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Academics and Employment 1
Running Head: EFFECTS OF ACHIEVEMENT WITH EMPLOYMENT
The Effects of a Student’s Academics While Being Employed
Mackenzie Kemp
Salt Lake Community College
Academics and Employment 2
Abstract
This study is to determine and describe whether if going to school while working has an
effect on a student’s academic performance. The study design was a Qualitative based study and
was based off the Community College Study of Student Engagement (CCSSE) done in 2010.
The study was done to help the college improve the institution based on the student’s results of
the CCSSE.
Academics and Employment 3
A Student’s Effect on Academics While Being Employed
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to describe if a student’s academics are affected while
working during any individual college semester. The study will determine whether or not a
student’s academics are affected by how many hours a student works. There does not seem to be
any controversy whether or not a student should be a full time student and not work, this day in
age.
The importance of this research study is to determine whether or not working students
during any given semester has an effect on their academic performance. This is an important
topic due to the fact that a student’s academics and GPA can be at risk due to how many hours
they might be working.
The evidence that will be discussed in this research paper is; what effects working part-
time and full-time have on a student’s academic career. It will also examine the financial burden
of being employed might have on a student and the reliance students now have on being able to
support themselves and also pay for school. It will discuss the attributes, work experience and
negative effects being employed has on a student’s academics. Lastly this study will discuss if
there is a relation and effect on being employed while going to school, and if the evidence would
be any different if the study was not self-reported.
This study is beneficial evidence to any student who might attend a community college or
four-year college, or any current students. It could also pertain to faculty of students and what
effects it could be having on a students’ academic performance in that professor’s class.
Examining this evidence can help any student who might work and if it actually affects the
Academics and Employment 4
student’s academic performance to help them determine whether being employed has an effect
on their academics and if they want to obtain that risk.
This study will examine the effects of being employed has on a student’s academic
career. It will try to determine if being employed is the best situation for a student and their
academic career. It will also determine if just being a full-time student without work is beneficial
to a student’s academic career and also if having work experience helps students in the future of
their career post college.
Literature Review
Working is an important factor in academic performance
Working and being employed is an important part of college student life in this day in
age. Majority of students are now working and supporting themselves, which is now considered
the norm. It has been shown that an employed student can have a positive effect on a student’s
academics.
The National Associations of Student Personnel Administrators, (2008) said “Students
working for pay while attending college is the norm in American higher education. The most
recent national data indicate that 68% of all college students work for pay during the academic
year, and one-third of these students work more than 20 hours per week.”(Pike, Kuh, & Massa-
McKinley, 2008)
It has been shown that students who worked twenty hours or less on campus have not
shown a large significance, whereas students who worked more than twenty hours per week
showed that grades had been affected. “Students who worked 20 or fewer hours on campus had
higher grades than students who did not work, worked more than 20 hours per week, or worked
Academics and Employment 5
off campus. It appears that working more than 20 hours per week is directly related to students’
grades, and working 20 hours or less on campus may be indirectly related to grades.” (Pike, Kuh,
& Massa-McKinley, 2008)
Although it was shown that there was not a large significance of students who worked on
campus or off campus and less that twenty hours a week, it has been show that students who
worked more than twenty hours a week had a lower GPA than students who did not work at all
while attending college. “Thus the grades of students who work 20 hours or less on campus and
the grades of the students who work 20 hours or less are not significantly different from the
grades of students who do not work. The significant negative relationship between working more
than 20 hours indicates that students who work more than 20 hours per week have significantly
lower grades than students who do not work.” (Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008)
First year college students have a significant decrease in grades when working twenty or
more hours per week. Studies also show that first year college students who worked twenty hours
or less during one of the first year semesters can have a positive impression on a student’s
academic success. “Whether or not grades are synonymous with success in college, it is the case
that grades are related to persistence of first-year students. As a result, student affairs
professionals and other higher education who are committed to student success need to be
mindful of the factors that influence grades in college. Working for pay full time, or nearly full
time (i.e., more than 20 hours per week), clearly appears to be detrimental to the academic
success of first-year students. Conversely, working 20 hours or fewer can be positively related to
student success because it is related to greater levels of participation in active and collaborative
learning activities and positive interactions between students and faculty members.” (Pike, Kuh,
& Massa-McKinley, 2008)
Academics and Employment 6
“Regarding students’ GPA , it is increased by 0.39 point if students take part-time jobs in
order to acquire work experience, by 0.27 point if the part-time job is related to their fields of
study and by 0.30 point if the part-time job provides opportunities for them to acquire knowledge
and develop skills. Students’ GPA is reduced by 0.01 point for each additional hour worked.”
(Wang, Kong, Shan, & Vong, 2010)
“Considerable controversy exists over the use of community college graduation rates to
measure institutional effectiveness. Graduation rates at community colleges are far lower than
those typically found at four-year institutions. In part, this is an artifact of the multiple missions
of community colleges, some of which do not necessitate graduation to indicate student success.
Additionally, community colleges are often open-admission institutions whose nontraditional
students test to be less prepared relative to those admitted to four- year schools.” (Jacoby, 2006)
“The mean GPA was 3.07, and the mean hours worked was 14.4. 49% of students in the
sample engaged in term-time employment. On average, students who worked carried a 3.12
GPA, while non-workers carried a 3.03 GPA. The average student reported studying 15 hours
per week, with workers reporting 15.2 hours and non-workers reporting 14.9 hours. There are
very few differences in the characteristics of workers versus non-workers. Workers are
somewhat more likely to be liberal arts majors, and somewhat less likely to be education
majors.” (Wenz, & Yu, 2010)
“The labor-market variables had significant impacts on academic performance. Off-
campus employment was associated with a 0.07 point increase in GPA and on-campus
employment was associated with a 0.20 point increase in GPA.” (Wenz, & Yu, 2010)
The importance of a student’s background and financial situation
Academics and Employment 7
Students and their background and financial situation can have different effects on a
student’s academic success. Students feel strain of having to support themselves and pay the
bulk, if not all of their schooling. Depending on the strain of having financial obligations and
having to work more hours during a college semester, can effect a student’s academics.
“Levels of student engagement, in turn, are directly related to students’ background
characteristics and work experiences. Students’ background characteristics are also directly
related to their work experiences, and both background characteristics and work experiences are
indirectly related to college grades through students’ levels of engagement.” (Pike, Kuh, &
Massa-McKinley, 2008)
“The direct relationships between three work measures and grades, net the effects of
background characteristics and engagement measures, provided the evidence needed to answer
the first research question and identify possible moderating roles for hours spent working and
where students worked.” (Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008)
“Students’ background and work experiences combine to account for 1-3% of the
variance in the student-engagement measures. The relationships between students’ background
characteristics and work experience also are relatively weak.” (Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley,
2008)
“The relationships between work experiences and students’ background characteristics
provide additional information about who works and how much they work. Being female is
positively related to working 20 hours or less on campus and working 20 hours or less of
campus. Entering ability is positively related to working 20 hours or less on campus, but
negatively related to the other two work measures. Being a first-generation student is positively
Academics and Employment 8
related to working 20 hours or less on campus. At the same time, first-generation status is
positively related to working 20 hours a week on or off campus. Living on campus is positively
related to working on campus 20 hours or less per week and negatively related to the remaining
work measures.” (Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008)
“At the same time, males and lower ability students are less likely than females and
higher-ability students to work 20 hours or less either on or off campus. Lower ability students
are much more likely than higher-ability counterparts to work more than 20 hours per week.”
(Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008)
“The proportion of college students doing part time jobs has been increasing over time in
Great Britain (Bradley 2006; Broadbridge and Swanson 2006) and it has become the norm for
full time students to combine study and work during the term time (McInnis and Hartley 2002).
Some scholars attributed this dramatic increase in the number of students taking term-time part-
time jobs to the fundamental change in the responsibility for funding college education shifting
from the states to families.” (Wang, Kong, Shan, & Vong, 2010)
“Financial necessity, supporting a lifestyle and accumulating work experience have been
cited as the most important underlying reasons for taking part-time jobs by many students.”
(Wang, Kong, Shan, & Vong, 2010)
Curtis and Callender (2008) said, “In western societies, more than half of the students
work because their families cannot support them financially. As well as what Humprhey (2006)
said, Availability of family financial support is a major predictor of whether or not students will
seek part-time employment in western societies The number of students doing part-time jobs has
been increasing greatly since governments in most western societies shifted the financial burden
Academics and Employment 9
of financial higher education from states to individuals and their families.” (Wang, Kong, Shan,
& Vong, 2010)
Callender (2008) said, “Economically disadvantaged students are most likely to take part-
time jobs (Purcell et al. 2005) and work longer hours in western societies.” (Wang, Kong, Shan,
& Vong, 2010)
“The tendency for students in full-time employment to work long hours during the week
as well as at weekends cannot, according to Hodgeson and Spours (2001), simply be explained to
be a function of employer demand. They suggest that it is easy for students to be ‘sucked into’
working longer hours as they become ever-more dependent on money earned to fund their
lifestyle choices. This desire to increase income, coupled with the fact that students tend to work
in relatively low paid roles, means that students have to work relatively long hours to earn a
reasonable salary. “(Richardson, Mark, Evans, Carl & Gbadamosi, Gbolahan, 2009)
“Not only are more students engaging in term-time work, but also they have become
increasingly reliant on their wages.” (Callender, Claire, 2008)
“Term-time work has become an important strategy to help meet the costs of Higher
Education (HE) and to minimize that accumulation of debt. In turn, this is associated with the
inadequacies of the student finding system at the time of this survey and especially the
limitations of student loans. Three problems with student loans help, in part, to explain the
increasing propensity for students to engage in term-time employment. These are their
inadequate level, their regressive nature and fear of debt. Together they bring into question the
assumptions underpinning government thinking on student term-time employment and the role
of student earnings.” (Callender, Claire, 2008)
Academics and Employment 10
Callender and Kemp, (2008) said, “Students worked to reduce the amount of money they
borrowed from the Student Loans Company and to avoid taking out a student loan altogether. In
turn, this reflects the variable take-up of student loans. Specifically, the students in our study
most likely to claim they were working to avoid debt are the same student groups who nationally
are least likely to take out a student loan. Their reasons for working illustrate the links between
the student financial support system and term-time working, and how in these cases earning were
a substitute for borrowing, often because of fear of debt.” (Callender, 2008)
Attributes that effect a student’s academics
There are many attributes to a student’s grades. Social aspects while be in college can
have an effect on students grades with the combination of being employed give the student less
time to study resulting in a student’s grades to drop.
“Rather than time spent working directly influencing grades, working more hours can
reduce the amount of time available for students to study and be engaged in other educational
activities. Studying less and not being engaged in educational activities can, in turn, lead to lower
grades.” (Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008)
“In addition, many of the studies that reported significant associations between work and
grades also found significant relationships between hours spent working and student
engagement.” (Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008)
“Helping first-year students become engaged in activities that encourage active and
collaborative learning and foster positive interactions between students and faculty members can
be very beneficial to students’ academic success.” (Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008)
Academics and Employment 11
“The impact of part-time jobs on student academic performance has been well established
in western literature, but few works have ever studied the effects of doing part-time jobs on
student social life.” (Wang, Kong, Shan, & Vong, 2010)
“Time spent working may lead to reduced time spent on studying, school activities and
gathering with family members and friends. As a result, doing part-time jobs may exert negative
effects on student academic performance and social life.” (Wang, Kong, Shan, & Vong, 2010)
A student’s work experience
“It is clear that work experience can help students sharpen their key transferable skills,
such as team working, leadership skills and negotiating skills. Indeed, according to Targetjobs
(2008), 89% of recruiters say that they consider relevant work experience as an important factor
in assessing an individual’s curriculum vitae, and 13% of recruiters claim that they will not
interview a candidate who does not have some relevant work experience, presumably reflecting
(to some extent) the perceived value of skills developed during previous employment.”
(Richardson, Evans, & Gbadamosi, 2009)
The negative effects of working while being a student
Some studies have shown that being employed while being a student has had the
possibility of distracting a student from their academics, thus resulting in a lower GPA.
“Students who begin postsecondary schooling at community colleges have a 15-20%
reduced probability of completing a bachelor’s degree.” (Jacoby, 2006)
Academics and Employment 12
“We then examine the impact of work on academic achievement and find that
employment has modest negative effects on student grades, with a grade point average (GPA)
falling by 0.007 points per work hour.” (Wenz, & Yu, 2010)
“Term-time employment offsets some of the opportunity cost associated with attending
college and may provide additional human capital in the form of on-the-job training, but it also
may distract students from their studies, leading to lower levels of learning, longer time to
degree, lover graduation probability, and less attractive GPA to present to potential employers
upon graduation.” (Wenz, & Yu, 2010)
“The concern is that students who see themselves as having a low probability of
graduation or a low motivation to earn good grades will find it more important to engage in term-
time employment, or perhaps that able students who can sufficiently take care of their study will
engage in term-time employment.” (Wenz, & Yu, 2010)
The lack of relation of employed student has on their academics
Reliance on self-reported survey is an inaccurate source. It has also been seen in previous
studies that you cannot base a person’s academic success, not only on a self-reported survey, but
as well as you cannot base it off just a student’s employment. There are many attributes to a
student’s academic success that can make the student’s grades lower.
“Despite the fact that many in higher education believe that working for pay hinders
student success, research has failed to find a consistent relationship between work and grades.”
(Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008)
Academics and Employment 13
“There is not a simple linear relationship between working for pay and academic
performance….grades will actually improve if students work part time and then decline as the
number of hours worked approaches full-time employment.” (Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley,
2008)
“One possible explanation for the findings regarding the relationship between work and
grades is that the relationship is not linear. Hay and Lindsay (1969), for example, found that
there was significant negative relationship between the number of hours worked and grade point
averages for students who worked more than 15 hours per week. A significant relationship was
not found between working for pay and grade point average for those students who worked 15
hours or less per week.” (Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008)
“Reliance on grades as the sole measure of academic achievement is another limitation of
this research. As Dundes and Marx (2006) noted, grades can mean very different things across
institutions. At the very last, differences in grading practices across institutions may have
attenuated the relationships reported in this study.” (Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008)
“The threshold model suggests that the effect of the number of working hours on students
outcome is not linear given that there is a threshold which negative effects will occur and below
which positive effect will ensue.” (Wang, Kong, Shan, & Vong, 2010)
“Findings on the impact of part-time jobs on student academic performance are
inconsistent in previous studies.” (Wang, Kong, Shan, & Vong, 2010)
The negative effects of self-reported survey studies
Academics and Employment 14
Self-reported survey’s result in a measure that is an indirect result of what a student’s
grades might actually be. When grades are self-reported the analysis and the accurateness is
found to be inaccurate research in this case study.
“The fact that self-reported grades represented ordered categories, rather than a true
interval measure, created more serious challenges for the analysis of the direct and indirect effect
of students’ work experiences.” (Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008)
“Using self-reported grades as the dependent variable is a limitation while studies show
high correlations between actual and reported grades, it is not possible to say with certainty that
the reports used in this research are completely accurate representations or a students’ academic
performance.” (Pike, Kuh, & Massa-McKinley, 2008)
Question(s)
The question was asked: How many hours can a student work before the student’s
grades are affected? Statistical types, data analysis and literature review in this research study is
a fact is one that cannot be determined an absolute statistical fact.
The hypothesis of this research study was that, there will be a statistically
significant difference in college student’s academic success who are employed during a given
college semester as opposed to a student’s academic success who are not employed or are not
often working during a college semester. It is obvious as shown in Table 1 that this hypothesis is
incorrect.
The null hypothesis is that a college student’s academic success will not be affected by
how many hours a student works per week.
Academics and Employment 15
Methods
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to examine and study what effects being employed part-time
or full-time has on a student’s academic career. This study was to determine whether or not
working more hours per week would affect a student’s academics.
This research was to determine the effects of a student’s academics while being
employed and while also being a student at a community college or university. The methods used
were in a quantative type designed study and multiple methods were used.
This specific study was based off a survey done at Salt Lake Community College during
the spring semester in the year 2010. The survey instrument is The Community College Survey
of Student Engagement (CCSSE). The survey was given to randomly selected students. The
survey was given to get feedback from current students to determine the level of satisfaction and
to determine each student’s engagement within the college.
Participants
The participants included in the study were randomly selected students who were
enrolled in the spring 2010 semester at Salt Lake Community College. There were one thousand
and four hundred and twenty students randomly selected. Those students were students that were
taking credited classes. The students were selected at all different times of the day; morning,
afternoon and evening.
The surveyors were students with all different characteristic backgrounds. The student
surveyors were of different genders, races, ages and had different enrollment status; having
either full or part-time enrollment. “This report on a three-pronged collection of studies validates
Academics and Employment 16
the relationships between student engagement and a variety of student outcomes in community
colleges -- including academic performance, persistence, and attainment.” (The University of
Texas at Austin)
Data Analysis
The instrument used, CCSSE, is a viable method for this research, “The findings from
this validation research confirm that CCSSE results provide a valuable yardstick for assessing
the quality of colleges’ educational practices and identifying ways they can produce more
successful results — more students across all subgroups learning at higher levels and attaining
their academic goals.” (McClenney, Marti & Adkins)
The data used in this research are a reliable source. Sources in the literature review are
academically based research and have been peer reviewed, academically studied and the studies
have also been researched by other academically acclaimed persons.
The independent variable in this study is an employed student. The independent variable
would be a student who is working many hours during a given college semester. The dependent
variable in this study is how the student’s academics are affected.
Nominal variables can only be measured in terms of whether the individual items belong
to a distinct category. As in research it was found that there is not a significant reliable attribute
to whether or not a student’s academic success might be falling due to the students hours spent at
their place of employment. The nominal variable in this case is whether the student is coming
prepared to class. .
Academics and Employment 17
Nominal and ordinal research was chosen in this study by a survey based off of a study
done at Salt Lake Community College. It was based off a study called CCSSE, talked about
earlier in this in this research. The analysis selected was from randomly surveyed college
students at Salt Lake Community College.
The null hypothesis is that a college student’s academic success will not be affected by
how many hours a student works per week. In this study the hypothesis is that there will be a
statistically significant difference in college student’s academic success who are employed
during a given college semester as opposed to a student’s academic success who are not
employed or are not often working during a college semester.
Summary
The hypothesis in this study is that is that there will be a statistically significant
difference in college student’s academic success who are employed during a given college
semester as opposed to a student’s academic success who are not employed or are not often
working during a college semester. We have found in the data analysis that there can be many
attributes to a student’s academic success and cannot rely on how many hours a student works
during the week.
Whether the student works or not can be one attribute to a student’s academic success but
not necessarily the main attribute. The research and data analysis in this study has shown that
there can be many attributes to a student’s academic success. Some other attributes talked about
in this research are; a student’s economical background, social participation and educational
activities.
Academics and Employment 18
Another factor in the inaccuracy of this study is that the survey was a self-administered
survey done by college student participants. This means we cannot determine if the answers that
were provided by the college students were an accurate answer or a just a guess upon the
students will to be accurate with one’s own self.
Results
When determining through the CCSSE if the hypothesis would be correct or incorrect,
Table 1 showed that a student working thirty or more hours a week still maintained an A- to B+
grade point average at Salt Lake Community College. Although these results cannot give us an
absolute answer we can assume that these results are somewhat accurate.
In Table 2, it shows how prepared a student is due to how many hours they work or lack
of work compared to the hours spent studying during the week. In this table there is no
significance in this table applying to this study. We cannot consider if a student is coming to
Academics and Employment 19
class prepared or unprepared based off of how many hours a student works throughout the week.
There are many attributes to a college student that might manipulate this research.
The significant data found was significance in grades from students who only worked one
to five hours a week compared to students who worked thirty of more hours a week, the alpha.
(t= 1,5; a ≤ .20)
The mean, or the average, of the research done in the survey, CCSSE, specifically a
students GPA was found and the results was an average of 6.30, which is about a B grade
average. The mean for a students pay for work had an average of 3.15, an average of working
eleven to twenty hours a week. The mode when GPA is in comparison to paywork is: GPA mode
is, 7. The mode for paywork is 5. The median of the survey instrument, CCSSE, for GPA is 7.
The median for paywork is 4.
Academics and Employment 20
Conclusion
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to describe if a student’s academics are affected while
working during any individual college semester. The hypothesis of this study is; There will be a
statistically significant difference in college student’s academic success who are employed
during a given college semester as opposed to a student’s academic success who are not
employed or are not often working during a college semester. The study will determine whether
or not a student’s academics are affected by how many hours a student works. There does not
seem to be any controversy whether or not a student should be a full time student and not work,
this day in age. The research question that will be discovered in this research study is: How many
hours can a student work per week before it starts to affect a student’s academics?
The importance of this research study is to determine whether or not working students
during any given semester has an effect on their academic performance. This is an important
topic due to the fact that a student’s academics and GPA can be at risk due to how many hours
they might be working.
Interpretation of Results
When comparing the results to the literature in this study it has been found that each have
similar results. The literature review shows the significant attributes to a student’s academic
success when compared to how much a student works per week. The hypothesis in this research
was not supported and was proven to have a different theory. The theory that was discovered was
that there are many attributes to a student’s academic success and it cannot be pinned on how
many hours a student works.
Academics and Employment 21
Implications
When determining the implications of this research there is not one set result that we can
determine how the results influence a student’s academic success. The literature along with the
results shows how many attributes can be factors in a student’s academic success.
When determining the hypothesis for this research study the importance seemed
significant. But as found in the research, the research determined that there was no significance
in the literature review or data analysis that made this research question or hypothesis of any
importance. The hypothesis was proven to be incorrect after the research of the literature review
and data analysis.
Limitations
Limitations found in this research study are that the survey, CCSSE, done at Salt Lake
Community College was a self-administered and self-reported survey. This is a limitation to this
research study due to the fact that a student can answer untruthfully or inaccurate. When a
student takes a self-reported study it was shown that the grades of the students were higher than a
student’s actual grades were higher when self-reported.
Another limitation found during the research of this study is that there were many
attributes that could affect a student’s grades. The hypothesis stated that there would be an effect
on a student’s academics by the more hours they worked per week. The hypothesis in this study
was proven inaccurate due to the fact that there can be many attributes to a student’s academic
success.
Limitations of this study are that beginning researchers were the ones that determined if
the results and hypothesis were inaccurate or not. It can also be a limitation of this research study
Academics and Employment 22
that there was inadequate time given to research and analyze the hypothesis of this research. The
limitations in this study also play a significant role in determining whether or not the hypothesis
was accurate or inaccurate.
Summary
The hypothesis, there will be a statistically significant difference in college student’s
academic success who are employed during a given college semester as opposed to a student’s
academic success who are not employed or are not often working during a college semester, in
this research study was thought to be of significance but it was determined by the literature
review and data analysis was proven to have little or no significance.
Due to the many attributes that can affect a student’s academic success, determined from
the literature review and data analysis were significant factors in proving the hypothesis
incorrect.
Academics and Employment 23
References
Callender, C., (2008). The impact of term-time employment on higher education students' academic attainment and achievement. Journal of Education Policy, 23(4), 20.
Jacoby, D. , (2006). Effects of part-time faculty employment on community college graduation rates. The Journal of Higher Education, 77(6), 24
McClenney, K., Marti, C., & Adkins, C. (n.d.). Student engagement and student outcomes. Retrieved from http://www.ccsse.org/aboutsurvey/docs/CCSSE Validation Summary.pdf
Pike, G., Kuh, G., & Massa-McKinley, R.,(2008). First-year students' employment, engagement, and academic achievement: Intangling the relationship between work and grades. NASPA, 45(4), 24
Richardson, M., Evans, C., & Gbadamosi, G., (2009). Funding full-time study through part-time work. Journal of Education and Work, 22(4), 17.
The University of Texas at Austin. (n.d.). About the ccsse survey. Retrieved from http://www.ccsse.org/aboutsurvey/aboutsurvey.cfm
Wang, H., Kong, M., Shan, W., & Vong, S., (2010). The effects of doing part-time jobs on college student academic performance and social life in a chinese society. Journal of Education and Work, 23(1), 17.
.Wenz, M., & Yu, W., (2010). Term-time employment and the academic performance of undergraduates. Journal of Education Finance, 35(4), 17.
Academics and Employment 24
Appendix
Table 1: CCSSE results for student’s GPA in correlation with how many hours for paid work.
Table 2: CCSSE results for a student’s academic performance in correlation with the number of hours for paid work.
Academics and Employment 25