Chambers 1

Grade 2 Unit Plan

Earth’s Processes

Andy Chambers

LESSON 1

Scientific Background

There are many processes that affect the way land is formed and changed. These changes can happen either quickly or slowly. Examples of earth events that are relatively fast are volcanoes and earthquakes. A volcano is a mountain or hill that is created when magma reaches the earth’s surface (Lockwood et. al. 2013). Underneath most volcanoes there are magma reservoirs which are a large body of magma. When magma breaks to the surface it is then known as lava. When too much pressure builds a volcano can erupt. Eruptions are not always violent and sometimes just result in slow lava flow. (Lockwood et. al. 2013). Earthquakes are the shaking of the earth’s surface due to seismic activity. Seismic activity occurs due to the strain and slipping of fault lines which result from the movement of tectonic plates (Brune 1970) There are three types of fault lines: strike slip, normal, and thrust. When pressure builds between these faults a slip can occur, which sends out P and S seismic waves. P waves move back and forth horizontally, while S waves move up and down.

http://resilience.abag.ca.gov/students/seismic-waves/

Weathering and erosion however, are processes that happen over a long period of time. There are two main types of weathering: physical and chemical. Physical weathering is the process wear rock is broken down into smaller pieces. Ice and plants are often the main perpetuates of physical weathering. Water will seep into different parts of rock. When this water freezes it expands causing the rock to split. This process is known as frost wedging. When a plants roots grow into rock it can cause the rock to crack as the roots grow, often causing pieces of the rock to break off. Chemical weathering actually changes the composition of rock causing pieces of rock to break down. One of the most common chemical weathering reactions is oxidation. During oxidation, oxygen reacts with rocks that contain iron. This reaction can be seen in sedimentary layers of Badlands National Park, SD (Stollard 1998). Another example of chemical weathering is when carbon dioxide dissolves into rainwater creating carbonic acid. Rocks that contain the mineral calcite such as limestone react to carbonic acid creating stalactites and stalagmites (Stollard 1998). Erosion is caused by water, wind, and glaciation. Erosion is the transportation of weathered material. Deposition is the process in which eroded sediment is deposited or laid down. The amount of sediment water can carry is relative to the velocity of the water and the size of the sediment (Stollard 1998). Wind can also move sediment. Examples of wind erosion can be seen in Arches National Park UT, where sandstone arches can be observed. Glaciation and the movement of glaciers also cause erosion. As these massive chunks of ice move across the earth they shape the land around them, picking up sediment, rocks, and even boulders. When the glaciers recede they leave behind the items they picked up. The boulders that are left behind are sometimes called kettle boulders or erratics.

Objectives:

Students will be able to-

Find quality information about earth events.

Know different earth events

Know the speed (quickly or slowly) of different earth events

Misconceptions

Some students believe that weathering and erosion happens quickly, when realistically it can take hundreds or thousands of years. (Ohio State Univesity) The basis of this lesson is to teach students that earth events can happen either quickly or slowly.

http://beyondpenguins.ehe.osu.edu/issue/earths-changing-surface/common-misconceptions-about-weathering-erosion-volcanoes-and-earthquakes

Materials and Setup

1 volcano (can be purchased or made, http://www.volcanolive.com/model.html)

Vinegar and baking soda

Food coloring (optional)

1 large tray underneath volcano

Paper towel (in case of spill)

Each student will need a computer or tablet for this lesson.

A timeline spanning from 20,000 year ago to the present.

Check the following links to make sure they are working before class begins.

Volcanoes - http://www.weatherwizkids.com/weather-volcano.htm

Earthquake - http://www.weatherwizkids.com/weather-earthquake.htm

Erosion - http://www.onegeology.org/extra/kids/earthprocesses/weathering.html

Flood - http://eschooltoday.com/natural-disasters/floods/what-is-a-flood.html

Safety

Ingredients for the volcano engage activity should be kept away from students eyes. Make sure students aren’t standing directly over the volcano, eruptions can be violent, and can hurt the eyes.

Requisite Knowledge

Students will already have knowledge of the following

Wind and water erosion: causes and effects

Engage

Have students gather around a table with all the ingredients and volcano ready. Tell students that we are going to simulate a volcanic eruption. The teacher will add ingredients and students will observe the eruption. Afterwards the instructor will lead a class discussion by asking the following questions.

How quick was the eruption?

What other earth processes can we think of?

Do all processes happen this quickly?

Explore

Students will participate in a webquest. This webquest will be available online to them in the format of a powerpoint. Students will need to follow the instructions on the powerpoint to complete this activity. The teacher’s role will be to facilitate students when they have questions or any technical difficulties. Web Links in the powerpoint should be checked by the teacher before the lesson begins to ensure the webquest will work properly. During the webquest students will fill out Figure 1 Lesson 1- Webquest Earth Changes.

Powerpoint Link: Earth Events Powerpoint

Explain

The teacher will hand each individual student a sheet of paper. At the top of one side instruct students to write the word quickly. Tell students to write everything they know about different earth processes that occur quickly. After 4 minutes have students flip their papers over. On the top of the new side of the paper instruct students to write the word slowly. Tell students to write everything they can think of about earth processes that occur slowly. After 4 minutes have students bring out crayons or other utensils to color any side or both sides of their paper. While students are writing and drawing the teacher should be actively engaged helping students by answering questions and giving suggestions.

Elaborate

Students will create a timeline that shows geological events that happened both quickly and slowly over time. Each individual student will get to choose an event from a list. Students will then draw a picture of the event, write if the even happened quickly or slowly over time, and place it on the timeline. Students will be given a piece of yarn if their event occurred slowly so it can span the timeline. As the timeline progresses students will notice that long term events happened long ago and are still happening, while quick events are more recent. Ask students why they think this is.

Weathering of the Grand Canyon – Millions of years ago

Formation of Great Lakes – 15,000 years ago

Eruption of Mt. Augustine 1976

Eruption of Mt St Helens 1980

Eruption of Mt. Penatubo 1991

The Great flood of 1913

Mississippi flood 2011

Alaskan Earthquake 1964

Gulf of Mexico Earthquake 2006

Retreat of Michigan Glaciers – 20,000 years ago to 9,500 years ago

Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius 79 AD

Evaluate

Students will complete the quiz Changes Fast or Slow (Figure 2 Lesson 1). They may not ask for any help from other students and the instructor must not give any answers away when helping students with questions. The instructor will explain to students that they are to write the proper earth event underneath the column it belongs in. Events that happen quickly should be in the quick column. Events that happen slowly belong in the slow column. A key for grading the quiz is seen in figure 3 lesson 1.

Figure 1 Lesson 1

Webquest: Earth's Changes

Change

Fast or Slow

Two Facts

Volcano

1._______________________________________________________________________________

2________________________________________________________________________________

Earthquake

1._______________________________________________________________________________

2________________________________________________________________________________

Weathering

and

Erosion

1._______________________________________________________________________________

2________________________________________________________________________________

Flooding

1._______________________________________________________________________________

2________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 2 Lesson 1

NAME:______________________

Changes: Fast or Slow Quiz

Word Bank:

Volcanic Eruption Earthquake Wind Erosion Flood Water Erosion Weathering

Quick

Slow

Figure 3 Lesson 1

NAME:______________________

Changes: Fast or Slow Quiz KEY

Word Bank:

Volcanic Eruption Earthquake Wind Erosion Flood Water Erosion Weathering

Quick

Slow

Volcanic Eruption

Earthquake

Flood

Wind Erosion

Water Erosion

Weathering

LESSON 2

Scientific Background

There are many ways in which humans slow and prevent wind and water from weathering the land. Weathering is the breakdown of rocks and soil into smaller pieces. Erosion is the transportation of weathered material.

One way humans slow water weathering and erosion is building a dam. A dam holds back water upstream and controls water flow downstream. Upstream dams can actually cause more soil erosion, however controlling the flow of water can reduce the amount of erosion seen downstream. Dams are mainly built to control flooding, supply irrigation, and supply electricity.

Another way humans slow wind and water from weathering is by using vegetation. Planting vegetation can greatly reduce how quickly soil is eroded and weathered. The root systems of plants can provide a network that will support soil and reduce weathering and erosion (Washington Department of Ecology n.a.).

Objectives:

Students will be able to-

Point out and observe local solutions to prevent land change

Develop, design, and create solutions to prevent land change

Misconceptions

Some students may believe that erosion is bad. In some cases erosion can be bad and damage property or building. Students must also understand that erosion is a natural process. (Ohio State University)

This misconception will be addressed in the engage section of the lesson during class discussion.

Materials and Setup

The following materials will be set up at each table for each group:

1 3ft sections of 6 inch wide PVC pipe that has been cut in half length wise

1 plastic tray to catch water

Paper towel in case of spills

1 liter bottle filled with water

A short 2x4 to hold up PVC pipe

The following materials will be set up for the elaborate section before class begins:

2 plastic trays

Enough potting soil to fill trays halfway

Popsicle sticks

Before class the instructor will fill the trays with soil. They will heap soil into the middle of the tray. Try not to shake trays too much when moving them.

Safety

During the field trip in the engage system it is important that students do not get lost. Use the buddy system to keep students safe. Also do not allow students to get too close to the water.

In the explore section of the lesson students will be given small objects. Make sure students do not swallow or mishandle objects. Water is also used in this lesson. Paper towel is handy if any messes are made. In case water is spilled on the floor make sure students know to not run in the classroom.

Requisite Knowledge

Students will already have and understanding of –

Weathering and Erosion - how it happens

Engage

Field Trip - Dam Beach

The instructor will bring students to a local dam. For this lesson the dam is located in Elk Rapids, Michigan. Students should first see behind the damn where an extension of Elk Lake is located. Have students take note of the width of the lake and water flow. Then have the class walk to the downstream side of the damn. Have students again observe the width of the river and water flow. The teacher will then walk the class to the beach. Stop at the beach berm and have students observe the plant life that is on the berm. Explain how these plants stop water and wind from weathering the beach sand.

An interior tour is not necessary, but if the teacher wishes calling Elk Rapids Hydroelectric Power and asking for a tour is possible. (248) 349-2833

Downriver view of Elk Rapids Dam Beach Burm at Elk Rapids Dam Beach

After the field trip students will engage in a classroom discussion about what they saw. The instructor should ask the following questions during the discussion:

What types of solutions to stop wind and water erosion did we see today?

Can anyone think of any examples we didn’t see?

Is erosion always bad?

Explore

Build a beaver dam.

Students will be separated into groups of four. Each group will be given a sheet of paper (figure 1 Lesson 2) to design plans for a dam. Students will be given their materials: Popsicle sticks, play dough, rocks and the PVC pipe. Before students touch their materials have them design a plan and make predictions on their worksheet. Allow students to build their dams. As soon as a group is done building you may give them the 1 liter bottle of water. The instructor will help make sure students dams are set up properly, making sure that one side of the PVC pipe is elevated and the other side of the pipe is sitting in the plastic tray to collect any runoff.

Elaborate

Have the class gather around for a model presentation. The model will be prepared with soil already in two different trays. Using a spray bottle the teacher will spray the first model with water. Students will watch as the soil erodes. Place the first model to the side and bring the next tray onto the table. Next hand out popsicle sticks to different students. Have students place the sticks vertically into the soil. Again spray the soil with a spray bottle. Students will again watch as soil erodes, however it will not erode as quickly. Hold a class discussion and ask the following questions:

Why did the second model erode more slowly than the first?

Does this remind anyone of anything we saw at the beach?

An example of this model can be seen at the 5 minute 30 second mark of the following video.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=olEAD51HMhM

Explain

Line up review

Students will line up into 2 straight lines in the classroom. Students will have an opportunity to share their thoughts, ideas, and feelings with another student. When adequate time has passed the teacher will have one row of students move so they will be able to talk to another student. During the line up review students will be asked to discuss the following questions:

What solutions to wind and water erosion did we see today?

Can you think of any other local solutions to prevent erosion?

Why do we try to stop wind and water erosion?

How well did your dams work? Share your experiences.

We saw soil erode more slowly with the second soil model. How does this relate to the plants we saw in the beach sand?

While asking questions and switching partners the teacher will listen to student discussions.

Evaluate

In the same groups as the explore section students will be given the Building a Dam worksheet again (figure 1 lesson 2). Tell students that they must think about the way they built their dam before. Students will redesign their damn again. Students will not be graded on the performance of their damn. Instead students will be graded on the completion of the building a dam worksheet. Answers do not need to be specific but should show some understanding of the scientific process (i.e. designing, predictions, and result notes).

Figure 1 Lesson 2 Building a Dam

Name:

Design Plan

Predictions: Expected Results

Results

LESSON 3

- MI Develop a model to represent the state of Michigan and the Great Lakes, or a more local land area and water body

Scientific Background

There are many different types of landforms and bodies of water. A landform is a feature on the terrain of earth’s surface. Islands, mountains and peninsulas are all landforms that are abundant in Michigan. Islands are areas of land not attached to continents that are completely surrounded by water. Islands can be formed by hot spots of magma underneath the ocean floor. Eventually these hot spots become underwater volcanoes that slowly rise in elevation as magma erupts from inside the volcano. Eventually an island as built. As tectonic plates shift, the ocean floor moves, but the hot spot does not. Given enough time this creates a chain of islands such as the Hawaiian Islands. Michigan islands however were formed during the carving of earth’s surface by glaciers. The only mountains found in Michigan are the Porcupine Mountains and Huron Mountains located east and west of the Keweenaw Peninsula respectively. Peninsulas are bodies of land that stretch out into a body of water. They are surrounded on 3 sides by water.

A body of water is an accumulation of water on the earth’s surface. Lakes, rivers, and bays are also abundant water bodies in Michigan. There are many different ways a lake can form. An oxbow lake is formed when a river meanders and water is left behind. These lakes are often characterized by a crescent shape. Crater lakes form in craters formed by volcanism. These craters then experience a higher rate of precipitation than evaporation Bacon (1983) Glacial lakes are lakes that form during the retreat of a glacier. When a glacier retreats it leaves behind large depressions that later fill with water from glacial runoff and precipitation. This is how the Great Lakes and many inland Michigan lakes were formed. A river is a generally fast flowing body of water that flows to a lake or ocean and follow the topography of the land. The way in which water follows land topography is always downward due to gravity and the water takes the path of least resistance. A bay is a body of water that is generally surrounded on three sides by land and connects to a larger body of water such as an ocean or lake.

Objectives:

Students will be able to-

Create a model that shows shapes of land and water

Categorize pictures and maps of real water and land forms

Students will be able to draw a model of water and land forms

Materials and Setup

A globe

Magnets for each student to post on the whiteboard

Pictures cut out from figures (enough copies for each student)

Sheets of paper for each student (foldables)

Misconceptions

Some students may believe that land and water forms are separate and do not connect to each other (Ohio State University). When looking at pictures of land and water shapes students may only see one type of land or water form. This misconception will be addressed in the elaborate section of the lesson. Students will see that pictures can cover multiple different bodies of water and landforms.

Safety

Students will be using scissors during the foldables exercise. Make sure students handle scissors properly.

Requisite Knowledge

Students will already have an understanding of:

The location of the great lakes

The water cycle

The states of matter: solid liquid and gas

Engage

At the beginning of this lesson the teacher will pass a globe to a student. The teacher will ask the student what their right index finger is. The teacher will instruct the student to pass the globe around. As students pass the globe they will state where their right index finger was. After the globe has been passed around the teacher will ask the following questions during a group discussion.

Who’s finger landed on water? Wait for show of hands.

Can anyone think of what type of water your finger landed on?

Who’s finger landed on land? Wait for show of hands.

Can anyone think of what type of landform your finger landed on?

This brings us to our next lesson on different type of water and land forms.

Explore

Students will be given sheets of paper that have different shapes (see figure 1 lesson 3) Each student will be given a green crayon and a blue crayon. The teacher will instruct students to color each sheet of paper. The teacher will tell students that they must fill the paper with an individual color on each shape and are not allowed to color over the lines or mix colors. If needed, show students examples so they are not confused.

The blue will represent water and the green will represent land. On the whiteboard in front of the classroom the teacher will make the following chart.

Island

Lake

Peninsula

Bay

Ocean

Students will take their papers and place them on the chart with magnets. After all students have hung their sheets,

Elaborate

The instructor will divide students into pairs and hand each pair a picture of a water or land form (see figure 2 lesson 3). The instructor will draw a new modified chart similar to the one above but including rivers and mountains. As pairs students will place real pictures of landforms and bodies of water on the board. After completing the chart, the instructor will go over students’ answers and ask questions about any that do not fit. Many pictures can fit multiple categories. It is important for the instructor to explain this during class discussion.

Explain

Students will create a foldable displaying their knowledge. Instructions for making the foldable are available in Figure 3 Lesson 3. The teacher will instruct students on how to fold their paper by showing them either in the front of the classroom or underneath the ELMO projector. Once foldables are created students will have four separate sections to work with. Write a list on the board of the 7 types of water and land forms students have learned about: Island, lake, peninsula, bay, ocean, mountain and River. Students will choose any four of these water and land forms to write about on their foldable. Students will write the title of the water or land form on the top of all four sections. Students will then open the folds. On one side instruct students to write their own definitions for each of the water or land forms. On the opposing side students will draw pictures of the water or landform.

Evaluate

Students will be given a blank piece of paper. The instructor will write a land or water form of their choice on the board. Students will use green and blue crayons to draw the land or water form that the instructor has selected. Students may not get help from peers or the teacher. After students are done have them flip over their papers. After all papers are flipped the teacher will pick another land or water form and have students draw it with respective crayon colors. As each student completes the assignment they will bring their assignment to the teacher and read quietly. Make sure to instruct students to label each side of the paper to the drawing they drew.

Figure 1 Lesson 3

Ocean

Lake or Island

Bay or Peninsula

Figure 2 Lesson 3

http://www.miseagrant.umich.edu/explore/about-the-great-lakes/lake-erie/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Superior

http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/superior/superiorfacts.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Michigan

http://edugeography.com/content/amazon-river.html

http://www.fishweb.com/maps/antrim/jordanriver/graves/

http://archive.epa.gov/emap/archive-emap/web/html/index-36.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altai_Mountains

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/the-filter/qi/8097317/QI-Quite-Interesting-facts-about-mountains.html

http://www.realtor.com/news/unique-homes/private-island-with-historic-lighthouse/

https://familysearch.org/learn/wiki/en/Lake_Michigan

http://www.sailmagazine.com/cruising/destinations/getting-away-from-it-all-on-lake-michigan/

http://static.travelmuse.com/docs/artwork/traverse-city/traverse-city-anchor-traverse-city-bay-aerial-full.jpg

Figure 3 Lesson 3

Four Flap Book (2nd Version) https://wvde.state.wv.us/strategybank/DirectionsforFoldedBooks.html

Take a sheet of 8 ½ x 11 inch paper and hold it portrait. Fold it vertically.

Next, fold the sheet in half horizontally and then fold it horizontally again. Then open the sheet up flat.

Next, cut the folds from one edge to the center fold. Fold the paper vertically and you will create a Four Flap Book.

LESSON 4

Scientific Background

Water can be found almost any place on earth. Oceans are the biggest source of water on earth. 96.5% of water is found in oceans (USGS). This water is liquid and is a salt mixture. According to the United States Geological Survey only 2.5% of the earth’s water is fresh water. Glaciers and ice caps are frozen water that account for 68.7% of freshwater. Ground water is also liquid and accounts for 30.1% of freshwater. Groundwater is generally found in aquifers. Aquifers consist of permeable rock that water can flow through. When looking at surface water only lakes account for 20.9%, and atmospheric water only accounts for 3.0% (USGS)

One estimate of global water distribution(Percents are rounded, so will not add to 100)

Water source

Water volume, in cubic miles

Water volume, in cubic kilometers

Percent offreshwater

Percent oftotal water

Oceans, Seas, & Bays

321,000,000

1,338,000,000

--

96.5

Ice caps, Glaciers, & Permanent Snow

5,773,000

24,064,000

68.7

1.74

Ground water

5,614,000

23,400,000

--

1.69

    Fresh

2,526,000

10,530,000

30.1

  0.76

    Saline

3,088,000

12,870,000

--

  0.93

Soil Moisture

3,959

16,500

0.05

0.001

Ground Ice & Permafrost

71,970

300,000

0.86

0.022

Lakes

42,320

176,400

--

0.013

    Fresh

21,830

91,000

0.26

0.007

    Saline

20,490

85,400

--

0.006

Atmosphere

3,095

12,900

0.04

0.001

Swamp Water

2,752

11,470

0.03

0.0008

Rivers

509

2,120

0.006

0.0002

Biological Water

269

1,120

0.003

0.0001

Source: Igor Shiklomanov's chapter "World fresh water resources" in Peter H. Gleick (editor), 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh Water Resources (Oxford University Press, New York).

Objectives:

Students will-

Identify where water is found on earth

Use various materials to learn about where water is found on earth

Create a poster on different types of water found on earth

Materials and Setup

Ice cube

Paper towel

The books seen in Figure 1 Lesson 4 will be set out in five different sections of the classroom based on topic. All books will be available either in the school library or public library if not already in the classroom. They can also be purchased on Amazon.

Misconceptions

When students think of water on earth they generally think of it only in liquid form (Ohio State University). This misconception is addressed immediately in the engage section and then further throughout the lesson. Students will learn that air is gaseous in the atmosphere and frozen when it is an iceberg, glacier, or in snow.

Safety

No additional safety precautions are necessary during this lesson. Paper towel will be available to students after passing around the ice cube.

Requisite Knowledge

Students will already have and understanding of –

The states of matter- solid, liquid, and gas

Locations of the great lakes and oceans

Engage

Begin this lesson by handing an ice cube around to the class. Have paper towel ready in case any melt water needs to be cleaned up. While students pass the ice cube around ask students if ice counts as water. The teacher will then have the class gather in around the whiteboard. The class will then brainstorm together about different places water can be found on earth. The teacher will ask students for ideas and write them on the board.

Explore

Group readings - Students will be grouped into five different groups. Each group will go to a separate section of the room. In each section of the room there will be multiple materials about different places water is found on earth. A list of these materials can be found in Figure 1 Lesson 4. All of these books can be found either at local libraries, at school libraries, or purchased on Amazon.

Explain

Have groups come back to and sit with their groups. Give each group a blank piece of poster paper. Tell them to make a poster about what they have learned. Explain that each group only gets 15 minutes. During this time the class instructor will walk around and make sure groups are on task and offer any ideas he/she may have.

When groups are done making posters have each group go to the front of the classroom and explain their posters. Each group will have 5 minutes to present their posters. At the end of each group presentations allow the class to ask any questions they have. The teacher should also ask questions to each group.

Elaborate

Begin the elaborate section by telling students that we haven’t discussed another place that water is found, in the ground. The teacher will hold a class discussion with students asking the following questions.

Does anyone know if they have well water at their house?

Students will watch the following video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uQRvN6MUajE

Evaluate

Students will be evaluated during the elaborate and explore section of the lesson using the following checklist. To receive a passing grade students must receive a check in 3 out of the 4 categories

Student Name:

Student is attentive to group materials.

Student is actively participating in creation of poster.

Student was active in presenting poster material.

Student was able to answer questions regarding their poster.

Exit Slip Assessment

This section should be done ten minutes prior to lunch or a recess. The instructor will ask students to bring out a sheet of writing paper. On the top each student should write: Exit Slip. The instructor will then write the following question on the board. Name four different ways that water is found on earth and if the water is solid liquid or gas.

Figure 1 Lesson 4

Group 1: Icebergs and Glaciers

Icebergs, Ice Caps, and Glaciers. Allan Fowler. 1997

Group 2: The Ocean

Icebergs and Glaciers By Seymour Simon 1999

Icebergs By Jenny Wood 1990

Glaciers By Christine Webster 2011

Children's Book About The Ocean: A Kids Picture Book About The Ocean with Photos and Fun Facts By: Ling Chung 2013

By Diane Leake 2014

by Yvonne Franklin

Ocean and Sea by Steve Parker

Group 3: Rivers

Big Rivers By Project Wet 2001

Project Geography Rivers By Sally Hewitt 2012

Our Earth in Action Rivers By Chris Oxlade 2014

By Ruth Thompson 2013

Group 4: Lakes

The Great Lakes By Frances Purslow. New York, NY : AV2: 2011.

Paddle to the Sea by Holling C. Holling

Lakes: Timeless Reservoirs By Randy Frahm Creative Education: 2003.

Lakes By Catherine Chambers and Nicholas Lapthorn 2008.

Group 5: Atmospheric Water

Science Matters: The Water Cycle By Francis Purslow 2010.

The Waters Journey Elenore Schmid

Precipitation by Frances Purslow 2010 By Cheryl Lessing Roarke Lessing

References

Stallard, Robert F. "Terrestrial sedimentation and the carbon cycle: coupling weathering and erosion to carbon burial." Global Biogeochemical Cycles 12.2 (1998): 231-257.

Bacon, Charles R. "Eruptive history of Mount Mazama and Crater Lake caldera, Cascade Range, USA." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 18.1 (1983): 57-115.

Lockwood, John P., and Richard W. Hazlett. Volcanoes: global perspectives. John Wiley & Sons, 2013.

Brune, James N. "Tectonic stress and the spectra of seismic shear waves from earthquakes." Journal of geophysical research 75.26 (1970): 4997-5009.

"Slope Stabilization and Erosion Control Using Vegetation | The Role of Vegetation | Washington State Department of Ecology." Slope Stabilization and Erosion Control Using Vegetation | The Role of Vegetation | Washington State Department of Ecology. Washington State Department of Ecology. Web. 5 Dec. 2015. .

"The World's Water." Where Is Earth's Water? USGS Water-Science School. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of Interior. Web. 3 Dec. 2015.