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Strong Response Paper

Everyone that has or is going to have children wants the best for them. They don’t want them to

suffer from disabilities or illnesses. What if you could make sure they wouldn’t have those issues? With

genetic manipulation in humans becoming a reality it may be possible. But this raises a lot of

controversial questions and opinions. Let’s start with what is it? Scientists can look at genetic traits in

sperm and egg cells that are going to be passed on to offspring. What this means is essentially parents

can pick some of the genetic traits their child will get. A few factors on the supporting side are, it can

help end many genetic diseases that plague humankind, could bring forth medical advances, we’ve

already have had success by using it in plants, humans have been modifying themselves for centuries,

and that religion has no place in the medical field. As you can see these arguments bring up a lot

opposition and that’s only touching on a few of the main ones.

One of the bigger arguments is that genetic manipulation can lead to a greater understanding of

the human body. By knowing more about the human body doctors will have better treatments and

medicines that will improve the human race as a whole. Humans have been striving to learn more about

how the human body works for as long as we’ve existed. Not all methods have worked or been ethical,

is this one any different? One can argue that the manipulation of the human body has already been

going on for centuries with prosthetic limbs, surgeries, transplants, and medicines and that this is a

more advanced method.

Everything mentioned so far makes it seem like genetic manipulation is a great thing, but truth is

we’re not ready for it. One of the main problem is we don’t understand nearly enough about genetics to

be changing them around how we please. We can’t predict if some procedures will even work let alone

the consequences on future generations. A number of other issues come up with ethics, human rights,

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affordability, religious beliefs, and getting people to agree. Some procedures have been well researched

and are known to work. Such as a mitochondrial transfer being done in the United Kingdom. Jamie Metzl

mentions in his article, “After more than three years of careful study… the United Kingdom [is] on the

path to becoming the first country in the world to authorize this type of human genetic engineering.”

This procedure was well researched and understood making it successful. All of genetic manipulation

needs to be at this point before being used on humans.

Humans have been performing genetic manipulation experiments on plants and animals for

centuries but in recent years the focus has shifted towards manipulating human genes.

In 1941 a Danish microbiologist named A. Jost, during a lecture at a technical institute in Poland,

is the first to use the term “genetic engineering”. Three years later, in 1944, Oswald Avery finds that

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) carries a cell's genetic information. In 1946, scientists discover that genetic

material from different viruses can be combined to form a new type of virus. In 1950 livestock are

artificially inseminated using frozen semen. In 1953, the era of modern genetics begins when Francis C.

Crick and James D. Watson discover the structure of DNA.

In 1954 scientist John Enders receives the Nobel Prize in Medicine for cultivating polio virus in

human embryonic kidney cells. Seven years later, biochemist Marshall Nirenberg, cracks the genetic

code by discovering that a sequence of three nucleotide bases of DNA determine the amino acids that

make up protein. In 1966 Marshall Nirenberg, Heinrich Mathaei and Severo Ochoa decipher the genetic

code. In 1972 Paul Berg creates the first recombinant molecules by combining the DNA of two different

organisms. 1973, using gene splicing techniques developed by Paul Berg, Stanley Cohen and Herbert

Boyer create the first recombinant DNA organism.

In 1977 the first genetic engineering company (Genentech) is founded, using recombinant DNA

methods to make medically important drugs. Genentech, Inc., reports the production of the first human

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protein manufactured in a bacteria, somatostatin, a human growth hormone-releasing inhibitory factor.

In 1978 Genentech produces synthetic human insulin. On July 25, Louise Brown, the first "test tube

baby," is born using in-vitro fertilization technology. 1980 the Cetus Corporation invents the polymerase

chain reaction (PCR) to multiply or copy DNA sequences in vitro. By 1982 Genentech, Inc., receives

approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to market genetically engineered human insulin.

In 1984 The DNA "fingerprinting" technique, which identifies individuals by their DNA, is

developed. That same year, the first genetically engineered vaccine for hepatitis is developed. In 1985

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) approves guidelines for performing experiments in gene therapy

on humans. In 1989 The National Center for Human Genome Research is created. The center will

oversee the U.S. effort to map and sequence all human DNA by 2005. In 1990 the first clinical trial of

human gene therapy begins. Mary-Claire King, an epidemiologist at UC-Berkeley studying genomic

sequencing, reports the discovery of the gene linked to breast cancer in families with a high degree of

incidence before age 45. She determines that 5-10% of women with breast cancer develop the disease

because of a mutation to the BRCA1 gene. She has expanded her research by identifying BRCA2, and

extending her technique to other diseases and conditions. In October of 1990 The National Institutes of

Health begins the Human Genome Project. Scientists hope to use the information to treat and cure

genetic diseases. That same year, American and British scientists unveil a technique for testing embryos

in vitro for genetic abnormalities such as cystic fibrosis and hemophilia.

In 1993 President Bill Clinton signs the NIH Revitalization Act of 1993 which allows fetal tissue

transplant research. At the same time, he creates the NIH Human Embryo Research Panel to study the

ethics of fetal and embryonic research. In 1995 Researchers at Duke University Medical Center

transplant hearts from genetically altered pigs into baboons, proving that cross-species operations are

possible. Later, the first baboon-to-human bone marrow transplant is performed on an AIDS patient. In

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1995, a campaign is launched by a group of mainstream religions who are trying to overturn laws that

allow the patenting of genes used for medical research. Gene therapy, genetically engineered antibodies

and immune system modulation enter the clinic in the war against cancer.

In 1996 a gene associated with Parkinson’s disease is discovered and provides an important new

avenue of research into the cause and potential treatment of the neurological ailment. Surveys indicate

the public regards research into the workings of the human genome and gene therapy with a

combination of fear and mistrust. In August of 2000, the NIH announces new guidelines for federal

funding of stem cell research. The guidelines prohibit federal researchers from destroying embryos to

obtain stem cells, but allow researchers to conduct research on cells taken from embryos previously

destroyed by privately-funded sources. In September, a Colorado couple creates a genetically screened

test-tube baby with the hope that the baby could save the life of his sister Molly who suffers from a rare

genetic disease, Fanconi anemia that prevents her body from creating bone marrow. The baby is born

on August 29, and the transplant takes place on September 26 using umbilical cord blood cells.

In 2001 Scientists discover a tumor suppressor gene involved in different types of cancer

including prostate and breast cancer. On August 9, President George W. Bush announces that federal

funding for stem cell research will only use existing stem cell lines. Bush also creates a President's

Council to evaluate and monitor stem cell research. On July 10, 2002, The President's Council on

Bioethics recommends a permanent ban on reproductive cloning. In April of 2003, The International

Human Genome Sequencing Consortium completes the Human Genome Project. January 2008

researchers create new lines of embryonic stem cells using human embryos. In April, scientists in Canada

grow human heart cells from embryonic stem cells. Researchers hope the lab-created heart cells can be

used to repair heart tissue damaged during a heart attack. On September 18, the FDA issues regulatory

guidelines on the use of genetically engineered animals for food, drugs or medical devices.

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February 7, 2009, a drug that contains a protein from the milk of genetically engineered goats

that is meant to prevent blood clots is approved by the FDA. On May 21, 2010, scientists transplant

synthetic DNA into a microbe and create a living organism. On November 29, scientists announce that by

manipulating a gene, they have "reversed brain disease and restored the sense of smell and fertility in

prematurely aged mice." March 14, 2012 social justice groups and environmentalists calls for stronger

government regulations on "extreme genetic engineering." On June 14, 2013, The Supreme Court rules

that human genes cannot be patented and held for profit. On February 26, a government advisory

committee debates a new procedure that would combine "DNA from three people to create embryos

free of certain inherited diseases." February 3, 2015, Britain’s House of Commons voted to allow a

procedure that would include using genes from two females and one male to prevent lethal diseases in

babies.

Human genetic manipulation seems promising to many people. The process of human genetic

modification can cover a wide spectrum of possibilities from alleviating fatal diseases, to picking and

choosing what traits to give an unborn child, and everything in between. With this new technology a

parent may be able to prevent a future child from inheriting a genetic disease such as cystic fibrosis by

replacing the faulty DNA with healthy DNA.

Human Gene Therapy has been successfully used to help a little girl who had an immune system

disorder. This has also been used to help sixteen other patients suffering from a heart disease that were

on death’s door. While this treatment did in fact help these people, it is important to understand that

this type of procedure was used only as a last resort.

Human gene therapy is an individual thing that helps only the person undergoing the

procedure. For now, this type of procedure will not prevent future generations from contracting certain

genetically inherited diseases. That would require targeting the sperm and egg cells which without

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further research, and much needed discussions about the controversy surrounding the idea of making

genetic decisions for future generations, will likely not be in the near future.

Dr. Ray Bohlin, in his paper titled “Human Genetic Engineering” states that the problem will

come when gene therapy is used to change everyday life inconveniences like memory and other issues.

Human gene therapy has the potential to save lives but improper use of it will become problematic.

Improper use may include things like: selecting a child’s gender, hair and eye color, and other physical or

cognitive attributes.

There is much controversy surrounding the idea of choosing a child’s physical appearance.

Some people even want the idea to extend further and be able to choose the sex of a child. While this

idea seems innocent enough to prevent sex linked diseases, but when used to simply pick one gender

over the other it becomes problematic.

When it comes to hair and eye color, many people are in favor of the idea of taking “chance” out

of the equation and deciding for themselves what their child should look like. This causes moral, as well

as ethical dilemmas. These “designer babies” will have been molded according to the parent’s will.

These children would feel out of place in world that is constantly changing and evolving. The world

supports diversity, both physically and genetically. In an article written by Stephanie Sulter, she says that

“we live in an era that acknowledges, accepts and actively celebrates diversity.”

This type of experimentation requires a great amount of analysis and time. It is hard to imagine

that parents wanting to choose a child’s hair and eye color would have the money to spend on changing

something that doesn’t seem to have correlation with intelligence or with what type of person that child

will grow up to be.

With any major decision that can affect a human being’s life, all considerations and possibilities

need to be taken into account such as: safety, success rate, and lasting long term affects. A lot of

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research is needed to guarantee the outcome, and at this point, more investigation is required to further

understand both the possibilities and limits on genetic manipulation.

Medical genetic manipulation affects not only animals and humans but plants as well. As

humanity has grown the struggle to feed the masses has become incredibly apparent. As we expand in

size companies like Monsanto have come into play, where they believe this problem can be solved with

Genetically Modified Organisms. They have created plants that have large production and size load,

plants that can withstand harsh weather, insect infestations and plant diseases (Monsanto, web. 2002-

2015).

Dr. Charles Benbrook makes a valid point in “An Interview with Dr. Charles Benbrook on Genetic

Engineering” where he claims:

“If everybody just ate less meat we’d be fine. We don’t have to give up meat, if North America

and Europe just ate a 1/3 less meat, and all of the farm land devoted today to growing livestock feed,

that’s converted to about 6 pounds of plant biomass to about 1 pound of animal product, if that land

were to be redirected to rice, wheat, tomatoes, peas and nutritionally dense foods, we could eliminate

world hunger.”

Dr. Benbrook goes on to show how going back to our roots and getting in touch organically with

the plants we can solve infestation and soil issues without the need for genetically altering the plant.

The outcome cannot be fully guaranteed at this time, nor has enough research been completed on the

nutritional value of the genetically altered organism. (Mangan, Arty, Web March 9 2015

synthesis/regeneration)

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One would argue this is where companies like Monsanto would be helpful. But with all of the

research completed, one is to ask themselves, nutritionally is genetically altered the way to go? The

chart below shows a comparison of GMO corn vs. Non GMO corn

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(Moms Across America, web 2015)

There are many studies out there, and most of them show organic crops taste better, and are

more nutritionally dense. No one is quite sure of the complete outcome of long term digestion of

Genetically Altered Organisms, the growth process cannot be fully guaranteed at this time, and more

testing is needed to further our understanding of the full effects.

The argument is: “Should genetic manipulation be used on humans?” This is a tough question to

answer. There’s a lot of great things that can come from it, but we don’t understand enough about

genetics to be making big changes to them. It has potential to change the world but much more

research and testing needs to be done. The other problems will be solving ethical issues, availability, and

affordability. As we saw with the genetically altered food, organic foods were more nutritious and

beneficial. Maybe the same goes for humans. After all the research given towards this topic we came to

the conclusion that genetic manipulation shouldn’t be completely ruled out but it needs to be more

understood before putting people’s lives on the line.