Science 10 Provincial Notes

UNIT 1 Sustaining Earth’s Ecosystem

Chapter 1: Biomes and Ecosystems

Section 1.1- Biomes

Section 1.2- Ecosystems

Chapter 2: Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycles

Section 2.1- Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Section 2.2- Nutrient Cycles in Ecosystems

Section 2.3- Effects of Bioaccumulation on Ecosystems.

Chapter 3: Ecosystems Changing

Section 3.1- How changes Occur Naturally

Section 3.2- How Humans Influence Ecosystems

Section 3.3- Introduced Species

UNIT 2 Chemical Reactions and Radioactivity

Chapter 4: Atomic Theory explains the formation of compounds

Section 4.1- Atomic Theory and Bonding

Section 4.2- Names and Formulas

Section 4.3- Chemical Equations

Chapter 5: Compounds are classified in different ways

Section 5.1- Acids and Bases

Section 5.2- Salts

Section 5.3- Organic Compounds

Chapter 6: Chemicals Reactions

Chapter 6.1- Types of Chemical Reactions

Section 6.2- Factors Affecting Chemical Reactions

Chapter 7: The Atomic Theory

Section 7.1- Atomic Theory, Isotopes and Radioactive Decay

Section 7.2- Half-Life

Section 7.3- Nuclear Reactions

UNIT 3 Motion

Chapter 8: Average Velocity

Section 8.1- The Language of Motion

Section 8.2- Average Velocity

Chapter 9: Acceleration

Section 9.1- Describing Acceleration

Section 9.2- Calculating Acceleration

UNIT 4 Energy Transfer in Natural Systems

Chapter 10: The Kinetic Molecular Theory

Section 10.1- Temperature, Thermal Energy and Heat

Section 10.2- Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere

Chapter 11: Climate Change

Section 11.1- Natural Causes of Climate Change

Section 11.2- Human Activity and Climate Change

Chapter 12: Thermal Energy transfer Drives Plate Tectonics

Section 12.1- Evidence for Continental Drift

Section 12.2- Features of Plate Tectonics

Chapter 1: Biomes and Ecosystems

Section 1.1- Biomes

Abiotic and Biotic Biotic- living components:

- Organisms

- Plants, animals, fungi and bacteria

- Interact with each other and with the physical and chemical environment

in which they live in

Abiotic- non- living components:

- Sunlight, soli, moisture and temperature

Biome Includes large regions that have similar biotic components:

- Similar temperature and amount of rainfall

- There are 8 terrestrial (land based) biomes

1. Boreal Forest

2. Desert

3. Grassland

4. Permanent Ice

5. Temperate Deciduous Forest

6. Temperate Rainforest

7. Tropical Rainforest

8. Tundra

Factors That Influence Biomes Temperature and Precipitation:

- Precipitation- rain, snow, mist and fog

- Most important abiotic factors that influence the characteristics of biomes

- Animals and plants can only survive in specific temperatures and the

amount of precipitation

- Graph- y axis: annual precipitation and x axis: find the intersection with

the average annual temperature

Latitude:

- Abiotic factor that affects the temperature and precipitation

- Distance measured in degrees north or south from the equator

- Tropical zone: is close to equator, it receives more direct sunlight and has

warm temps.

- Sun rays less intense farther away from the equator, the temp. In these

zones are lower that they are at the equator.

- At the equator- the direct sunlight heats moist air, which rises, cools in the

upper atmosphere and falls on earth as rain

- Land or oceans on the equator receive greatest amount of precipitation

Elevation:

- The height of a land mass above sea level

- Affects temperature because atmosphere is thinner at a higher elevation

which means it retains less heart

- Windward side of a mountain: clouds filled with moisture rise and cool

then release rain or snow

- Leeward side- (sheltered by the wind) the air warms again, which allows it

to absorb water creating a dry land area

Ocean Currents:

- Also and abiotic factor that affects temp and precipitation

- Makes biome warmer and wetter

Climatographs Climate and Climotographs:

- Climate: average pattern of weather conditions that occur in a region

- Climatograph: a graph of climate data usually obtained over 30 years

from local weather observations

- Month of the years is shown is shown on the horizontal axis

- The average temp is shown on the right vertical axis

- The average propitiations is shown on the left vertical axis

Adaptations and Biomes Adaption’s:

- Characteristics that enable organisms to better survive and reproduce.

There are 3 types:

a) Structural adaptation- physical feature of an organisms having a

specific function that contributes to the survival of the organism

Example: pine trees are cone-shaped and therefore get rid of snow.

Example: Arctic fox has thick, white coat in the winter and a

brownish-grey one in the simmer for camouflage.

b) Physiological Adaptation- physical or chemical event that occurs

within the body of the organism that enables survival.

Example: wolves can contain a constant body temperature no

matter the weather conditions.

c) Behavioral Adaptations- what an organism does to survive in the

unique conditions of its environment. (Feeds, mates, cares for

young, migrate, hibernate or escape from predators.)

Example: the owl lines his nest with grass, which keeps it cool

during the day and warm at night.

The Biomes:

1. Tundra Located in the upper northern hemisphere

Very cold and dry

Permanently frozen soil (permafrost)

Plants are short and there are few trees

Animals have compact bodies and shorter legs

and ears which reduce heat loss

2. Boreal Forest Found in the far north

Below freezing half the year

Mainly coniferous (cone-bearing) trees

3. Temperate Deciduous Forest Located in temperate regions- mostly eastern

North American, eastern Asia and Europe

Trees lose their leaves in winter (tall tress)

Large seasonal changes with four distinct seasons

4. Temperate Rainforest Found along coastlines where oceans winds

drops large amounts of moisture

Coast of Chile, BC, New Zealand, part of Australia

Cool and very wet (fog which provides moisture

and rainfall)

Allows trees (mainly evergreens) to grow very tall

5. Grassland Occurs in temperate and tropical regions

Canada, North America, Russia, Africa, South

America, northern Australia

Covered with grasses that have deep roots, which

are well adapted to droughts

Limited rainfall and land is mainly flat

Large grazing animals

6. Tropical Rainforest Found in wide band around the equator

Northern South America, Central America, central

Africa and southeast Asia

Wet and warm all year around

Allows the growth of a dense canopy of tall tress

Hass the greatest diversity of animals but few

large a mammals

7. Desert Occur in temperate and tropical regions

Days are hot and nights are cold

Rainfall is minimal and plans and animals are

adapter to reduce water loss

Reptiles are common and have thick skin and

scales

8. Permanent Ice Includes the polar land masses and large polar ice

caps

Arctic, Greenland and Antarctica

The few animals that live there are well insulated

against the extreme cold

Section 1.2- Ecosystems

Parts of an Ecosystem Ecosystem

- Has abiotic factors- oxygen, water, nutrients, light and soil

- Biotic factors- plants and animals, microorganisms.

- Within an ecosystem is a habitat which is a place in which an organism

lives

Abiotic Interactions in Ecosystems Interactions:

- Organisms have special roles-or niches in their ecosystem

- The way it contributes to and fits into its environment

- Biotic interactions are structured form smallest to largest in and ecological

hierarchy

a) A species: is a group of closely related organisms that can reproduce

with one another

b) Population- all the members of a species within an ecosystem

c) Community- populations of a different species that interact in a

specific ecosystem

Biotic Interactions in Ecosystems Symbiosis:

- The interaction of two different organisms that live in close association

- Communalism, mutualism, parasitism, competition, predation, and mimicry

Interaction Result Example

Commensalism One Organism benefits and the other

is neither helped nor harmed.

Barnacles attach to whales and are

transported to new locations in the

ocean.

Mutualism Both organisms benefit and

sometimes neither species can

survive without the other.

In lichen, the alga produces sugars

and oxygen for the fungus, which

provides carbon dioxide and water for

the alga.

Parasitism One species benefits and another is

harmed.

Hookworms attach to the gut wall and

obtain nourishments from their host’s

blood.

Competition Organisms require the same

resource (i.e. food) in the same place

at the same time.

Spotted knapweed release chemicals

into the soil, which prevents the growth

of other plants.

Predation One organism (the predator) eats all

or part of another organism (the

prey).

Cougars have sharp, pointed teeth to

catch prey.

Mimicry A prey animal mimics another

species that is dangerous or tastes

bad to avoid being eaten.

Viceroy butterflies look like bitter-

tasting monarch butterflies and are

avoided by predators.

Chapter 2: Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycles

Section 2.1- Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Energy Flow:

- Producers: plants that produce food in the form of carbohydrates during

photosynthesis

- Consumer: a insects that eats the plant

Dead organisms:

- Decomposition: the breakdown of organic wastes and dead organism

- Biodegradation: when living organisms carry out decomposition

a) Detrivores, such as small insects, earthworms, bacteria and fungi,

obtain energy and nutrients by eating dead plants and animals, as well

as animal waste

b) Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, change wastes and dead

organisms into nutrients that can be used by plants and animals

Food Chains and Webs Food Chains

- Show the flow of energy from plant to animal and from animal to animal

- Each step in a food chain is called a trophic level

- Detrivores: consumers that obtain energy at every trophic level and

nutrients by eating small dead stuff

- Herbivores: primary consumers that eat plants

- Carnivores: secondary consumers that eat primary consumer

Trophic Level

Organism Energy Source Example

1st Primary producer Obtain energy from the

sun

Grass, algae

2nd Primary consumer Obtain energy from

primary producers

Grasshoppers, krill

3rd Secondary

consumer

Obtain energy from

primary consumer

Frogs, crabs

4th Tertiary consumer Obtain energy from

secondary consumers

Hawks, sea otters

Food webs:

- Interconnected food chains

- Animals are in several food chains because they eat or get eaten by

several organisms

Food Pyramid:

- Shows the loss of energy from one trophic level to another

- Not all energy in incorporated into the consumers tissues

- Between 80 and 90% of energy is used for chemical reactions and is lost

as heat

- Ecosystems can support fewer organisms at higher trophic levels, as less

energy reaches these levels

Section 2.2- Nutrient Cycles in Ecosystems

The Carbon Cycle Cycled through living and decaying organisms, the atmosphere, bodies of

water and soil and rock

Photosynthesis:

- It is a chemical reaction that converts solar energy into chemical energy

by an important process in which carbon and oxygen cycle through the

ecosystem

- Energy (sunlight) + 6CO2 + 6H2 * C6H1206 + 602

Cellular Respiration:

- Plants and animals breath out carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere

by converting carbohydrates and oxygen into carbon dioxide and water

- C6H1206 (carbohydrates) + 602 * 6CO2 +6HO2 + 6H2O + energy

Decomposition:

- Breaks down dead organic matter

- Examples of decomposers are bacteria and fungi that convert organic

molecules back into carbon dioxide, which then is released into the

atmosphere

Ocean Process and Human Activity:

- Ocean process dissolves carbon dioxide that is stored in oceans

- Human activities are burning foil and clearing land which both release

carbon quickly

The Nitrogen Cycle Component of DNA and proteins, which are essential for the life, processes that

take place inside the cell.

Most nitrogen is stored in the atmosphere (N2 nitrogen gas)

Nitrogen Fixation:

- The process in which nitrogen gas is converted into compounds that

conation nitrate or ammonium which are useful for plants

- Nitrogen fixation occurs in: atmosphere, soil and in water bodies

Nitrification an Uptake:

- In Nitrification ammonium (NH4+) is converted into nitrate (NO3-)

- Takes place in two stages

- First stage: certain species of nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium into

nitrate.

- Second stage: different species of nitrifying bacteria convert nitrite into

nitrate

- The uptake is where useable forms of nitrogen are taken up by plant roots

and included into plant proteins

Denitrification:

- Where nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere

- In terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems Denitrification involves certain

bacteria know as denitrifying bacteria

- Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate back into nitrogen gas

Human activities:

- Fossil fuels and burning organic matter release nitrogen into the

atmosphere, where it forms acid rain.

- Chemical fertilizers also contain nitrogen, which escapes into the

atmosphere or leaches into lake and streams.

The Phosphorus Cycle Necessary for life processes on plants and animals.

Carries energy to cells

Found in phosphate (PO4³-) rock and sediments on the ocean floor.

Weathering:

- Releases phosphorus into soil.

- The process of breaking down rock into smaller fragments.

- Chemical weathering reacts, which causes phosphate rocks to break,

down and releases phosphate soil.

- Acid participation and the chemicals released by lichens can also cause

chemical weathering.

- Physical Weathering is when wind, rain, and freezing release particles of

rock and phosphate into the soil.

Decomposers:

- Organisms take up phosphorus and when they die, decomposers return

phosphorus to the soil.

- The excess phosphors settle on the floor of lakes and oceans, forming

sedimentary rock.

Geologic Uplift:

- Phosphorus remains trapped for a long time until the rock layers are

exposed through geologic uplift.

- Geologic uplift refers to the process of mountain building in which earths

crust folds, and deeply buried rock rise and uncover.

Human Activity:

- Commercial fertilizers and phosphate-containing detergents enter

waterways and contribute phosphate to the phosphorus cycle.

- Slash and burn forest reduces phosphate levels

Section 2.3- Effects of Bioaccumulation on Ecosystems

Bioaccumulation Human Activity:

- Creates many harmful pollutants

- Bioaccumulation refers to the gradual build-up of pollutants in living

organisms

- Biomagnifications refers to the process in which pollutants not only

accumulate but become more concentrated at each trophic level

- Keystone species are species that greatly affect ecosystems health, or

the reproductive abilities of species are harmed

PCB Concentrates:

- In orcas food web

- When orcas consume food contaminated with PCBS they store some

PCBs in their blubber

- When salmon (the food they eat) orcas use their bladder for energy

- These release PCDB into the system

- PCB can also affect a whole ecosystem

Half Life:

- The time it takes for the amount of a substance to decrease by half

Persistent Organic Pollutants POP’S:

- Carbon-containing compounds that remain in water and soil for many

years

- Chemical accumulation is measured in parts per million

Heavy Metals:

- Metallic elements with a high dentist that are toxic to organisms at low

concentrations

- Lead, cadmium and mercury

Chapter 3: Ecosystems Changing

Section 3.1- How changes Occur Naturally

How Organisms Adapt to Change Natural selection-

- Best adapted members of a species to survive to reproduce

- Pass this to their offspring

How Ecosystems Change Over Time Ecological succession:

- Changes that take place over time in the types of organisms that live in

an area

- Two types:

1. Primary Succession

- No soil exist before

- On bare rock

- Wind and rain carry spores of lichens to these areas

- Lichens obtain nutrients by secreting chemicals that break down rock

- The first organisms to survive and reproduce are called pioneer species

- After a very long time, it leads to climax (mature) community

2. Secondary Succession

- Small disturbances such as a fire, happen in an ecosystem

- Already had soil and was once the home of living organisms

- The process much faster then primary since micro-organisms, insects,

seeds and nutrients still exist in soil

Section 3.2- How Humans Influence Ecosystems

Sustainability Sustainability:

- The ability of an ecosystem to sustain ecological processed

- Land use refers to the ways we use the land around us

- Resource use is the ways we obtain our resources like wood, soil, water

and minerals

Traditional Ecological Knowledge:

- First nations’ through understanding of the plants, animals and natural

occurrences in their environment

- Reflects knowledge about local climate and resources, biotic and abiotic

characteristic, and animal and plant life cycles

Resource Exploitation Affect Ecosystem

Effect Example of Human Activity How ecosystems are affectedHabitat loss Humans take over natural space in

the creation of cities

Habitats are destroyed and no

longer can support the species

Habitat fragmentation Agriculture etc. divide natural

ecosystems into smaller, isolated

fragments

Plant pollination

Deforestation Forests are logged or cleared for

human use and never replanted

The # of plants and animals

living in an ecosystem are

reduced

Soil degradation Leave land bare so water and wind

erosion remove top soil

Reducing plant growth

Soil compaction Farm vehicles are grazing animals

squeeze soil particles together

Reduces the movement of air,

water and soil organisms in soil

Contamination By-products of resource

exploitation such as mining,

introduce toxins

Kills plants and animals

Overexploitation A resource is used or extracted

until it is depleted

Food webs are affected

Section 3.3- Introduced Species

Introduced Species Native Species:

- Plants and animals that naturally inhabit an area

Introduced species (foreign):

- Plants and animals that have been introduced into an ecosystem by

humans

- Beneficial or harmless

Invasive Species:

- Take over a habitat of native species

- Also invade their bodies, weakening their immune system

Example: Scotch broom was introduced to BC as a garden plane. It has up to

18 000 seeds per plant, can survive drought, and fixes nitrogen in the soil,

causing conditions they many native species have trouble growing in.

Together with other introduced species, is competition with the keystone

species Carry Oak on Vancouver Island.

Effect Harm to Native Species

Competition Aggressive

They easily outcompete native species for food and habitat

Predation Introduced predators can have more impact on a prey

population than native predators

Prey may not have adaptations to escape or fight them

Disease and parasites An invasion of parasites or disease-causing viruses and

bacteria

Can weaken the immune response of native plants and

animals

Habitat alternation Introduced invasive species can make a natural habitat

unsuitable for native species

Changing its structure or composition

Chapter 4: Atomic Theory explains the formation of compounds

Section 4.1- Atomic Theory and Bonding

Atoms A compound:

- A pure substance that is composed of two or more atoms combined in a

specific way

Atom:

- The smallest particle of an element that retain the properties of an

element

Atomic theory:

- Subatomic particle are the particles that make up an atom

Name Symbol Electric Charge Location in Atom Relative Mass

Proton p 1+ Nucleus 1836

Neutron n 0 Nucleus 1837

Electron e 1- Surrounding the

nucleus

1

The Nucleus:

- The center of each atom

- The electric charge is always positive

- Nuclear charge (atomic number) is the electric charge on the nucleus and

is found containing the amount of electrons

The Periodic Table:

- Each element is listed according to their atomic number

- Each row is called a period

- Each column (top and bottom) is called a group or family

- Metals on the left and in the middle of the table

- Elements in the same family have similar properties:

a) Alkali metals (1)- very reactive metals

b) The alkali earth metals (2)- somewhat reactive metals

c) The halogens (17)- very reactive non-metals

d) The noble gases (18)- very un-reactive heasous non-metals

The Periodic Table and Ion Formation Ions:

- When atoms gain or lose electrons the become electrically charged

particles called ions

- Metals lose electrons to form positive electrons

- Non-metals gain electrons to for negative electrons

Multivalent:

- Can from ions in more than one way

Bohr Diagrams:

- A diagram that shows how many electrons are in each shell surrounding

the nucleus

- Electrons organized in shells

First shell- 2 electrons

Second shell- 8 electrons

- When this shell is full it is called a stable octet

- Valence shell is the outermost shell of electrons and those electrons are

called valence electrons

Forming Compounds Ionic bonding:

- Contains a positive ion (metal) and a negative ion

- One or more electrons are transfers from each atom of the metal to each

atom of the non-metal

- The metal atoms lose electrons forming cations

- The non-metal atoms gain electrons forming anions

Covalent bonding:

- The atoms of a non-metal share electrons with other non-metals atoms

- An unpaired electron from each atom will pair together forming a covalent

bond sometimes called bonding pairs

Lewis Diagrams- Illustrates chemical bonding by showing only an atom’s valence electrons

and it’s chemical symbol

- Dots represent electrons are placed around the elements symbols

- Electron dots are placed singly until the fifth electron is reached, then

they are paired

- Positive ions- one electron dot is removed from the valence shell for each

positive charge of the ion

- For negative ion- one electron dot is added to each valence shell for each

negative charge of an ion

Section 4.2- Names and Formulas

Naming and Writing Ionic Compounds Naming:

- The first part of the name is the positive ion (a metal

- The second part is the negative ion (non-meals) which always ends with

“-ide”

Example: lead sulphide

Writing formulas:

1. Indentify the chemical symbol for each ion and its charge

2. Determine the total charges needed to balance the positive and negative

charges of each ion

3. Note the ratio of positive to negative ions

4. Use these subtracts to write the chemical formula

Naming and Writing Ionic Compounds Writing Formulas:

1. Indentify each ion and its charge

2. Determine the total charges needed to balance positive with negative

3. Note the ratio of positive ions to negative ions

4. Use subscripts to write the formula

Multivalent Metals Can form two or more positive ions with different ionic charges

Has roman numerals

Metal Ion

Charge

Roman

Numeral

1+ I

2+ II

3+ III

2+ IV

5+ V

6+ VI

7+ VII

Polyatomic Ions- Composed of more than one type of atom joined by a covalent bonds

- Have special names assigned to them

- (Need to look at a table)

Binary Covalent Compound Binary covalent compounds:

- Contains two nonmetals elements joined together by one or more

covalent bonds

- Prefixes indicate the number of atoms of each element that appear in the

formula

Writing names”

1. Name the left most element in the formula first

2. Name the second element making sure the element name end with the

suffix ide

3. Add the prefix to each elements name to indicate the number of atoms of

each element in the compound

**If the first element has only one atom, do not add a prefix

Prefix Number

Mono- 1

Di- 2

Tri- 3

Tetra- 4

Penta- 5

Hexa- 6

Hepta- 7

Octa- 8

Nona- 9

Deca- 10

Example:

- P4010 tertaphosphrous decaoxidene ne can

Section 4.3- Chemical Equations

Chemical change Reactants and Products:

- Involves the conversion of pure substance called reactants into other pure

substances called products with different properties from the reactants

- One or more chemical changes that occur at the same time are called

chemical reaction

How it is represented:

- By suing a chemical equation

- May be written in word or chemical symbols

- The symbols for states of matter are solid (s), gas (g) and liquids (l)Conservation of Mass Law:

- Atoms are neither destroyed nor produced in a chemical reaction

- The total mass of the products is always equal to the total mass of the

reactants

Writing and Balancing Equations Steps:

1. Write a word equation: provides the names of the reactants and products

Example: methane +oxygen water + carbon dioxide

2. Write a Skelton equation (replaces the names of the reactant s and

products in a word equation with formulas) THIS IS NOT BALANCED!

Example: CH4 + 02 H20 + CO2

3. Write a balanced equation: shows the identities of each pure substance

involved in the reaction. Uses lowest number coefficients. What you start

with you must end with!!!

Example: CH4 +2O2 2H20 + CO2

Chapter 5: Compounds are classified in different ways

Section 5.1: Acids and Base

Acids and Bases pH Scale:

- A number scale for measuring how acidic or basic a solution is.

- Less than 7 acidic

- More than 7 basic

- pH of 7 neutral (neither acidic or basic)

pH values of common substances

Acids:

- Chemical compounds that produce a solution with a pH of less than 7

when they dissolve in water.

- Taste sour, will burn you skin, they corrode metals, conduct electricity.

Bases:

- Compounds that produce a solution of pH of more than 7 when dissolve

in water.

- Taste bitter, feel slippery, many will burn your skin, no reaction to meals,

conduct electricity.

pH Indicators pH Indicators Used For:

- Chemicals that change color depending on the pH of the solution they are

placed in.

- Blue litmus paper turns red in an acidic solution.

- Red litmus paper turns to blue in a basic solution.

- Phenolphthalein, bromothymol blue, indigo carmine, methyl orange and

methyl red are other common ph indicators.

Naming Acids and Bases Acids:

- Chemical formulas are usually written with an H on the left side of the

formula.

- If no state of matter is given, the name may be given beginning with

hydrogen, as in hydrogen chloride.

- If acids is shown as being aqueous as in HCI(aq), a different name may

be used that ends in “-ic acid” as in hydrochloric acid.

Names of Acids:

- Names that begin with hydrogen and end with the suffix “-ate” can be

changed by dropping “hydrogen” from the name and changing the suffix

to –ic Example: H2CO3- hydrogen carbonate

Bases:

- They are usually written with an OH on the right side of the formula.

- Common names of bases include sodium hydroxide and magnesium

hydroxide.

Section 5.2: Salts

Acid Base Neutralization Neutralization (acid base):

- acid and a base react to form a salt and water

Example: HCI + NaOH NaCI + H2O

Metals Oxides and Non-Metal Oxides: Metal Oxides:

- Contains a metal chemically combined with oxygen.

- The solution becomes basic

Example: Na2O(s) + H2O 2NaOH(aq) (a base Sodium hydroxide

Non-Metals Oxides

- Contains a non-metal chemically combined with oxygen.

- The solution become acidic

Example: CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) Carbonic acid

Acids, Metals and Carbonates Acids and Metals:

- When metals react with acids to produce salt, they usually release

hydrogen gas

- The most reactive metal are the alkali metals and the alkaline earth

metals.

- The bottom of the columns reacts most vigorously.

Carbonates:

- React with acids to produce salts.

- Much of the carbon dioxide on the surface of the earth is trapped in rocks,

such as limestone, dolomite, and calcite.

- Carbonates help to neutralize acids.

Section 5.3: Organic Compounds

Organic Compounds Organic and Inorganic Compounds:

- Organic compounds are any compounds that contain carbon (with a few

expectations)

- Carbon in organic compounds forms four bonds.

- To recognize a compound as organic: Look for an indication of the

presence of the presence of carbon in its name, chemical formula or

diagram.

- Inorganic compounds include compounds that generally don’t contain

carbon and also a few exceptions to the organic classification (i.e. carbon

dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ionic carbonates).

Hydrocarbons A hydrocarbon:

- An organic compound that contains only the elements carbon and

hydrogen (simples is methane)

Alcohols Alcohol:

- One of a kind organic compound that contains C. H, and O.

- Many types such as methanol, ethanol and isopropyl alcohol.

- A solvent is a liquid that can dissolve other substances.

Chapter 6: Chemicals Reactions

Section 6.1- Types of Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reactions Six main types:

- Synthesis

- Decomposition

- Single replacement

- Double replacement

- Neutralization (acid, base)

- Combustion

Synthesis Synthesis (combination) reactions:

- Two or more reactants (A and B) combine to produce a singe product

(AB). A + B AB

Decomposition Decomposition reaction:

- A compound is broken down into smaller compounds or separate

elements.

- The reverse of a synthesis reaction.

Example: compound element + element

AB A + B

Single Replacement Single Replacement reaction:

- A reactive element (a metal or non-metal) and a compound react to

produce another element and another compound react to produce

another element and another compound.

- One of the elements in the compound is replace by anther element.

- The element that is replaced could be a metal or a non-metal.

Example: element + compound element + compound

A + BC B + AC where A is a metal OR

A + BC C + BA where A is a non-metal

Double Replacement Double Replacement Reaction:

- Usually involves two ionic solutions that react to produce two their ionic

compounds.

- One of the compounds forms a precipitate, which is an insoluble solid that

forms a solution.

Example: ionic solution + ionic solution ionic solution + ionic solution

AB(aq) + CD(aq) AD(aq) + CB(s)

Neutralization (acid-base) Neutralization (acid-base) reaction:

- When an acid and a base are combined, they will neutralize each other.

- An acid and a base react to form a salt and water.

Example: acid + base salt + water

HX + MOH MX + H20 (X= negative ion, M= positive ion)

Combustion Combustion reaction:

- The rapid reaction of a compound or element with an oxygen to form an

oxide and produce heat.

Example: hydrocarbon + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

Section 6.2- Factors Affecting Chemical Reactions

Rate of Reaction Rate of reaction:

- How quickly or slowly reactants turn into products.

- A reaction that takes a long time has a low reaction rate.

- A reaction that occurs quickly has a high reaction rate.

- A rate describes how quickly or slowly a change occurs.

Factors affected rate of reaction:

- Temperature

- Concentration

- Surface Area

- Catalyst

Temperature Increasing + Higher Temperature:

- Causes the particles (atoms or molecules) of the reactants to move more

quickly so that they collide with each other more frequently and with more

energy.

- The higher the temperature the greater the rate of reaction.

Decreasing + Lower Temperature:

- If you decrease temperature the particles move more slowly, colliding less

frequently and with less energy.

- The rate of reaction decreases.

Concentration: Greater Concentration:

- if a greater concentration of reactant atoms and molecules is present,

there is a greater chance that collisions will occur among them.

- More collisions mean a higher reaction rate.

- Increasing concentration of the reactants usually results in a higher

reaction rate.

- When you blow on a campfire, you are increasing the concentration of

oxygen near the flames,

Lower Concentration:

- There is less chance for collision between particles.

- Decreasing the concentration of the reactants results in a lower reaction

rate.

Surface Area For the same mass:

- Many small particles have a greater total SA than one large particle.

- The more surface contact between reactants, the higher the rate of

reaction.

- The less surface contact, the lower the reaction rate.

Catalyst A catalyst:

- Substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without being

used in the reaction itself.

- Reduce the amount of energy required to break and form bonds during

chemical reaction.

- A reaction can proceed although less energy is added during the reaction.

Enzymes

- Catalysts that allow chemical reactions to occur ate relatively low

temperatures within the body.

- Large organic molecules, usually proteins, which speed up reaction in

living cells.

- Each enzyme in your body is specialized to perform its own function.

Chapter 7: The Atomic Theory

Section 7.1- Atomic Theory, Isotopes and Radioactive Decay

Radioactivity Radioactivity:

- The release of high-energy particles and rays of energy from a substance

as a result of changes in the nuclei of its atoms.

- Radiation refers to high-energy rays and particles emitted by radioactive

sources.

- Includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light and

ultraviolent rays

- Light is one form of radiation that is visible to humans.

Isotopes: Isotopes:

- Different atoms of a particular element that have the same number of

protons but different numbers of neutrons.

- All isotopes of an element have the same atomic number (protons),

however, since the number of neutrons differs, the mass number and

atomic mass differ from one isotope to the next.

Mass number:

- An integer (whole #) that represents the sum of an atom’s protons and

neutrons.

Mass number = atomic number + number of neutrons

Number of protons = mass number – atomic number

Representing Isotopes:

- Includes the chemical symbol, atomic number and the mass number.

- The mass number is written as a subscript (above) on the left of the

symbol.

- The atomic number is written as a subscript (below) on the left.

Radioactive Decay Radioactive Decay:

- The process in which unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation.

- By emitting radiation, atoms of one kind of element can change into

atoms of another element.

- Radioisotopes are natural or human-made isotopes that decay into other

isotopes, releasing radiation.

- Three types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma.

Property Alpha Radiation Beta Radiation Gamma Radiation Symbol 4

2He or 42a 0

-1b or 0-1e 0

0y

Composition Alpha particles Beta particles High-energy

Radiation

Description Helium nuclei Electrons High energy rays

Charge 2+ 1- 0

Relative Penetrating Blocked by paper Blocked by metal foil Partly/completely

blocked

Power Or concrete By lead

Alpha Radiation:

Alpha particles:

- Positively charged atomic particles that are much more massive that

either beat and gamma radiation.

- Same combination of particles as the nucleus of a helium atom.

- Alpha particle has a mass number of 4 and an atomic number of 2, two

protons and two neutrons.

- Has an electric charge of 2+.

- Relatively slow moving compared with other types of radiation.

- Not very penetrating- a single sheet of paper stops alp ha particles.

Alpha decay:

- The emission of an alpha particle from a nucleus.

Beta Radiation: Beta particle:

- An electron that has a mass number of 0.

- Has an electric charge of 1-.

- Beat particles are lightweight and fast moving that have a greater

penetrating power than alpha particles.

- A thin sheet of aluminum foil can block beta particles.

Beat Decay:

- A neutron changes into a proton and an electron.

- Proton remains in the nucleus while the electron shoots out from the

nucleus with a lot of energy.

- The atomic number increases by one- it has become an atom of the next

higher element.

- The mass number does not change.

Gamma Radiation Gamma Radiation:

- Consists of rays of high-energy, short-wavelength radiation.

- Have almost no mass and no charge. The release of gamma radiation

does not change the atomic number or the mass number of a nucleus.

- Highest energy form of electromagnetic radiation.

Gamma Decay:

- Results from a redistribution of energy within the nucleus.

- A gamma ray is given off as the isotope changes from high-energy to a

lower energy state.

Section 7.2- Half-Life

Carbon Dating Radiocarbon dating:

- The process of determining the age of an abject by measuring the

amount of carbon-14 remaining in that object.

- Carbon isotopes include carbon-23 and carbon-14.

- When an organism is alive the ratio of carbom-14 atoms to carbon-12

atoms in the organism remains nearly constant.

The Rate of Radioactive Decay:

- Half life- is a constant for any radioactive isotope and is equal to the time

required for a half the nuclei in a sample to decay.

Using a Decay Curve:

- A decay curve is a curved line on a graph that shows the rate at which

radioisotopes decay.

Common Isotope Pairs Parent and Daughter Isotope

- The isotope that undergoes radioactive decay is called the parent isotope.

- The stable products of radioactive decay are called the daughter isotope.

- The production of a daughter isotope can be a direct reaction or the result of

a series of decays.

Parent Daughter Half Life of Parent

Effective Dating Range

Carbon-14 Nitrogen-14 5730 Up to 50 000

Uranium-235 Lead-207 710 million > 10 million

Potassium-40 Argon-40 1.3 billion 10 000 to 3 billion

Uranium-238 Lead-206 4.5 billion > 10 million

Theorium-235 Lead-208 14 billion > 10 million

Rubidium-87 Strontium-87 47 billion > 10 million

The Potassium-40 Clock How it Works:

- It uses radioisotopes, specifically potassium-40 and argon-40, to

determine Earths age.

- When rock is produced from lava, all the gases (including potassium-40)

in the molten rock are driven out, this process sets the potassium

radioisotope clock to zero.

Section 7.3- Nuclear Reactions

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fission:

- The splitting of a big nucleus into two smaller nuclei, subatomic

particles and energy.

- Heavy nuclei are unstable due to repulsive forces between the many

protons.

- To increase stability, atoms with heavy nuclei may split into atoms with

lighter nuclei.

- Fission is accompanied by a very large release of energy.

- 4He2 +14N7 17O8 + 1H1

Nuclear Fission of Uranium-235:

- When a nucleus of uranium-235 is stuck by or bombarded with a

neutron, the nucleus absorbs the neutron.

- Result, the mass number of the nucleus increases by one.

- Because the number of protons had not changed, this is still an atom

of uranium (just different isotope.)

- When a uranium nucleus undergoes fission, they release neutrons,

which trigger more fission reactions.

Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Fusion:

- The processes in which two low mass nuclei join together to make a

more massive nucleus.

- It occurs at the core of the Sun and other stars, where there is a lot of

pressure and high enough temperature to force isotopes of hydrogen

to collide with great force.

- 2H1 + 3H1 4H2 + 1n0 + energy

- We don not currently have the technology to extract energy from fusion

reactions.

Comparing Nuclear Fission and Fusion:

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

Beginning Heavy unstable nuclei split apart in

two smaller nuclei.

Two lightweight nuclei join together

to form a heavier nucleus.

Releases Unstable nuclei release a huge

amount of energy when they split.

Lightweight nuclei release a huge

amount of energy when they join.

Energy Heavy nuclei- don’t release energy Lightweight nuclei- will not release

energy

Products Produce daughter products that

are radioactive.

No not produce products that are

radioactive.

Technologies Many countries generate some

electrical power through fission

reactions.

No commercial fusion reactors are

in use or under construction.

Research Try to produce environmentally

friendly nuclear power generation

Try to produce a fusion nuclear

reactor.

Used Used in modern nuclear weapons Used in modern nuclear weapons

to generate most of the energy

released in the blast.

Nuclear Equation: A nuclear Equation:

- A set of symbols that indicates changes in the nuclei of atoms during a

nuclear reaction.

Rules:

1. The sum of the mass numbers on each side of the equation stays the

same.

2. The sum of the charges (represented by atomic number) on each side of

the equation stays the same.