Geography- half yearly

TourismGlobal GDP 9.1% (2010)1/12 jobs in the formal sector (2009)$919 Billion US in 2010Advanced $580 bilionEmerging $339 billion

China has increased its rank as a major destination area

2010 global arrivals 940 million 3.4% growth

Tourism is defined as the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for no more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other reasons. (WTO)

The nature of tourism $919 billion US generated by tourism in 2010 compared to US $453

billion in 1999. Tourism is forever changing e.g. it can be affected by lots of things. After the second world war the phenomenon of mass tourism occurred

due to the increase in affluence of people from more developed countries and the rapid movement of people.

Spatial patterns of tourism When mass tourism fist began in the 1950’s 97% of all tourism was

concentrated in 15 countries alone, these were all in western Europe and North America.

The source countries of this tourism is 70% from developed countries. Globalisation has effected the spatial distribution of the tourism industry,

as it increased global activity. Tourism has also helped globalisation as when people travel they take

their ideas and ideologies with them.

Future directions of tourism Will continue to be a dominant global industry. Short term- may experience less growth of negative growth due to

disease, terrorism and the financial state of the world.

Rank Country International tourist arrivals

1 France 74.2 million2 U.S 54.9 million3 Spain 52.2 million4 China 50.9 million5 Italy 43.2 million

The spatial distribution of the global tourism industry will continue to expand especially in less developed countries and in Asia.

There will be an increase in intra-regional tourism. When the middle east runs out of oil- may turn to tourism. The source of tourists will continue to change as people from developing

nations become more affluent.

Overview

Reasons for travel Leisure and recreations Education Medical Business Visiting family and friends Relgion

Types of tourism Group tour FIT (free and independent traveller) Backpacker Religious pilgrimages Adventure travels Weddings/ honeymoons Farm stays Ecotourism Schoolies

Factors explaining the nature, spatial patterns and future directions of Tourism

Biophysical Factors such as climate topography and site influence the type of tourism,

infrastructure, spatial patterns and future directions of tourism.

Climate Dry climate- humid and warm most of the year: Australian, Egypt and

Mediterranean- outdoor recreation. Polar climate- cool, snow: Switzerland and European Alps- skiing. Climate determines the length and profitability of the tourism industry e.g

Thredbo- little snow cover often limits the peak tourism season.

Natural features Some destinations have become popular tourist destinations because of

their unique biophysical characteristics: Trekkers are attracted to the altitude and mountainous peaks of the

Himalayas Eco-tourists visit the wildlife in Kenya and Sri Lanka. Busloads and planeloads of tourists visit The Great Barrier Reef for its

unique features.

Ecotourists are attracted to areas of great biodiversity e.g. rainforests and coral reefs.

Biophysical deterrents to tourism Biophysical factors can also act as a deterrent to tourism. Tourists are

often reluctant to travel to destinations that are affected by natural disasters and other inclement elements.

The Sydney bush fires in January 2002 limited the flow of tourists to the Blue Mountains

Reoccurring earthquakes in Indonesia Tropical cyclones in far north Queensland Monsoon conditions make South-East Asia a difficult place to travel to

during the wet season.

Ecological factors Mass tourism is not considered to be sustainable Global tourism has pushed for eco-tourism. Ecotourism has evolved over the last 20 years as we have come to the

realization and recognition of the negative impacts of mass tourism. An example of Eco-tourism Philip Island. It has a penguin parade and all

profits are reinvested back into conservation and research. It has a variety of Australian animals drawing crowds from around the world to see them.

Human induced climate change, possible threats include droughts, rising sea levels, flash flooding, forest fires and disease.

Economic factors Tourism is the largest industry in the world, it is the biggest source of

foreign exchange for many countries. Africa attract only 2.5% of international tourists.

Economic advantages of tourism include: Employment the tourist industry employs large numbers of people work

in the provision of accommodation, catering, transport, entertainment and other service industries and souvenir trade.

It also adds to the diversity of the economy Increases tax revenues Improves a country’s balance of payments The trickle down effect.

Undeveloped countries Tourism is also seen as a path to the development of undeveloped

countries. WTO is implementing a plan that attempts to alleviate poverty through

tourism. The effort of this initiative will be concentrated in Africa, as the WTO

believes there is a lot of untapped potential in African tourism, biophysical factors make it an attractive destination.

Tourist numbers are growing in Africa, by 2020 the WTO estimates that as a result Africa will have 77 million tourist arrivals.

SocioCultural Features of history of culture draw masses of attention and is an

attraction for tourists. E.g Egypt, famous ruins, temples etc. Three major forms of culture have been identified as attracting visitors:

o Forms of culture that are inanimate or do not directly involve human input.

o Forms of culture that are reflected in the normal daily life of a destination.

o Forms of culture that are especially animated and may involve particular events of depict historic or famous occurrences.

Sometimes cultures may have a negative impact on another culture e.g introduction of crime, gambling or prostitution.

Example: Italy, for the Colosseum, the Parthenon, Greece, St Paul’s Cathedral, London. Religious pilgrimages take people to the Vatican in Rome, Mecca in Saudi Arabia and Jerusalem in Israel.

Technological improvements: Developments in transport technology have shaped the growth of global

tourism turning it into a mass market, destinations are now more wide spread than those reachable by train and ship in the early 20th century.

Developments in aircraft are designed to reduce traveling times and increase traveling capacity; such changes help to reduce the cost of travel. The latest airbus craft is the A380, the largest civil aircraft ever built.

There have also been advancements in trains, for example very fast trains now operate in Europe and Japan and are a very popular means of transport. More recently the development of the channel tunnel, links mainland Europe with the UK.

Cruise ships is the fastest growing area of the tourist industry. The Voyager Of The Sea on the Caribbean Line can carry more than 3000 passengers and has a nine-hole golf course and many theatres.

Information technology has aided in globalisation, providing an instant direct link for hotels, airlines and customers all around the world. For example information technologies are used for marketing tourist destination, hotel reservations, flight bookings and seating systems. During 2002 the number of online ticket sales for Qantas crew 100%.

Organisational Who controls the industry and who owns it? The growth in TNC’s and removal of barrier (globalisation) has promoted

a industry with few large companies dominating it.

Development of small-scale niche tourism (ecotourism). Large TNC’s have diversified in that industry both vertically and

horizontally so that they can demoniate. E.g Six continent, starwood hotels and resorts and accor.

political Internal factors such as Taxes, Quotas, Zoning for hotels and casino’s, tax

concessions, national parks and state tourism offices all effect tourism. A government can also regulate labor and put in airports and roads. Generally a government understands how important Tourism is for its

economy so they will work to promote it. External political factors such as the WTO, regional agreements such as

ASEAN, the Euro, Neap – national ecotourism accreditation program. Political instability will make people avoid a destination as they will think

it unsafe e.g. Libya, Afghanistan, Greece and Sir lanka. Example of Australian tourist advertising: Lara Bingle, where the Bloody

hell are you? The Australian government offers tourists the “Tourist Refund Scheme”

which is a refund paid on goods totaling $300 or more spent in the same store.

The Australian government also offers the “wine Equalisation Tax” which is the tax refund on wine purchased by tourists.

Ecosystems and their management. Topic 2: Ecosystems at risk

Ecosystems and their management.Two case studies

Intertidal wetlands (Towra Point Nature Reserve) Alpine Regions (KNP)

Definition: An ecosystem is the dynamic complex interactions of plant, animal and micro-organisms (biotic) and the non-living (abiotic) components of the environment.

Human induced modifications- human changes.Natural stress- natural changes.Abiotic- non-living.Biotic- living.

Study the importance of understanding the processes that result in a number of diverse ecosystems (Terrestrial and aquatic) and allow these ecosystems to function in their natural environments.

Why are they at risk? Not all ecosystems are at risk Habitats in harsh conditions

The species have then adapted to suit the climate e.g. The Mountain Plume Pine grows adjacent to rocks for protection and warmth, its adapted to grow very slowly because of the cold. Mountain pygmy possum goes is to topour, which is partial hibernation to survive

It is difficult for species to cope with change, they are changed by human induced modifications and natural stress

Lack resilience- unable to bounce back Hence they need very careful management To manage it well it is important to understand the processes and

functions. Then work out strategies- use benchmarks. The Great Barrier Reef marine park has world-class management.

We look at two forms of management: traditional (sustainable) and contemporary.

They must then evaluate.

State of dynamic equilibrium Always changing Always finding a balance Ability to adapt

State of disequilibrium There is a change Unable to find the balance Unable to adapt

Ecosystems and their management 1. Biophysical interactions which lead to diverse ecosystems and their functioningThis section looks at the natural processes and functioning of ecosystems.

Ecosystems are dynamic and complex interactions between abiotic and biotic elements of the environment. Ecosystems can be of any size from a tiny puddle to a huge rainforest. There can even be ecosystems within ecosystems. There are certain levels in each ecosystem.

Refer to Sheet 2/02/12

Understanding The Text page 181. Ecology is the study of organisms and their relationship to one another

and their surroundings.2. Ecosystems are dynamic and complex interactions between abiotic and

biotic elements of the environment.3. This is because the first tropic level in every ecosystem requires sunlight

to photosynthesis, this is then eaten and passed to on to each level.4. Ecosystems are classified according to their dominant feature. They are

names according to their climate, physical features and vegetation. 5. Terrestrial ecosystems are ecosystems which are found on land, aquatic

ecosystems are found in water.6. An Ecotone is the area in where an ecosystem blend into adjacent an

adjacent ecosystem. An Ecotone contains organisms common to both ecosystems, but may also have organisms unique to that area.

7. The biosphere is all living things. Both plants and animals.8. The Ecosphere is the ecosystem of the planet; the totality of all

ecosystems. It is the collection of living and dead organisms.9. Population: A particular section, group or type of organisms living in a

certain ecosystems.Species: all organisms of the same kind that are potentially capable of breeding and producing fertile offsprings.Habitat: the environment of a living organism. Community: A group of interdependent organisms living together in a common environment and interacting with one another.

Video: Biophysical interactions The interactions of the biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and

atmosphere enable life on earth. It is divided by the Abiotic and the biotic. Deforestation of a sub-tropical rain forest in the Bellingen region has

resulted in degradation. Living only enough nutrients for grass. Must important nutrients to the land. Turbidity: when water gets dirty from soil erosion.

They all interact to form an ecosystem.

Understanding the text page 201. The food chain is a series of organisms, each eating or decomposing the

preceding one. The food web is a network of interconnected food chains.2. A tropic level is a position in a food chain or ecological pyramid occupied

by a group of organisms with similar feeding mode. 3. Nutrients is recycled in a ecosystem because it moves from tropic level to

tropic level.4. The decomposers break down waste and animals so that the nutrients can

be returned to the ground to begin the cycle again.

Ecosystem

Lithosphere

Atmosphere

hydropsherebiosphere

human activities

5. The productivity of an ecosystem is measured by the carrying capacity or the total amount of organisms, which can be sustained by the environment.

The Energy Flow

Refer to next sheet.

Cycles There are a number of cycles that keep the biophysical environment

functioning. These include: the water cycle, the nutrients cycle and the carbon cycle.

Interactions Ecosystems are dependent upon the interactions between the abiotic and

biotic components. For example: Atmosphere: Precipitation, wind, temperature; Lithosphere:

topography, soil; Hydrosphere: access to water, river, streams, ground water.

These characteristics are used to classify ecosystems.

Primary consumers (Autotrophic/ self feeders) Plants photosysthesis

Primary consumers (Heterotrophic/ herbivores)

Secondary consumers (Carnivore/ omnivores)

Tertiary consumers (Detritvores)

Ecosystems of similar characteristics are referred to as biomes.

Vulnerability and resilience of ecosystems Ecosystems exist in a state of dynamic equilibrium (DE)- interations

between the abiotic and biotic. If this balance is changed a disclimax community could evolve. See handout of Climax communities. Ecosystems change over time and go through a number of successions. Each succession level reaches dynamic equilibrium for example the royal

national park south of Sydney started as bare rock, and as cracks were eroded moss and lichen were able to survive with insects, in turn they produced more nutrients, which allowed larger species to survive in the area.

Each succession level can be called a climax community. If there is a change, for example over grazing one part of the ecosystem

may be disrupted to the extent that the original species cannot recover and a totally knew set of flora and fauna exists in that area, this is referred to as a disclimax community.

Some ecosystems are more vulnerable to change, the types of change are natural stress and human induced modification.

The ability of these ecosystems to deal with change is called resilience, which is the ability to bounce back.

Natural stresses include: Land slides, Volcano’s, floods, earth quakes, hurricanes, tsunamis and drought.

Human induced modification: Urban development, Global warming, deforestation, costal modification, agriculture, pyromaniac, pollution, overfishing and hunting.

Ecosystems are interdependent on each other, for example the mangroves prevent sediment from getting in the water and in the reefs. The reef is a storm buffer which prevent damage and the sea grass in-between cleans the water.

Ecosystems that cannot bounce back from change are known as ecosystems at risk.

Signs of ecosystems at risk- Drop in primary production, increase nutrient losses, decline in indicator species, increase in insect, pests or disease, decline in species diversity and introduction of contaminants.

Understanding the Text- page 271. All ecosystems function in a state of dynamic equilibrium or continual

state of balanced change. This is because of the interrelationship of the elements in the ecosystem. Changes occurring because of the interrelationship between minerals, energy and communities varies over time.

2. If an ecosystem is located in a area with harsh characteristics such as extreme temperatures, winds, topography etc. because the plants and animals have adapted to harsh conditions so when a circumstance in the ecosystem changes because of either human induced modification or natural stress then the organisms are not able to adapt quick enough.

Vulnerability: the ease with which an ecosystem can be altered.Resilience: the ability of an ecosystem to deal with change. They can bounce back.

Ecosystems gain stability when all elements are balanced, in dynamic equilibrium.

3 important features of stability: Inertia: The ability to resist change, e.g. a rainforest has high biodiversity

and therefore can restore the ecosystem after any disturbance. It cannot however resist change when you remove all vegetation.

Constancy: The ability of a population within an ecosystem to maintain its numbers or size within the limits of the natural resources.

Resilience: the ability of an ecosystem to deal with change or bounce back.

There are 4 factors that will influence the vulnerability of ecosystems: B- Biodiversity: the number and variety of species at anyone place at

anyone time. E- Extent: How large is the ecosystem. L- Location: Where it is. L- Linkages: that occur within the ecosystem and with other ecosystems.

Page 24BiodiversityGenetic diversity

The genetic diversity is the variety of genetic information contained in all the individual plants animals and microorganism.

It occurs within or between populations of species as well as between species.

Favors the survival of a species in terms of which is the fittest when under stress.

E.g. a British study has shown that peach potato aphids which are resistant to common pesticides are less able to survive the British winters compared to the aphids that are not resistant to pesticides.

Species diversity A measure of the number of species at each trophic level in an

ecosystem. The greater the diversity in species the more robust the ecosystem

is. I.E if the population of one producer or consumer organism

crashes there are other produces/ consumers to carry out a similar function.

Diverse ecosystems have a range of pathways for ecological processes e.g. the nutrients cycle. If one pathway is damaged/ destroyed an alternative pathway can be established in the ecosystem so that it can continue to function at its normal level.

An example of this is a rainforest. Many diverse ecosystems are characterized by highly specialized

organisms. However a species may be vulnerable even if the ecosystem as a whole is not.

Ecosystem diversity Ecosystem diversity refers to the diversity present within

ecosystems in terms of habitat difference, biotic communities and the variety of ecological processes.

The best biodiversity has ten to forty producer species.

Extent The size of an ecosystem. The larger the extent the less vulnerable they

tend to be. Many Ecosystems overlap (ecotones) into neighboring ecosystems a

beach ecosystem can over lap into an ocean ecosystem. These areas tend to be more vulnerable.

Island’s a vulnerable e.g. the Dodo bird extinct.

Location This affects the climate, which in turn affects the diversity of species. The more extreme the climate the more vulnerable for example alpine. Location with regards to humans can even make it more vulnerable e.g.

the intertidal mangroves. An advantage of being located near humans is that they get conserved e.g.

Lane Cove national park.

Linkages Ecosystems with a high degree of interdependence or linkages are less

vulnerable. Low interdependence are more vulnerable. E.g. the Antarctic has low interdependence with the krill being the key

stone species. If the krill disappears that’s the end of that ecosystem. The Cassowary it eats the fruit of 70 rainforest producers, if they

disappeared the diversity in a rain forest would be very much damaged.

Palau- Ecosystem at Risk Located to the north of Papua New Guinea. It is a Coral Reef made up of a number of atolls or fringe reefs. The main town is Koror.

Natural Processes Over 500 species of coral over 2000 species of fish. They were formed millions of years ago. It is a very diverse ecosystem. Symbiotic relationship between coral and algae.

Link/ interdependent upon intertidal mangroves. Acts as a filter (turbidity) & breeding ground for reef fish.

Mangroves depend on reef to protect the shore from waves and erosion. Reef requires sunlight and temperatures above 18 degrees. Natural Stress- Storms. Human induced Modification- Oil spills, wrecks, rubbish, tourism ($45000

a year), global warming, over fishing (use of fine nests and dynamites), sewerage (5 million litres per day into the lagoon results in eutrophication), roads (increase in runoff as not sealed) and poaching.

Consequences Eutrophication- sewerage. Turbidity- roads. Interrupt food chain/ nutrient cycles. Destroy interdependence. Reduce biomass, result in destruction of species- Disclimax

community.

Management Strategies Farming Giant Clams Education of Tourists Seal roads Restrict tourist infrastructure. Ban fishing of certain species. Sewerage pipe beyond lagoon.

Human induced modification to ecosystems Humans have the ability to simplify natural ecosystems in order to grow

food, both plants and animals are removed, and other species are provided with an environment made favorable for their survival by human interaction.

Energy: human activity is able to alter the flow of solar energy through the system.

For example, cleaning vegetation, changing composition of plants in biosphere.

Non-Living Elements: human activities may result in salination, atmospheric pollution, soil degradation, or other environmental breakdown a interfere with flows of energy.

Biotic: human activity affects organisms in complex foodwebs à interfere with natural cycle.

Disturbance my force a series of related events a flow through the entire system. EG Industrial Revolution a rapid change/trends developed.

Tourism NotesExtended Response information

Overview of tourism Tourism is complex, which is demonstarted by its size. In 2010 9.1% of global GDP (US $919 Billion was generated by tourism. Mass tourism began after WWII, in the 1950’s due to globalization and

rapid developments in technology and the increase in disposible incomes. It is Dynamic, can be affected by things such as Swine Flue, the financail

crisis and the SARS breakout. There are two types of tourism Domestic (traveling outside the normal

environment yet still inside the country of origin) and International (traveling outside the country of origin).

Reasons for travel include: leisure and recreation, education, medical reasons, business and many others.

Many types of tourism: group tour, adventure tour, backpackers, farm stays, cruises and ecotourism.

Nepal Prior to 1952, Nepal was a country closed to foreigners. Now, tourism is

one of the major earners of foreign income. Nepal is a popular tourism destination due to its rugged landforms,

spectacular scenery, traditional culture and heritage. Its remoteness/isolation and “mystique” also encourage tourism.

Economic Impacts – Positive Development of infrastructure: roads and airports. income from tourists to vendors, hosts, guides and hotels. Income from trekkers and climbers and plus grants from International

relief Organisations: funded schools and medial clinics, reduced infant

mortality, built footbridges and brought hydroelectricity to Namche Bazaar and other villages.

Increase in AID: The Himalayan Trust helps Sherpas to learn to help themselves. It doesn’t give handouts, but rather empowers Sherpas through forward planning and finance to take positive steps for their future.

Mountaineering/climbing Sherpas benefit most from Tourism. They can earn in two months (US $700-1250) what a trekking Sherpa would earn in 1 year. The average per capita income in Nepal is US$160.

Economic Impacts – Negative Development of a black market: for religious artwork. Relience on tourism: The Massacre of the Nepali Royal Family in May

2001 has led to a decrease in tourist numbers. This has had a major economic impact due to the nations reliance on the tourism dollar.

Loss of traditions: Tourism actually destroys jobs by displacing/replacing traditional sources of income.

Not a consitant source of income: Tourism in Nepal is seasonal. Inceased greed: Increased Crime.

Social Impacts – Positive Encourages a country to maintain its traditional culture: Revival of some

monasteries e.g. Tengboche monastery. Tourism creates intracultural understanding as people experience a way

of life which is not their own: An example of this is in Nepal where the Sherpas often invite treckers into their home to sample the traditional cuisine

The tourist will often contribute some money to an aid foundation which works in the area to educate the local children and because of the increase in income from the tourism for their parents the children have no reason to stay at home: An example of this is in Nepal where since tourism began schools have been set up thanks to aid from tourists.

increase in life expectancy of the locals due to better access to good food, clean water and medical facilities: Nepal- which was once an isolated destination that could only be reach by road, now has its own airstrip giving them access to food like rice, Clean water the tourists and medicine.

Social Impacts – Negative traditional customs shortened to suit tourists: e.g. masked dances, Culture often compromised to make tourists feel more at home. Increase incidence of begging along trails and in cities and towns –

sustained by ignorance of trekkers and tourists. Beggars often create an image and “paly the tourist” by pressing poorly and not washing to increase sympathy.

Exposure to “Western” dress and wealth – dissatisfied youth. Increase in crime rate and drug trade. The Kumari (living goddess) is used as a tourist attraction to promote

Nepal’s mysticism. Usually tourists pay to see her. Absents of a male figure while children grow up: Trekking guides spend

much time away from their families fall in birth rates. Pressure on women:Women are left to plant and harvest (as these

seasons coincide with the trekking season). Tourism can also promote undersiable industries such as an increase in

prostitution and child labour. An example of this is in Thailand which promotes itself with the three S’s: Sun, Sand and Sex, though has promoted the transmission of HIV Aids.

Environmental Impacts – Positive Ecotourism now promoted by locals and foreign organizations: KEEP

(Katmandu Environmental Education Project.) The Himalayan Trust has planted 1 million + seedlings on the slopes of

Everest. Guidelines have been established for tourists and trekkers e.g. Use

Kerosene, order local dishes (that take less fuel to cook), avoid over package goods.

Raised awarness: US corporations (e.g. Nike) have made donations for cleaning up Everest.

Increased awarness of environmental issues: The Nepalese Government sponsored a spring-cleaning program and paid 150 Sherpa porters A$11/kg for rubbish brought down from the mountain.

Development of new products to protect the environement: KEEP have developed the GO! Bag (Garbage Out) for trekkers to put their rubbish in while trekking.

Awarness and recoginition of the need to protect the natural environment: An example of this is the mountain gorillas in Rwanda and the Congo which were protected because of high amounts of tourist interest and the ability to gather an income from the gorillas.

Income generated by many ecotourism businesses is used for research and conservation: watch the Pengiuns at Port Philip in victoria, the income which is then generated by the ecotourists fares is then placed back into research and conservation at the park.

Environmental Impacts – Negative Deforestation: Fuel is used for tourist needs and now Villagers travel

further in search of wood. Pollution: Garbage left behind by trekkers does not break down easily. Strain on the biophysical enironment: 90% of trekkers use just three

trekking areas in Nepal. Pollution: Each expedition may leave behind a further 400 – 500 kg of

waste. Increased Erosion: there is little vegetation cover so dust is easily

disturbed by yaks, goats, buffalo and people. Tourism increases this problem through trekking.

Air pollution: There is no garbage collection in cities or towns. Rubbish is swept up then burnt. Tourists increase the amount of rubbish.