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Instructional Interventions 1
Instructional Interventions
Emma Cornwall
Kennesaw State University
Instructional Interventions 2
Table of Contents
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………..Page 3
Introduction………………………………………………………………………Page 4
Literature Review………………………………………………………………...Page 6
Methodology……………………………………………………………………...Page 16
Data Analysis and Results………………………………………………………...Page 21
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...Page 39
References.......................................................................................................…...Page 42
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………..Page 46
Instructional Interventions 3
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to study the impacts of instructional interventions
through individualized spelling assessments and assignments, additionally to assess if there was
a transfer of spelling skill to the students’ writing and other areas of school. From this study the
students were able to increase their spelling knowledge of spelling patterns, decode unknown
words, and communicate better with their spelling in the form of their writing. From this study,
all of the participants were able to spell more unknown words by decoding. Throughout this
study, students had to participate in weekly word sorts and word activities as well as spelling
assessments.
Instructional Interventions 4
Introduction
This Action Based Research Project focused on improving student’s writing through
instructional interventions. From this research, I hope to gain an understanding of how to use this
allotted time of my intervention block to improve student’s spelling. The student's spelling was
not corresponding to their reading levels. This generation of students quickly learns to use tools
such as spell check; however spelling words out phonetically may not always give the result you
intended. Through instructional intervention, I aspire to increase the spelling level in which my
second grade students started from. For example if they were hearing the beginning parts of
words, after my intervention, I would hope they could move to syllables and affixes in the
phonemic awareness stage and work on the sound isolation with the phonics skills. I also aspire
to increase the student’s confidence in them by showing them that they can spell.
The purpose and background of incorporating a spelling intervention into my teaching
came out of a need for better spellers. The third grade decided to work on basic word work with
students to establish a strong foundation. Parents as well have commented on their students’
spelling and have asked teachers to work with them more on spelling. Throughout my school,
math and reading are the two main subjects to focus on because of the various assessments that
reflect on the state, school district, school, teachers, and students. With these assessments
students are expected to read the directions and questions themselves as well as explain their
answers and thinking processes. Although Science and Social Studies have not been a priority,
there is now a large push to increase the rigor of the curriculum in both areas. By intervening on
spelling, I believe that students will increase in their scores in all subject areas, because they will
be better equipped to handle situations in which they need to sound out unknown words, or wish
Instructional Interventions 5
to spell a word to explain their answers and process of thinking. The student also needs to write
words correctly so that their point is coming across as they intended it to.
The research that was conducted focused on the question: How does a phonics
intervention enhance students’ ability to correctly encode words when writing. The goal of the
spelling intervention is to increase each student’s ability to spell and therefore ability to respond
to posed questions throughout their educational journeys.
Traditional spelling assessments do not teach the student how to spell but rather how to
memorize and spell certain words. Incorporating a spelling intervention that focuses on the
individual level of each student should improve their spelling ability. If a student does not hear
the “ch’ sound, then how could you expect them to spell words with multiple syllables? Even
though the students will have a designated time for the spelling intervention, does not mean that
they are not working on these skills throughout their school day and at home.
This is the first time that I will be implementing a spelling intervention with my class. Of
course these students have had spelling assessments before, but none have been truly
differentiated using a researched based assessment. To assist me with the students’ levels, I used
the Words Their Way spelling assessment.
Instructional Interventions 6
Literature Review
Education is constantly evolving; reinventing strategies and techniques to help all
students. Instructional intervention is a planned set of procedures that are aimed at teaching a
specific set of academic or social skills to a student or students. Interventions are more than one
lesson and require the lessons to be planned; sustained, focused; goals oriented, and require a set
of procedures. There have been many studies, researching certain instructional interventions with
diverse populations, and tools. Instructional interventions are an invaluable tool used to ensure
that all students receive a complete and thorough understanding of instruction that was
potentially fragmented, incomplete, or misunderstood.
There are many variables that factor into the educational success of a student. Lehmann
and Ifenthaler (2012) wanted to answer the question whether learning/cognitive styles of students
were a good starting point for creating target-group instruction which was appropriate for them.
The results were based on a population of 56 participants with different learning styles. The
research concluded that a consideration of the learning styles to match an instructional learning
environment does not transfer into higher quality discussions of problem solutions or an increase
in declarative knowledge.
McLeskey and Waldron (2011) took a different approach, and talked about the nature of
instruction in inclusive general education classroom and resource settings. This research provides
a foundation for supporting full inclusion and how to deliver services for those served under the
umbrella of special education. Today, students are being served in their least restrictive
environment and in many cases that is the general education classroom. When appropriate
interventions and consistent support are in place, all students can make progress. The research
Instructional Interventions 7
that states students can learn in their least restrictive environment, should empower teachers to
feel more comfortable and confident that learning can and will take place in their classroom.
During a typical school day, one main concern is having enough time to complete all the
tasks teachers have. Adding an instructional intervention takes time to plan and in turn if your
school is a professional learning community, you would need to discuss the interventions with
your school/grade level on implementation and data. One researcher, Perlow (2014) focused his
attention on using time wisely. He wanted to make sure the students had the time they needed to
fully understand the content without the stress of what is coming up next in the school day.
When you are involved in a collaborative team, time is of the essence. You need to put an
emphasis on connectivity and collaboration. Teams need to develop the ability to continually
improve the way they coordinate their work, and frequently that yields new efficiencies. During
your instruction and intervention, take the approach of three harder days and 2 easy days for the
students. This way, they will have an idea of how much time they need to allot for certain
subjects, and topics. In addition to putting an emphasis on connecting and coordinating,
communicating is another task to solve.
Instructional intervention can take hold, however if you and your team are on the same
page, the intervention can be implemented well. Mahdavi and Beebe-Frankenberger (2009)
observed pioneering RTI systems that work. In this article the researchers focused on using a
collaborative teamwork to use Response-to –intervention (RTI) systems responsive to the needs
and strengths within separate schools and communities. Their main focus was on building a
successful collaborating team to ensure that there could be an open dialogue of ideas shared.
This system allots time for the team to build time into the school day and year schedule, stating a
purpose for the collaboration, training and supporting of school personnel so they can be
Instructional Interventions 8
effective in giving the intervention and collaborating, and being committed to the work. Many
obstacles were encountered during the creation of the intervention, but if you can build a good
collaboration team that can reflect the school’s local culture, values, resources, and needs then
you can make progress with your interventions. Creating instructional interventions that prosper
takes the dedication of many school system employees.
Within a school system, you are likely to find multiple instructional interventions. These
interventions may work for that school, county, classroom, or population. McEldoon, Cho,
Rittle-Johnson, and the Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness, (2012) assessed the
effectiveness of educational interventions by looking at differences between intervention groups
overtime. Second and third grade students who scored below 75% correct on the pretest
participated in a 20-minute one-on-one tutoring intervention that focused on mathematical
equivalence problems. Out of all the intervention groups, the researchers found that the item
response models offer many methodological advantages in terms of individual learning and
group change over time. This shows that students can state why or why they do not agree with a
statement, or choose which answer they think is correct given multiple choices. This will give
data as to why a teacher should work with the students on their spelling level to introduce the
new spelling sort.
When given assessments, many students lack the confidence needed and therefore their
best is not representative of their score. Balkam, Nellessen, and Ronney (2013) examined
students’ test anxiety and how interventions may be able to alleviate some of them to increase
their test taking performances. The interventions that were applied were teaching test taking
strategies, collaborative testing, and differentiated tests. Students were also encouraged to
highlight important words, eliminate wrong answers, and plan extended responses. Before the
Instructional Interventions 9
interventions could take place, students were given a pre-test and grouped based on their pre-
determined knowledge of the subject or ability to show a skill. While in the groups, the students
were taught the interventions and work together to understand where their mistakes were made.
The conclusions of this study showed that the students experienced a positive way they viewed
tests and felt more comfortable and or prepared for future assessments.
Consideration for setting up the intervention is very important. Once you understand that
this is time consuming and helpful to the students, you can focus on the goal setting and content
of the particular intervention for your students. Ebbles (2014) started her research of the
effectiveness of therapy for grammar for school-aged children with language impairments by
focusing on the specific areas of grammar (expressive and receptive). Then she focused on the
effectiveness of the diverse methods of delivery. The evidence so far indicated that children with
receptive and expressive language impairments need intensive help to make progress with their
language. The intervention needs to be specialized to their needs and a combination of methods
that work for that child. These interventions need to consider the age of the child, their language
profile, and the most effective and cost-effective delivery of the interventions.
Bryant D., Bryant B, Gertsen, Scammacca, and Chavez (2008) took a different approach
and focused their research on the effect of tier 2 interventions with first and second grade
students. These students were identified with as having difficulties in mathematics. The students
received 15 minute intervention lessons for eighteen weeks focusing on early math skills and
concepts. There were interesting results in which there was a significant effect for the second
grade students, however there was not a significant effect for the first grade students. This
research shows that age for certain interventions is a factor to consider.
Instructional Interventions 10
Dentson, Tolar, Fletcher, Barth, Vaughn, and Francis (2013) positioned their research on
the effects of an intense individualized Tier 3 intervention for second grade students. These
students showed inadequate progress to a reading instruction in a first grade classroom,
supplemented with a tier 2 intervention of small group intervention. Dentson, Tolar, Fletcher,
Barth, Vaughn, and Francis evaluated cognitive characteristics of the students. The results of this
research showed that students who were in the research intervention made significant progress
than those students who received general interventions, which were not specifically geared
toward them. The areas in which the growth was made were those of word identification,
phonemic decoding, and word reading fluency. Although progress was made, it is important to
note that the students still continued to struggle with reading, decoding, and fluency. The
instructional interventions allowed students the extra time to hear and process the information.
With multiple repetitions of information, students are more likely to recall the information.
Similar to Dentson, Tolar, Fletcher, Barth, Vaughn, and Francis in the way they focused
on a specific subject, Hier and Eckert (2014) noticed that national estimates of students’ writing
abilities in the United States indicated that in 2002, 72% of elementary-aged students were
unable to write with grade-level proficiency. No study to date has examined the generalization
and maintenance of writing fluency improvements developed through these interventions, and
this is what Hier and Eckert planned on doing. The primary goal of this study was to determine if
students who were involved in a performance feedback intervention or practice intervention,
improved their writing. The results showed that students participating in a feedback intervention
had more success than those in the practice based intervention. If this research were to be drawn
out, the results may show that, performance feedback would produce short-term desired effects
on students’ writing fluency growth, but that explicit programming of generality may be required
Instructional Interventions 11
to produce long-term achievement gains. It is important for teachers and administration to give
quality feedback, with explicit information. If a student needs to work on their writing, give them
specific feedback to improve on. Say something similar to, “You do a great job in developing
your character, but let’s focus on your word choices to create a better picture of the character.”
This feedback points out what the writer needs to work on but also reinforces their strengths, in
the way he/she is developing the character.
With all of the subjects and activities planned throughout the day, planned and
meaningful instruction is important so that students can benefit from their education in the
highest way. Heafner and Fitchett (2012) focused their research on the national trends in
elementary instruction, particularly focusing on the social studies curriculum. The data they used
was from the National Center for Educational Statistics and used research that spanned fifteen
years. The main purpose of this research was due to the reauthorization of No Child Left Behind
and the federal-mandated testing of ELA and Math.
With the need of reinforced skills and standards, Kober, McMurrer, Silva, along with the
Center on Education (2011) researched test scores trends and whether or not it is affecting
achievements and if the gaps are narrowing. To make their topic more controllable, they focused
on Title 1 schools. Title I provides extra instructional services designed to raise achievement for
low-performing students in schools with relatively high poverty rates, and for all students in
many of the nation's highest-poverty schools. The key findings from this study include: (1)
Achievement on state reading and math tests has improved for Title I students in most states with
sufficient data; (2) Gaps between Title I and non-Title I students have narrowed more often than
they have widened since 2002, although trends were less encouraging at grade 4 than at grade 8
or high school; (3) When gaps narrowed, it was most often because achievement improved at a
Instructional Interventions 12
faster rate for Title I students than for non-Title I students; and (4) The size of achievement gaps
between Title I and non-Title I students varied greatly among states but was often smaller than
gaps for low-income students or for certain racial/ethnic groups.
So far we have seen research that focused on the learning styles of students, the
environment of the intervention, collaborating with your team and using time wisely, the
students age/grade, and the content of the interventions.
McClanahan, Williams, Kennedy and Tate (2012) researched a very interesting topic, in
which a teacher was to encourage the use of an iPad as main mode for intervention strategies
with a fifth grade struggling reader with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The
device not only helped the student focus his attention, it facilitated his becoming much more
metacognitive in his reading. Comparisons of pre- and post-assessments showed that the student
had gained one year's growth in reading within a six weeks’ time period. The student also gained
in confidence and sense of being in control of his learning.
Vaughn, Wanzek, Murray, Roberts and the Center on Instruction (2012) provided
research-based guidance for intensifying instruction in reading and mathematics for students
with significant learning difficulties, including students with disabilities, in kindergarten through
grade 12. The guide gives technical assistance providers and states information reflecting "best
practices" for implementing intensive interventions to improve education practices for struggling
students, including those who receive special education. With those goals in mind, the authors
discussed: (1) integrating strategies that support cognitive processes (e.g., self-regulation and
memory) with academic instruction and aligning this instruction with learner needs; (2)
differentiating instructional delivery by making it more explicit and systematic and by increasing
Instructional Interventions 13
opportunities for feedback; (3) increasing instructional time; and (4) reducing group size. With
these strategies, one will be able to intensify the instruction for the students, some of which are
more probable to incorporate into the schools day easily while others will need time to
collaborate and plan with your team.
Along with the researched who feel that intensive instruction in beneficial all students,
Fuchs D, Fuchs, L and Vaughn are no different. Fuchs D, Fuchs L, and Vaughn (2014) indicated
by their research that using intensive instruction for students with learning disabilities is also
beneficial. Research shows that many struggling students in the primary grades respond
successfully to Tier 1 and Tier 2 instruction, however what about those who need extra supports
to succeed? This research took the approach of, what can teachers do to intensify instruction to
make it beneficial? Students who do not benefit adequately from RTI’s first two tiers of
instruction….. Signal a need for even more intensive educational care. This is where the
instructional interventions give the added supports the students need to succeed.
Many times the teachers feel the need to support the students by leading them to the
answer and in a way teach the test. Hulac, Dejong, and Benson (2012), questioned if students
could run their own interventions. In this study, a group of fourth graders who had difficulty
with their multiplication facts were the population. This study gave many insights to the abilities
of students than many may overlook because of their lack of knowledge in a specific task/area.
The results indicated that the student participants were able to follow an intervention program
without having immediate teacher cuing, and therefore relied more on self-monitoring and self-
correction. Although this study showed result that worked, there are many implications and
variables to think about if one were to implement this type of intervention. Some of the topics to
think about are the testing schedules, how fast you want to implement the intervention, how
Instructional Interventions 14
much time to assess the data, the age and intensity of the instruction. Giving the students the
tools to self-monitor and self-correct, allow them to focus on doing what is right for them.
With the interventions focusing on the students spelling, Jaspers (2012) found that having
students look at a word, cover it and then write it as well as doing all of that and then comparing
the definition increased the students spelling as well as improving their reading. In her study,
only one participant was able to define words she learned in her intervention time and carry it
over to other educational settings.
While Jaspers (2012) intervention focused more on ways to help spellers
remember the spelling of words, the Words Their Way program takes the approach of using a
mixture of phonics, vocabulary and spelling. This program focuses on where the students are
phonetically and gradually increasing the rigor of words and pictures, as the students should
slowly build their phonics skills.
Gebauer ( 2012) focused her spelling intervention on students with poor spelling
and reading abilities while also looking at the brain function during these interventions. The
results showed that specific interventions may alter brain function in language relevant areas of
the brain with reading and spelling difficulties. After five weeks of the spelling and reading
interventions, the students significantly improved and the left temporal, parahippocampal and
hippocampal regions increased with activation.
Hallenbeck and Fleming’s (2011) research brought up the point that goal-setting is not an
innate skill, and as teachers we have become quite good at setting goals, however we do not
teach our students how to set their own goals. Afterschool programs can provide strong
backdrops for goal setting initiatives, and that goal-setting is a behavior in which elementary age
Instructional Interventions 15
children can accomplish. This research used the Transtheoretical Model which focuses on
behavior changes as a process that evolves through a series of stages. The results showed that the
intervention benefitted students and the teacher-facilitators that were involved. Important factors
of these results were to access the strengths and weaknesses of the goal-setting intervention to
improve the implementation. The students were able to choose which behavior was appropriate
for the situations they face. This learned skill can be carried over into the classroom setting,
especially during times of instruction which can become frustrating to students who may have a
difficult time comprehending and recalling information.
In addition to reacting properly to given situations in school, Shulman noticed that this
lack of appropriate behavior also carried over into other areas of the schools day such as physical
education. Shulman’s (2013) action research project was conducted because students' lack of
sportsmanship skills in elementary school physical education was negatively affecting the
physical activity level of many students. The teacher was spending classroom time managing
conflicts and dealing with negative sportsmanship issues and therefore losing classroom time for
students to be physically active. The purpose of this research project was to increase positive
sportsmanship behaviors in 54 fifth-grade students, between August 27th and December 10th,
2012. Students would spend time arguing, yelling, and sometimes even physical violence would
ensue. As a result students were losing time when they could be physically active and releasing
the built up emotions brought on throughout the school day. The teacher researcher collected
data from a student survey, teacher survey, parent survey, and weekly observation behavior
checklist. After reviewing the literature, the teacher researcher decided upon weekly
interventions including creating classroom rules, role-playing, journaling, and class discussions.
Creating classroom rules allowed students to have ownership. Role-playing allowed students to
Instructional Interventions 16
interact with their classmates while learning methods to handle themselves in class situations.
Journaling allowed students to reflect on their current level of sportsmanship and how they can
improve and set goals for the future. Class discussions were guided by the teacher researcher to
facilitate good conversation, and hopefully allowed students to realize ways in which they could
improve their sportsmanship behaviors in certain situations. The teacher researcher found that
the students' feelings about their sportsmanship behaviors decreased as evidenced by the student
survey results. After compiling the post-documentation results from the student surveys, there
was a decrease in students' feelings of their sportsmanship behaviors, both scores decreased from
the pre-documentation results, which may have been caused by an increased awareness of
students' perceptions of their sportsmanship behaviors. This also carried over into the classroom
and allowed the students to understand a better way to communicate their thoughts and feelings
in a comfortable setting.
Instructional interventions are an invaluable tool used to ensure that all students receive a
complete and thorough understanding of instruction that was potentially fragmented, incomplete,
or misunderstood.
Methodology
This study took place in a school, North of Atlanta, Georgia in a suburban area.
The instructive intervention was conducted with twenty-three second grade students, eight of
which are females and fifteen are males. I have five spelling levels; six students are on the ‘B’
level which focuses on initial consonants, blends, and diagraphs. Four students are on the ‘D’
level which focuses on affricates, nine students are on the level ‘F’ which focuses on long
vowels ( VCe), three of my students are on the level ‘H’ which instructs about other common
Instructional Interventions 17
long vowels, and finally I have one student on the level ‘M’ and focuses on long vowel patterns
(stressed syllables). The age ranges of my students are six-seven years old. The makeup of my
class in regards to race consists of Hispanic, African American, Asian, Caucasian, and Mix
races. Four out of twenty three attend EIP, and eight out of twenty three attend ESOL. A
breakdown of my students who participated in my research is shown in Figure 1.0-Student
Participates.
Figure 1.0- Student Participates
Student Spelling Level Gender Race1 D/ affricates Female African American2 B/ initial consonants, blends,
and diagraphsMale African American
3 F/ long vowels ( VCe) Male African American4 F/ long vowels ( VCe) Male Asian5 D /affricates Male Caucasian6 F/ long vowels ( VCe) Male Hispanic7 F/ long vowels ( VCe) Male African
American/Caucasian8 H/ other common long
vowelsFemale Caucasian
9 F/ long vowels ( VCe) Male Hispanic10 H/ other common long
vowelsMale Asian
11 F/ long vowels ( VCe) Male Caucasian12 D/ affricates Female Hispanic/Asian13 M/ long vowel patterns
(stressed syllables)Male Caucasian
14 F/ long vowels ( VCe) Male Hispanic/Caucasian15 F/ long vowels ( VCe) Male Hispanic16 H/ other common long
vowelsFemale African American
17 B/ initial consonants, blends, and diagraphs
Female African American
18 B/ initial consonants, blends, and diagraphs
Female Caucasian
19 B/ initial consonants, blends, and diagraphs
Female Caucasian
20 F/ long vowels ( VCe) Male Indian21 B/ initial consonants, blends, Female Hispanic
Instructional Interventions 18
and diagraphs22 D/ affricates Male Hispanic23 B/ initial consonants, blends,
and diagraphsFemale African America
In order to figure out the students spelling levels, I administered the Words Their
Way spelling pretest. Once the students’ levels were determined, I started the student on that
sort. Each student will complete the accompanying sort to the level they scored on. Once the
whole sort for the level is completed, the student will jump to the next level and complete those
accompanying sorts. Each week the students have time to sort their words to become familiar
with the particular sounds/syllables for that sort. In addition to the sorts each week, students will
have weekly centers that focus on their spelling sort. The data instruments used as well as their
reliability and validity are presented in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Data Instruments
Data Instruments Is there reliability and validity in this data?
Location
Words Their Way Pretest Yes, the pretest is reliable and valid because Words Their Way is a researched based curriculum in which assesses many aspect of the students spelling to assess which level they need to start on.
Spelling Sorts /Spelling Assessments
Yes, These assessments are the words in which each student has each week. The words are suggested by the Words Their Way program.
Spelling Sorts Yes, These are weekly sorts that
Instructional Interventions 19
go along with where the student should be after being assessed by the pre-test. Words Their Way has listed suggestions as to what should be included.
Center Assignments Each week students will have centers that relate to their sort to reinforce the pattern they are focused on.
Reader’s Response Each week the students have two rotation with their centers in which they complete a readers response. Each student has a rubric in which the teacher uses to conference with them every week to see how their writing/spelling is going based on the rubrics criteria.
Words Their Way Posttest Yes, the posttest is reliable and valid because Words Their Way is a researched based curriculum in which assesses the same as the pretest, however you will be able to see any gain made over the course of the sorts.
The research procedures that were implemented were quantitative and qualitative. The
students were given and pre and a post test. This allowed for the spelling assessments to have
meaning and show if the spelling intervention was successful or not. As well as if the students
were making progress in there every day spelling and sorting their words every week to become
familiar with their sorts and the characteristics of the words. The qualitative procedures came
from the effort the students were putting into their sorts and observations. Each week the
students would reflect on their spelling and how they think they are doing each week during the
interventions. Their feelings will come from their reaction to seeing their grades on the spelling
assessments and the results they are seeing in their educational journey and in their everyday life
when they spell and sound out words.
Instructional Interventions 20
The quantitative procedures that are listed below are reliable and valid. Each procedure
provided information data necessary to the insight of whether the students were improving their
spelling. The data presented is done so in a credible and accurate way to assess the student’s
growth. In Tables 2 and 3 below, they discuss the procedures and how they were used in my
research.
Table 2- Quantitative Procedures
Procedures How They Were UsedPretest and Posttest Data This data was used to determine the starting level
of each individual student, as well as the growth each student made by the end of the spelling intervention period for this research.
Weekly Spelling Assessments This data was used to track the progress made by each student. It also gave me data as to who was sorting and studying their words, versus who was not spending the time needed to complete their sort properly.
Centers Assignments This data will show if the student can complete the work on his/her own. The center will consist of an activity that coincides with the students spelling sort for that week.
Reader’s Response Conference Each week the student will conference with the teacher using the rubric to discuss how their writing/spelling is coming along.
Table 3- Qualitative Procedures
Procedures How They Were UsedSpelling Sorts These sorts were meant to reinforce the skills of
the spelling characteristics for that week. This was the student’s responsibility to practice sorting their words into the correct categories.
Teacher Observations I would observe my students to make sure they were sorting correctly and staying responsible for their learning. I would also reteach the sort to students if I saw them sorting incorrectly or becoming confused and or frustrated with their words. My observations would impact my instruction for the intervention that day.
Instructional Interventions 21
Student Reflections/Journals At the end of each week, I would have the students reflect on how they did and if they saw any improvements with their spelling or sounding out or hearing parts of words. They would talk about if they are seeing any improvements in school and on their weekly assessments.
This study addresses relational questions along with a longitudinal design. The data that
originates from this study is done so over a long period of time as well as combined with
multiple observations and multiple variables.
Data Analysis and Results
In order to measure the successfulness of the spelling intervention, spelling assessments
were given weekly as well as centers and activities for the students to participate in to reinforce
the spelling pattern their group was in. The students also had weekly reader’s response journals
in which they reflected on their spelling and on prompts so that conferences could be held to
track student progress.
The last spelling assessment was taken on March 26, 2015 and the post assessment was
given March 27, 2015. This information is presented through charts and graphs, which will
include the amount of growth of each student as well as each spelling level. This data was
collected and conducted in a traditional classroom. All data relevant to this spelling intervention
will be represented in the forms of charts and graphs.
After ten weeks of collecting data, all of the students in which I assessed showed growth
in their spelling. In the figure 2.0 it shows each student, where they stated in regards to the
spelling pre assessment, where they ended according to the post assessment, their gender and
race. The spelling level is also listed for the pre and post assessment by giving specific
Instructional Interventions 22
information on the spelling pattern they need to focus on. The following figures represent the
progress of each student depending on the spelling level they started out on.
Figure 2.0- Student Participates
Figure 2.1- Spelling Level B Progress
Figure 2.2-Spelling Level D Progress
Figure 2.3 Spelling Level F Progress
Figure 2.4 Spelling Level H Progress
Figure 2.5 Spelling Level M Progress
Figure 2.0-Student participants
Student Spelling Level (Pre-Assessment)
Spelling Level (Post-Assessment)
Gender Race
1 D/ affricates I/ Complex consonants Female African American2 B/ initial consonants,
blends, and diagraphsD/ Affricates Male African American
3 F/ long vowels ( VCe) I/ Complex consonants
Male African American
4 F/ long vowels ( VCe) I/ Complex consonants Male Asian5 D /affricates I/ Complex consonants Male Caucasian6 F/ long vowels ( VCe) J/ Ambiguous vowels:
Diagraphs/DiphthongsMale Hispanic
7 F/ long vowels ( VCe) J/ Ambiguous vowels: Diagraphs/Diphthongs
Male African American/Caucasian
8 H/ other common long vowels
L/Other Syllable Juncture doubling
Female Caucasian
9 F/ long vowels ( VCe) J/ Ambiguous vowels: Diagraphs/Diphthongs
Male Hispanic
10 H/ other common long vowels
L/Other Syllable Juncture doubling
Male Asian
11 F/ long vowels ( VCe) I/ Complex consonants Male Caucasian12 D/ affricates I/ Complex consonants Female Hispanic/Asian13 M/ long vowel patterns
(stressed syllables)P/ Silent and Sounded
consonantsMale Caucasian
14 F/ long vowels ( VCe) I/ Complex consonants Male Hispanic/Caucasian15 F/ long vowels ( VCe) J/ Ambiguous vowels:
Diagraphs/DiphthongsMale Hispanic
Instructional Interventions 23
16 H/ other common long vowels
L/Other Syllable Juncture doubling
Female African American
17 B/ initial consonants, blends, and diagraphs
D/ Affricates Female African American
18 B/ initial consonants, blends, and diagraphs
I/ Complex consonants Female Caucasian
19 B/ initial consonants, blends, and diagraphs
D/ Affricates Female Caucasian
20 F/ long vowels ( VCe) J/ Ambiguous vowels: Diagraphs/Diphthongs
Male Indian
21 B/ initial consonants, blends, and diagraphs
D/ Affricates Female Hispanic
22 D/ affricates I/ Complex consonants Male Hispanic23 B/ initial consonants,
blends, and diagraphsD/ Affricates Female African America
Figure 2.1- Spelling Level B Progress
This graph shows the seven students who started at the lowest spelling level in the
classroom. By observing this graph, one will notice that student 19 stayed consistent with getting a
Instructional Interventions 24
perfect score on her spelling each week, compared to that of student 2 whom was all over the board
with his spelling assessments. The average score for the spelling assessment in this group was an
87.5.
Figure 2.2-Spelling Level D Progress
This graph shows the four students who started at the second lowest spelling level in the
classroom. By observing this graph, one will notice that all of these students went up and down
throughout the spelling assessments. There was not any spelling pattern in which all of the
students decreased at the same time, but there were spelling assessments in which all of the
students increased. The average score for the spelling assessments in this group was a 92.25.
Instructional Interventions 25
Figure 2.3 Spelling Level F Progress
This group contained most of my students with nine in the group. Many of these students
receive ESOL supports during school in the areas of reading and writing. By observing this
graph you notice that the lowest grade on any spelling assessment was a 20, and the highest
being a 100. There were more passing grades than failing grades throughout this time period.
The average spelling assessment score in this spelling group was an 81.22.
Instructional Interventions 26
Figure 2.4 Spelling Level H Progress
There were only three students who scored at the level H at the beginning of the research.
Student 9 increased for three weeks, decreased for another 3 and then started to rise for the rest
of the data collection. Student 10 ended strongly making a 100 on the last spelling assessment,
and student 16 fluctuated with increasing and decreasing weekly. The average spelling score for
this group of students was a 79.
Instructional Interventions 27
Figure 2.5 Spelling Level M Progress
The last spelling level consisted of one student. The lowest grade he made on the
spelling assessment was a 90. He made a 90 on two spelling assessments while making 100’s on
the rest. This gave him an average of a 98 on the spelling assessments.
In addition to the spelling assessments, data was taken on the students’ Reader’s
Response Journals. The purpose of this was to observe if the students were taking their
knowledge of the learned spelling patterns, and applying it to their education on other areas
besides their spelling assessments and spelling centers. A student from each level was chosen in
which their Reader’s Response Journals were tracked each week and conferences were held to
check in with the students and their progress with the spelling in their journals. The same rubric
was used with each student to monitor their progress. Figure 3.0 is the rubric which was used
with each student. In the following figures, the rubrics are filled in with information from each
conference with the students from each spelling group.
Instructional Interventions 28
Figure 3.1- Student A from Spelling Group B
Figure 4.1 Student A’s Spelling Assessment Graph
Figure 3.2- Student B from Spelling Group D
Figure 4.2 Student B’s Spelling Assessment Graph
Figure 3.3- Student C from Spelling Group F
Figure 4.3- Student C’s Spelling Assessment Graph
Figure 3.4- Student D from Spelling Group H
Figure 4.4 Student D’s Spelling Assessment Graph
Figure 3.5- Student E form Spelling Group M
Date ComprehensionDisplays an understanding of story elements (characters, conflict, plot, sequence of events, ect.)
ApplicationExplains how ideas apply to the reader’s world. Makes connections and applies comprehension strategies.
ReflectionExplores thoughts and feelings about the literary work. Evaluates the text.
FocusResponse is clear and has strong flow on specific ideas. Your response has proper conventions as well. This includes punctuation, capitalization, grammar, and spelling.
ElaborationSupports arguments with strong supporting details, examples, and quotations. Length is sufficient.
Comments Score
/20 /20 /20 /20 /20
Figure 4.5 Student E’s Spelling Assessment Graph
Figure 3.0- Reader’s Response Rubric
Instructional Interventions 29
4- Excellent 3-Good 2- Satisfactory 1- Poor 0-Unacceptable
Name:
The rubrics assist in keeping track of the students’ progress in their spelling. The criteria
for the rubric focuses on the quality of the response to the text read, so that any level of speller
can understand the rubric and accomplish the task of writing a reader’s response. Along with the
response comes the focus criterion which talks about the spelling aspect.
Figure 3.1- Student A from Spelling Group B
Reader’s Response Journal Rubric
4- Excellent 3-Good 2- Satisfactory 1- Poor 0-Unacceptable
Student: A
Date ComprehensionDisplays an understanding of story elements (characters, conflict, plot, sequence of events, ect.)
ApplicationExplains how ideas apply to the reader’s world. Makes connections and applies comprehension strategies.
ReflectionExplores thoughts and feelings about the literary work. Evaluates the text.
FocusResponse is clear and has strong flow on specific ideas. . Your response has proper conventions as well. This includes punctuation, capitalization, grammar, and spelling.
ElaborationSupports arguments with strong supporting details, examples, and quotations. Length is sufficient. Comments Score
1/13 1 2 1 2 1 The response is not long enough for the reader to understand how and what you felt about the book. The spelling could be better in regards to the spelling patter we are discussing this week. Some words that were spelt incorrectly: boat, sponge, and different.
7/20
Instructional Interventions 30
1/20 2 2 2 2 2 The response is better than last week; you told me the characters of the book and the problem in the story. Work on your summary so that you give the perfect amount of detail. Words that were spelt incorrectly included: afraid, brave, and swim.
10/20
1/27 2 2 3 2 3 Great reflection and telling the audience what you thought about the book. You made great text to text and text to self-connections. Some of the words that were spelt incorrectly were: favorite, started, part and recommend.
12/20
2/3 2 3 3 3 2 You are doing a great job you’re your summaries and giving the perfect amount of information. You can work on you focus a bit more but overall it was very good. Some words that were spelt incorrectly were: left, driver, everybody and because.
13/20
2/10 3 2 3 2 3 Great comprehension shown in your writing. You have come very far. Some of the words spelt incorrectly were: favorite, simply, and history.
13/20
Figure 4.1- Student A’s Spelling Assessment Graph
Instructional Interventions 31
Student A was able to increase his focus score each week as well as other criteria scores.
If you notice the words in which he misses, they are not in his beginning spelling level pattern
which shows that he is transferring his spelling patterns to his writing. When comparing his
scores on the reader’s response journal to his spelling, you notice that he does increase in both
areas towards the end.
Figure 3.2- Student B from Spelling Group D
Reader’s Response Journal Rubric
4- Excellent 3-Good 2- Satisfactory 1- Poor 0-Unacceptable
Student: B
Date:
ComprehensionDisplays an understanding of story
ApplicationExplains how ideas apply to the reader’s
ReflectionExplores thoughts and
FocusResponse is clear and has strong flow
ElaborationSupports arguments with strong
Instructional Interventions 32
elements (characters, conflict, plot, sequence of events, ect.)
world. Makes connections and applies comprehension strategies.
feelings about the literary work. Evaluates the text.
on specific ideas. . Your response has proper conventions as well. This includes punctuation, capitalization, grammar, and spelling.
supporting details, examples, and quotations. Length is sufficient. Comments Score
1/13 2 1 2 1 1 The response needs more details so that the focus is clearer. Some of the words that were spelt incorrectly were: Example, though, details and opinion.
7/20
1/20 2 2 2 2 2 The focus is better, in regards to the punctuation. There is more of a reflection and connections made. Words that were spelt wrong: explanation, sincere, because.
10/20
1/27 3 2 3 3 3 Great job making connections and having your response flow. You explained the story structure then added you thoughts. Words that were spelt incorrectly were: opinion, though, open.
14/20
2/3 2 3 2 3 3 The comprehension was not as strong as the week before and your reflection was weak. You need to focus on summarizing the story and giving your opinion. Your conventions were better, I can tell that you are taking your time and not rushing through. All words were spelt correctly.
13/20
2/10 3 3 3 3 3 Reflections were better and strong connections were made. The summary of the story gave enough information to make your reader want to find this book. All words were spelt correctly!
15/20
Figure 4.2 - Student B’s Spelling Assessment Graph
Instructional Interventions 33
Student B did very well with her Reader’s Response Journals, to the point where she had
zero spelling mistakes in her last responses. Some of the words she had in her journal were above
the spelling pattern she was on. If you look at her spelling assessment graph, her scores fluctuate
from 90’s to 100’s. This shows that she has a fairly good understanding of the spelling patterns,
and does a tremendous job at transferring the skills into other areas of school based on her
journals with no spelling errors.
Figure 3.3- Student C from Spelling Group F
Reader’s Response Journal Rubric
4- Excellent 3-Good 2- Satisfactory 1- Poor 0-Unacceptable
Student: C
Instructional Interventions 34
Date ComprehensionDisplays an understanding of story elements (characters, conflict, plot, sequence of events, ect.)
ApplicationExplains how ideas apply to the reader’s world. Makes connections and applies comprehension strategies.
ReflectionExplores thoughts and feelings about the literary work. Evaluates the text.
FocusResponse is clear and has strong flow on specific ideas. . Your response has proper conventions as well. This includes punctuation, capitalization, grammar, and spelling.
ElaborationSupports arguments with strong supporting details, examples, and quotations. Length is sufficient.
Comments Score
1/13 3 2 2 2 2 Great Explanation. Next week work on making connections with the text. Words that were spelt incorrectly included: afraid, compared, and reflex.
11 /20
1/20 3 3 3 2 3 Great job with combining the summary with your thoughts. You made some great connections. Your conventions could be improved by using the correct punctuation for your sentences. Some of the words that were spelt incorrectly were: dead, strength and wander.
14/20
1/27 3 2 2 3 3 The connection you made needs to be explained more for your readers. Since you are making a text to self, you may need to summarize the event that you connected the story with. Words that were spelt incorrectly were: yesterday, predict, and teachers.
13/20
2/3 3 3 3 3 3 You improved at explaining your connections and summarizing both the story and your connections. Your punctuation matches your sentences. You only have one word that was spelt incorrectly and that was: cafeteria.
15 /20
2/10 4 3 3 3 3 Best work on explaining the story structure of the story. You chose a complicated text and summarized it perfectly. You did have some spelling errors being: fainted, training, and neighbor.
16 /20
Figure 4.3- Student C’s Spelling Assessment Graph
Instructional Interventions 35
Student C was able to understand and apply the spelling levels the longer we had the
spelling assessments. When comparing the graph to the rubric, you notice that he was getting
perfect scores on his spelling. The words he misspelled in his journals were on the same spelling
pattern for the week of 1/13 but on the other weeks he was spelling the words on his level
correctly and misspelling words he did not learn the pattern for.
Figure 3.4- Student D from Spelling Group H
Reader’s Response Journal Rubric
4- Excellent 3-Good 2- Satisfactory 1- Poor 0-Unacceptable
Student: D
Date ComprehensionDisplays an understanding of
ApplicationExplains how ideas apply to
ReflectionExplores thoughts and
FocusResponse is clear and has
ElaborationSupports arguments
Instructional Interventions 36
story elements (characters, conflict, plot, sequence of events, ect.)
the reader’s world. Makes connections and applies comprehension strategies.
feelings about the literary work. Evaluates the text.
strong flow on specific ideas. . Your response has proper conventions as well. This includes punctuation, capitalization, grammar, and spelling.
with strong supporting details, examples, and quotations. Length is sufficient. Comments Score
1/13 2 1 2 1 1 Support your writing with more details from the text to make the focus clearer with your opinion. Words spelt incorrectly included: gain, contrast, reminded, and summaries.
7/20
1/20 2 2 1 2 2 The punctuation is better but there are still some mistakes, and you are forgetting to capitalize ‘I’ in your writing. You are making good connections; we just need to further your thinking. The only word that was spelt incorrectly was: interesting.
9 /20
1/27 3 2 2 2 2 Best summary yet! You fixed you capitalizations and you made deeper connections. You misspelt the word Experiments.
11/20
2/3 3 3 3 3 3 You are doing a great job with your deep connections and making your summary more exciting making your audiences want to read the book Work on giving important detail rather than just any detail. All of your words were spelt correctly. Great job!
15/20
2/10 3 3 4 3 3 Awesome job making the deep connections and reflecting on the chapter. You brought up some good questions to ask the reader. You had no spelling mistakes.
16/20
Figure 4.4 Student D’s Spelling Assessment Graph
Instructional Interventions 37
Student D shoes that she is transferring her spelling pattern knowledge into her writing
with having no spelling mistakes in the last two journal entries. However, when looking at her
graph of her spelling assessments, you see that she was very inconsistent with mastering the
spelling patterns. She was making progress towards the end of the data collecting period, as have
my other Reader’s Response Journal samplers.
Figure 3.5- Student E form Spelling Group M
Reader’s Response Journal Rubric
4- Excellent 3-Good 2- Satisfactory 1- Poor 0-Unacceptable
Student: E
Instructional Interventions 38
Date ComprehensionDisplays an understanding of story elements (characters, conflict, plot, sequence of events, ect.)
ApplicationExplains how ideas apply to the reader’s world. Makes connections and applies comprehension strategies.
ReflectionExplores thoughts and feelings about the literary work. Evaluates the text.
FocusResponse is clear and has strong flow on specific ideas. . Your response has proper conventions as well. This includes punctuation, capitalization, grammar, and spelling.
ElaborationSupports arguments with strong supporting details, examples, and quotations. Length is sufficient. Comments Score
1/13 2 2 3 2 2 Great start with bringing details to support your opinion with your writing. Words spelt incorrectly included: afraid, revenge, and opposite.
12 /20
1/20 3 3 3 3 3 Very long response with tons of detail. Work on adding the important details and not every little detail. This response took him the whole week and there were no words spelt incorrectly.
15/20
1/27 4 3 3 3 4 Great connections made. Worked on only adding the important detail, the only word spelt incorrectly was pencil.
17/20
2/3 4 3 3 3 3 Started a new book this week and did a great job describing the characters. The words spelt incorrectly were: menacing, aggravated, and patriot.
16/20
2/10 3 4 4 3 4 Great job reflection and making connections, you gave enough detail to support your thoughts and connections. The punctuation was great and you added dialogue into your reflection. The words spelt incorrectly were crayon (in one sentence, but spelt correctly in another) decomposing and allegiance.
18/20
Instructional Interventions 39
Figure 4.5 Student E’s Spelling Assessment Graph
Student E was on the highest spelling level in my classroom. He was able to transfer
some of his spelling patterns in his responses however, there were words in which he was tested
on during his spelling assessments in which he spelt wrong in his journal responses. Crayon was
spelt incorrectly once, but then in other sentences was spelt correctly. There were words that
were spelt incorrectly that were above his spelling level.
Conclusion
This Action Research Project is focused on implementing a spelling intervention in
second grade with a focus on individualized spelling assessment to better suit the levels of each
Instructional Interventions 40
student. From this study, the students were able to begin focusing on spelling patterns they
needed to gain a better understanding of, and increase from there on. For instance if the student
needed more instruction on within word patterns, they would start at the level dictated by the
pretest and go from there. Best practice dictates that, lessons are differentiated on the student’s
level.
Through the individualized spelling assessments and weekly word study assignments, the
students were able to apply their knowledge of the spelling pattern into their writing and
therefore other areas of their education. They were doing this to increase their communication by
spelling words correctly and applying their learned patterns to assist them in spelling unknown
words out. The individualized spelling assessments and assignments were designated to fill in the
gaps of the students learning in terms of sounding out and spelling known/unknown words.
This model of individualized spelling assessments and assignments allowed for multiple
intelligences and learning styles to be integrated to better suit the learning needs of each student.
The students had a multiple intelligences choice board to complete activities with their spelling
words. This choice board also allowed for activities that would touch on all types of learning
styles. Some of the activities included: creating a script using all of your spelling words, Draw an
advertisement in which some of your spelling words are incorporated into the picture, write a
poem, song, or rap using your spelling words, and creating a comic strip with the dialogue
involving the spelling words.
The quantitative and qualitative data taken from this Action Research Project suggests
that individualized spelling assessment help increase the students writing performance. All of the
students increased their spelling level, and based on the selected student’s Reader’s Response
Instructional Interventions 41
Journals, they well all able to spell words correctly on their level and some above their level as
well.
During this intervention, the students were also able to increase their vocabulary with
introducing new words each week. The students had tasks that instructed them to incorporate
their words into a conversation or dialogue of some sort. This transferred into their daily
vocabulary and assisted them in describing words in unique ways as well as being more
descriptive in other areas of their schooling such as science experiment write ups, and math
explanations on assessments and conversations.
The weaknesses of this study are mainly factors of the reality of teaching. Students were
absent some of the days and therefore were not able to complete their rotation of centers to work
with their spelling words. During these times, the grades on the assessments were lower than the
usual for the student. This absence delayed the growth of the student from mastering their
spelling pattern and moving on to the next level.
The daily flexibility of the school day also came into play with the weeks. Some weeks
we had to extend or cut out some centers because of days off and school programs going on
during the time we gave the assessments.
Home support and the amount of time the students are putting into their writing and
spelling can affect their. If the students are putting in extra time and doing their homework, then
they are more familiar with the spelling patterns and hoe the words should look while they write
their papers and stories.
In future, incorporating individualized spelling assessments would benefit the students in
more ways than one. Their vocabulary will increase, their ability to decode words will increase
Instructional Interventions 42
as more spelling patterns are understood and dissected, and their writing will increase because
there will be more words spelt correctly and the world choice will vary as well.
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Instructional Interventions 46
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Appendix A
What is Word Study?
Instructional Interventions 47
Each Friday, students will be bringing home their folder containing a
Language Studies homework sheet. Students will have written their Word
Study Words in the top box.
Word Study is a phonics, spelling and vocabulary program that is
differentiated according to students’ developmental or instructional spelling
levels and is taught in small groups. Spelling lists are based on spelling
features which represent generalizations about sound, pattern and/or
meaning. The goal is to develop both specific knowledge of words and
general knowledge of how words work.
At home, students will practice spelling their words. We want students to
focus both on what sounds are heard in a word and how the words are
spelled. This week, since we are just beginning Word Study, the entire class
will have the same set of words. You may notice that these words do not
seem appropriate for your child’s level. Next week, the words will be
differentiated by Word Study group. Your child may have completely
different words than their friends and/or neighbors.
In the weeks that follow, there may be times when your child has a Word
Study Sort that contains pictures instead of words. In cases like these, your
child will be expected to focus on the spelling feature that week. For
example, if your child’s focuses for the week are ‘sh’, ‘ch’, and ‘th’ words,
Instructional Interventions 48
he/she would be expected to spell that feature correctly, but not the entire
word.
‘shep’ for the word “sheep” would be considered a correct spelling
Students will be administered a Word Study assessment each Thursday. We
appreciate your support in helping to develop your child’s literacy!
The Second Grade Team
Appendix B
Name:
Date:
Instructional Interventions 49
Thinking About Language StudiesSpelling and Vocabulary Development
ELACC2L2: Demonstrate command of the conventions of Standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing.
_______ _______ _______ _______ _______________ _______ _______ _______
_______________ _______ _______ _______ ________
_______ _______ _______ _______ _______________ _______ _______ _______ ________
Homework Schedule
Every sentence has two main parts: a complete subject and a complete predicate. The complete subject includes all words that tell who or what the subject is. Example: Most
birds | can fly. The complete predicate includes all words that state the action.
Monday:
Instructional Interventions 50
Write each sentence below. Draw a line (using a colorful pen, marker, or crayon) between the subject and the predicate. Example: Max wrote a letter.
1. The moon is shining bright.2. The people clapped when the concert ended. 3. My friend lost her money in the park. 4. The crew took care of the people on the ship.5. The boys won the baseball game. 6. Jane and Sara wrote a book. 7. The beach is always crowded.8. The children walk in a straight line in the hallway. 9. My class plays on the blacktop at recess.10. John and Ethan threw the football.
Tuesday: Write 5 sentences using 5 different Word Study words. Underline the subject of each sentence. Circle the predicate.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Wednesday:
Copy the sentences below. Underline the subject of each sentence. Circle the predicate.
1. The gardener watered the flowers.
2. The pilot flew the airplane
Instructional Interventions 51
3. A gray dolphin jumped in the sea.
4. My mother was upset because I broke her favorite vase.
5. The flag blew in the wind.
6. The little baby slept in her crib.
7. The space alien landed the UFO
8. My journal is filled with my stories.
9. The eye doctor checked my vision.
10. The bus driver drove me to school.
Thursday: Be ready to take your Language Studies test today.
Appendix C
Instructional Interventions 52
Name: ___________________________________ Date: __________________________________
Language Studies Quiz – Subject and Predicate1 _____________________________
2. ____________________________
3. _____________________________
4. ____________________________
5. _____________________________
6. ____________________________
7. _____________________________
8. ____________________________
9. _____________________________
10. ___________________________
Directions: Answer questions 11-20. Choose the best answer for each question.
11. What is the subject of the sentence below?
Yesterday my friends and I went to the beach.
A. Yesterday B. my friends and I C. went to the beach
12. What is the subject of the sentence below?
We swam in the clear, blue ocean.
Instructional Interventions 53
A. We B. We swam C. in the clear, blue ocean
13. What is the subject of the sentence below?
My best friend saw a big fish.
A. My best B. My best friend C. saw a big fish
14. What is the subject of the sentence below?
The fish was blue and green.
A. The fish B. was C. blue and green
15. What is the subject of the sentence below?
The colorful fish began to swim with us in the water.
A. The clolorful fish B. began to swim C. with us
16. What is the predicate of the sentence below?
It swam around us in circles.
A. It B. in circles C. swam around us in circles
17. What is the predicate of the sentence below?
The fish swam away from us.
A. The fish B. swam away from us C. The fish swam away
Instructional Interventions 54
18. What is the predicate of the sentence below?
We all rushed to the shore.
A. We all B. to the shore C. rushed to the shore
19. What is the predicate of the sentence below?
We told everyone about the fish.
A. about the fish B. We told everyone C. told everyone about the fish
20. What is the predicate of the sentence below?
Some people did not believe us.
A. Some people B. did not believe us C. people did not believe us
Instructional Interventions 55
Appendix D
Instructional Interventions 56
Appendix E
Instructional Interventions 57
Appendix F