it until now. My race/ethnicity, my values of diversity, and being a local boy in Hawaii have shaped my self-concept. In turn my self-concept has shaped my life (Orion, 2007).

In this quote Orion highlights how his learning had become “meaningful.” Other students agreed.

At the end of his narrative, Dayton (2007) described how he planned to use what he learned further down the road in his life. He explained,

In conclusion, this lesson in ethnic studies [the self-concept Historical Inquiry project] has really made me step back, look at my life and realize who I truly am and not be ashamed of that. I have learned not to be someone I’m not, and take pride in where I’m from. I also learned to be aware of other peoples’ self-concept and not be so judgmental of other people because I do not know what has happened in their life that made them the way they are today. I will use what I have learned here to maybe help my friends figure out there self concepts and maybe this would end a lot of problems we have. I will also try and go out into our community through programs like the safes school task force to better my community and my state to make Hawaii a true paradise.

Committed to teaching his friends about the process used the course, Dayton’s (2007) quote shows how the students saw the philosopher’s pedagogy as applying to life outside the classroom.

Another student who commented on the benefit of the process was Gina (2008).

I have learned a lot about myself and to be proud about the person I am by going through this [self-concept Historical Inquiry] process. I think that if I show that I'm proud of whom I am and my ethnic background then everyone will start to feel the same. Hopefully if everyone looks back to their history of where they come from, they will be more respectful of who they are and where they're from. When people learn more about each other, it might decrease racism in the world and help better everyone's future. That means less wars and hatred amongst each other.

Gina’s comment is particularly encouraging. In a traditional ethnic studies class students come to see the course as a study of the other, far removed from the study of oneself. Gina left her experience in ethnic studies at Kailua High School with an alternative conclusion. Her comment beautifully expressed how understanding of others is inherently linked to understanding ourselves.

To further explain how the philosopher’s pedagogy produced these types of student outcomes it is important to hear what they had to say about each step of the process individually. This began with the students’ impressions of the questioning and

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information gathering part of the project. It was followed by a description of how the students viewed analyzing, thesis construction, and writing as an important part of the curriculum as well.

Questioning and information gathering

The first two steps of the inquiry process required students to: 1) generate Good Thinker’s Tool Kit questions (Jackson, 2001) about themselves based on the fifty four ethnic studies terms; and 2) to gather information in an effort to find possible answers to their questions. About the questioning phase of the process Marcus (2008) wrote, “this hard essay made me think of questions I would never have thought about. And with this it gave me a deeper understanding of who I am.” This shows how the types of questions that the students were required to ask (inferential and philosophically-based) set the tone for the entire project. Linked to their questions was the students’ task of gathering information.

The students were asked to take three different approaches to answering their questions: introspection, interviewing, and analysis of primary documents. Although many students were observed using the process of introspection, Kent (2008) actually commented on it in his essay. He wrote, “by doing this paper I have introspected and remembered many events that creates my self-concept and only now I can look even deeper and understand my self-better” (Kent, 2008). At the end of his narrative Kent had revised his self-concept and was proud of his new self-knowledge.

In addition to introspection there were a number of comments on the benefits of interviewing. Deb (2008) explained how interviewing and introspection went hand in hand. She wrote, “This investigation into myself has started off with me saying 'I don't know who I really am.’ But now my understanding has evolved to a point where I believe that I may understand my self-concept. Well, just enough to write this essay about it. After I went through deep self-thinking and tons of interviews, I have came up with the things that make up my self-concept” (Deb, 2008). Going on further to explain how the gathering of interview data worked, she wrote, “existing in this world for 14 years and having two to three weeks of discovering my self-concept was the hardest thing that I have ever done. I have learned that it is not mostly me that is answering my questions but other people who have watched my actions. I looked more into perception than I usually do. I had never really gone this deep about figuring my self-concept out” (Deb, 2008). Thinking sophisticatedly about the importance of point of view in the interview process, Deb’s comments illustrate the level of engagement, and the quality of thinking experienced by students in this process.

In relation to Deb’s insights, many of the students highlighted the people they interviewed and the value of the information that they received from their interviewees. Michelle (2008) wrote, “After interviewing my Mom, and Dad, I seem to have found out a lot of information about my family's past, and myself. Some examples of my self-concept are my family and our religion, my ancestry, and my culture and ethnicities.”

With similar comments (Lani (2007) explained how interviewing her grandfather helped her to build knowledge about her ethnic background.

My ethnic groups are a big part of my identity. There are three major parts that make up my ethnicities, African American, Native American, and Portuguese. I know that being

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African American plays a big role in me concept. Talking to my grandfather showed me a lot about my ancestry. During this investigation I found out that my ancestors were freed slaves. When I was younger I didn't realize that all my ethnicities make me a whole and I didn't portray myself as being African American. People could never tell that I was black by looking at me. I was shame because I thought people would look at me differently. Some reasons why thought people would look at me differently is because of all the negativity that certain, people have towards, black people. One day I was with my friend and they were talking about some encounter they had with a black person, and they were saying some bad things about African, Americans, and hearing these things and thinking to myself, “what If they knew I was black?” Would they not say these things or if I told them- would the apologize? What would their reactions be? I always did wonder these things. By self reflecting and going to research about my ethnicities made me open up about being black. Also, made me realize it’s who I am and it shouldn't matter how people see me or judge me.

Interviewing her grandfather, and thinking philosophically became a powerful tool for self-transformation for Lani. At the end of her narrative she expressed overcoming the negative feelings that she had harbored about identifying as Black. There were other students who benefited from the interviewing.

Eli wrote about soliciting information from his friends.

This project has forced me to actually go back and look at my life. While taking notes for this project, I asked different friends a certain question: How do you perceive me? Most people gave me answers, which I thought they would give me... easy going, Chinese, animated... But one friend I asked gave a different set of answers. Overly self-conscious, little self-confidence, love to make others laugh... I was a little insulted at first, but then as I looked at myself...that's really how I am. That friend, whom I consider to be my best friend... saw through my bullshit and was able to see who I really am...Even I wasn't able to do that. I'm trying to change those parts of me, but who knows what will happen. I think what this project has taught me the most, is that experience shapes who you are. The poor man is rich with experience and the rich man is still in poverty. I'm going to continue to strive to be a better individual, and enrich both my life and those around me (Eli, 2007).

Evidence from quotes like Eli’s confirms that the philosopher’s pedagogy provided the necessary structures for meaningful identity exploration in the context of a regular school day. This is what student engagement has the potential to look like in our public schools.

Analyzing, thesis construction, and writing

In addition to the first two steps of the seven-step inquiry process the students also reported on the benefits of steps 3) analysis and thesis construction; and 5) writing. To begin with, in Nick’s (2007) identity narrative, he elaborated on the benefits of analysis. He wrote,

What makes a person who they are? What identifies a person and makes them an individual within society? These are questions that an individual has to answer by analyzing themselves and coming to conclusions based not only on how they see themselves, but also how others see him or her. Through my own self-analysis, I found that being Japanese, with its cultural and racial ties defines a significant part of who I am. Facing discrimination both in my past and present helped shape who I am today. I also found that having a lack of religion has also had a significant impact on how I see myself.

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In truth, our identities are made up of millions of factors. There are however certain elements defined within ethnic studies, that play, or have played, the most important and influential roles in our lives and our identities. Even though playing clarinet is only a hobby for me, it none-the-less plays a significant role in my identity (Nick, 2007).

Nick’s comments illustrate how the students linked the analysis process to the conclusions that were drawn at the end of their identity exploration.

Working to fit these conclusions into a coherent thesis statement was also an important step in the students’ thinking. Marcus (2008) wrote, “when reviewing everything, it made me think twice trying to figure out my self-concept, using only three [main points in the thesis statement].” Requiring the students to draw a conclusion, based on the evidence they had gathered, thesis writing was a powerful tool for helping the students commit to an identity that they could write about in their narrative.

Next, writing up their research, and building in examples to prove their thesis statement also helped the students to progress their thinking about themselves. Becki (2007) said, “I realized while writing this that me being Mexican and doing things I think are normal around my family and how I was brought up with them both tie in to the racist remarks that I make about other people make. This helped me to see why I see things the way I do why I think the way I think. Everything linked from one thing to another. It was crazy and actually worth writing.”

Chad also drew conclusions while writing his narrative.

I could have been like some of the other people in our class and just complained about the names I'm called and how I'm treated because of it. I could have talked about my race and how racist people are, but I didn't. This reflection essay's purpose is to discover what really shapes who you are, not what bothers you. I don't let those things that bother me influence me because I know they are just stereotypes and are coming from people who don’ t know what the hell they are talking about. I keep my mind open and try to bypass all of the racial ideologies and lies that people come up with; to what, describe differences between us. The truth is, I know I will be a better person if I don't let that stuff bother me and just focus on the really important things in life. Like many of the things I have learned in this class, this has shown me a new perspective of life and made me a better more informed person. I really value this class and feel that out of all the classes I have had this year, this is by far the class that has made me reflect on who I am and persuaded me to change and better my life (Chad, 2008).

Chad’s quote, and the others included in this section of the findings clearly demonstrate the degree to which a philosopher’s pedagogy cultivated student engagement and produced meaningful student outcomes. Each of the pedagogical decisions, outlined in the seven-step inquiry process helped to lead to lead to these results. In addition, to these seven learning steps the students explained that doing the project in the context of a philosophical community of inquiry was also important.

A Philosophical Community of Inquiry

A philosophical (Jackson, 2001) community of inquiry (see a personal, constructivist, and collaborative approach to self-study, Beck, C., Freese, A., Kosnick, C., 2004) was the second part of the philosopher’s pedagogy that had a significant impact on the students’ learning. In Rick’s (2008) identity narrative he wrote about the importance

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of exploring himself within a community of other learners who were doing the same. “In my ethnic studies class they’re [the other students in my class are] helping me define who I am. I want to know more about my grandparents and how they influenced my life. I know that my grandfather & father were in the military. I am in JROTC; I want to know if their background will have an impact on my decision whether or not to join the military. I also want to know my home culture makes me who I am. Rick’s comment demonstrates how the students came to see the very personal process of identity exploration as profoundly social. . Laying out very specific examples of what he wants to learn, within this community of inquiry it is evident that in the eyes of Rick his identity exploration depended on the feedback from his classmates.

In addition to Rick, there were other students who expressed the benefits of conducting their “self-search” within a community of their peers. Christian (2008) used one of his early experiences in the class to frame his entire identity narrative. He wrote,

In the beginning of this Ethnic Studies class, it was one of the first times I became aware of what it feels like to be discriminated. We were going around the circle talking about ethnicity and one of my classmates said to me, “I thought you were Asian.” This bothered me because he assumed that I was just Asian when in my own mind I was thinking of myself as Hawaiian. Right at that moment I realized it hurts to be discriminated by other people. I understand his mistake because other people might think I'm just Asian by the way I look, but what they don't know is that I have other ethnic backgrounds. Other then being Chinese and Filipino I'm also Hawaiian and Portuguese -my self - concept is more diverse than others might think (Christian, 2008).

Coming from a mixed-ethnic background, Christian’s experience within the community of inquiry awakened him to the complexity involved in exploring his identity. Wrestling with these issues head on within the parameters of an intellectually safe classroom environment, Christian used the experience with his peers as a starting point for discussion about his identity. Engaging in open and honest dialogue, Christian worked through his experience and at the end of his identity exploration process was able to come to greater clarity about how he chooses to identify himself. This probably would have not happened if the students were seated in rows and learning on their own.

Deb (2008) elaborated on this finding by explaining how asking and answering questions within her community of inquiry was beneficial to her identity exploration process. She wrote, “For example, I was asked [by one of my classmates] if I did anything based on my home-culture and I said no. This person then asked me where my family emigrated from and I said that I have no idea. Well, this example may not have told much but for me it seemed really weird to answer all these questions without even knowing the answer and I believe that if I found out maybe I could try doing things based on some of my home-culture” (Deb, 2008). Interacting with her peers, bouncing questions off one another during class time, helped Deb realize particular aspects of her identity that she wished she had known more about. It forced her to become reflective, and then go out into the world and gather more information. Having this type of peer interaction, within an intellectually safe (Jackson, 2001) community of inquiry (Lipman, 1991; Brown & Campione, 1990; 1994; Palinscar, 1998; and Samaras et. al, 2008) promoted meaningful self-growth in many of the students.

Reflection

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Contributing to the community of inquiry were the reflective exercises that helped

to make the students experience with one another philosophically rich. Throughout the project, mini self-reflection exercises were set up to get the students to think on their own, and then to debrief their writing via dialogue with their peers. One of these exercises required the students to do a free write at the beginning of the project. Kehau (2008) explains,

Before the class started their introspection and interviews to find examples of their self-concept from the perspective of ethnic studies we all were asked to free write what we believed our identity was. My thoughts were pretty negative. I didn’t know what I was supposed to say in this paper and didn’t believe that anything I would say could tell anyone who I really am. However, after making questions using the ethnic studies terms it was easier to understand how this project could help me get a better understanding of who I am. Some examples of my self-concept are being raised in the military, community of diverse cultures and how other people perceive me changes the way I view myself (Kehau, 2008).

Starting out the project with very little to say, and not much to share with her classmates Kehau was able to measure her growth through the tool of self-reflection. At the end of the identity exploration process Kehau came closer to articulating her identity and benefited from having a starting point from which she could see the gains in her self-knowledge.

Lani (2007) also commented on the utility of self-reflection throughout the project.

Researching and investigating really showed me who I am and I like it. Through this investigation I found out that I contradict myself. By self-reflecting I noticed that I say people shouldn’t judge people, but here I am judging people. Another example that shows I contradict myself is when I say that I am diverse but then that I am also prejudice towards other ethnicities. I think that me, myself makes me prejudice. Maybe If I hung out with those certain ethnicities and got to know them better, then I wouldn't be judgmental towards them. I think that I have grown a lot through this investigation (Lani, 2007).

Reinforcing the skill of self-reflection, and sharing these reflections within a philosophical community of inquiry, the ethnic studies curriculum was clearly a powerful. The students learned more about themselves and they became increasingly tolerant of their diverse peers.

Discussion

The field of ethnic studies is a relatively new in the scope of American academia. Growing out of the 1960’s civil rights movement, ethnic studies courses are part of a formal program of study, which center on the concept of ethnicity, and aim to promote social justice (Dewey, 1916; Freire, 1970; Nieto, 1996; Oakes and Lipton, 1999; Adams,

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Bell, & Griffin, 2007). Most ethnic studies teachers work hard to expose their students to the history of minority groups in the United States and they aspire to build tolerance between peoples. The data in this study demonstrates that using a philosopher’s pedagogy to teach ethnic studies provided my students with the academic structures necessary for reaching this lofty second goal.

By applying the philosopher’s pedagogy to the context of teaching a public high school ethnic studies course I was able to cultivate, in my students, a critical stance towards social studies. Nelson and Pang (2006) write, “the dual focus, study of the human condition and examination of controversy, makes social studies the ideal location for study of racism and prejudice. Social studies, in its best forms, use ideas and information from a variety of disciplines to understand and evaluate conceptions of race and ethnicity” (p. 125). By employing the five conditions of the philosopher’s pedagogy to the content of ethnic studies, the Kailua High School ethnic studies classes became the hotbed for radical thinking and community transformation that is sought out by politically active forms of multicultural (Banks, 1996; 1997a; 1997b; 2002; & 2006; Nieto, 1996), social justice (Dewey, 1916; Freire, 1970; Nieto, 1996; Oakes and Lipton, 1999; Adams, Bell, & Griffin, 2007), and culturally responsive (Gay, 2000; Castagno & Brayboy, 2008) educators.

Banks (1997) frequently calls on educators to make their classrooms transformative, and full of social action.

This approach changes the basic assumptions of the curriculum and enables students to view concepts, issues, themes and problems from several ethnic perspectives and points of view…[it] requires students to make decisions and take actions related to the concept, issue or problem they have studied (Banks, 1997, p. 24).

The philosopher’s pedagogy made this possible at Kailua High School. Ethnic studies was not a passive discipline, it was relevant to the lives of our students. Pedagogically, traditional power structures in the classroom were broken down. The social construction of knowledge was encouraged through student-centered class discussions and individualized inquiries, which required students to apply the concepts they were learning about to the changing world they live in. Taking on the characteristics of a socially just multicultural education, students in ethnic studies were not only required to intellectualize about the class topics but were also expected to make personal and systematic changes to unequal power structures as they experienced them in their own lives. This is what philosopher’s pedagogy did the public high school classroom where I teach. Imagine what it could do in yours.

The philosopher’s pedagogy can be applied to any content area. I have used it to teach a variety of other subjects in social studies and have observed teachers applying it to disciplines such as Language Arts, Mathematics, and Science. The philosopher’s pedagogy is flexible, and as the student voices in this article demonstrate, it offers a meaningful option for high school reform.

A Grounded Philosophy of Education

Philosophy for Children started as an idea, for the “future revision of education” (Lipman, 2008, p. 53). Today it is a thriving catalyst for school reform all over the world.

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Located at the University of Hawaii, Manoa the p4c Hawaii center is a vital and growing part of the P4C revolution.

p4c Hawaii is dedicated to preparing, supporting and sustaining educators, researchers and students who engage or are interested in engaging in p4c worldwide. The work I have done over the past ten years has helped me to ground my contributions to the p4c Hawaii movement in the voices of my students. I have learned from them that p4c Hawaii does make our schools better. When teachers incorporate the four pillars of p4c Hawaii (Community, Inquiry, Philosophy, and Reflection) into their classroom pedagogy engagement happens. Students want to learn, teachers enjoy teaching, classrooms become intellectually safe communities of inquiry, schools thrive, and education lives up to its potential for making our world a better place.

Works Cited

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