BehaviourismAnother type of materialism is behaviourism, which sees human thoughts as simply learned behaviours. B. F. Skinner (1904-90), believes what we consider mental events are simply learned behaviours. The idea of a mental state separated from the body, in any sense, is a radicle misunderstanding. Animals learn behaviours and can be conditioned into behaviours, as we know from a study of Pavlov’s dog. For Skinner, mental acts are caused acts, explicable at physical level. In his book, About Behaviourism (1974),

Skinner explains that human behaviour can be attributed to genetics, the environment and what is learned in relation to both – and not, (as dualists would suggest), the actions of some unknown soul. He supported his argument by much scientific work, especially into animal behaviour.Objections to Behaviourism

Daniel C. Dennett (1942- ), in his article, ‘Skinner Skinned’, argues that Skinner over- simplifies human consciousness. He assumes that what applies to the consciousness of a pigeon will also apply to that of a human. Animal actions may be learned behaviours, but not so for humans. If I am asked why I am reading a book, simply saying it is a learned response misses the point. If I say ‘because I want to’, I am providing an explanation. If I go further and say it’s because I enjoy the authors work, I am taking my explanation

further. To say this is just learned behaviour misses the point. My reading a book, expresses other goals than survival or getting rich. Dennett argues that Skinner would be right if my explanation stopped with desire alone, but human thinking moves beyond Skinner’s ‘basic theory’. Dennett argues people could be conditioned to hand over their wallets to robbers, whether they posed a threat or not. If this were the case, he says:

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“….human beings would be no better than pigeons or wasps, and we would have to agree we had no freedom and dignity.” ‘Skinner Skinned’, Brainstorms (1978) p.69

If Dennett is right, then there is something more to human consciousness than simply material cause-and-effect. What that something is remains

elusive.

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1. In no more than 50 words, explain what Skinner say about behaviourism.2. Research Pavlov’s Dog. Explain how it links to a behaviourist

view of mind, body and soul.3. In no more than 50 words, explain Dennett’s objections to Skinner.4. Do you think people can be conditioned in the same way animals can, or

is there more to us than mere learned behaviour?

Discussing soul, mind and body.

Create a table that details the following:How might the materialist criticise a dualist approach to questions about consciousness?Don’t forget the names of key scholars.

How might the dualist respond to materialist criticisms?Don’t forget the names of key scholars.

Further objections to the theories and Conclusions We have a continuing mystery of the nature of the soul and what is meant by the soul. The danger is to simplify a complex area. Even established assumptions may be challenged. For example, John Cottingham (1943 - ), (a philosopher who has studied and interpreted the works of Descartes), in his book Cartesian Reflections-Chapter 9, has challenged traditional readings of Descartes as a dualist. He argues instead that we are made up of body, soul and spirit. If we are made of two substances, mind and body, an area of

human experience including passions, emotions, sensations cannot be reduced to either category.

Cottingham also points out there is no straightforwardly precise definition of mind, body, soul, spirit, consciousness and so on. Philosophers and theologians use the terms interchangeably, but are influenced by their life view on the definition they adopt. For example, Plato’s view is influenced by his desire to find certainty in an uncertain world and the need to point to a separate type of existence. Descartes view begins with the consciousness ad contrasts it with the external world. Skinner is clearly basing his interpretation on animal experimentations on conditioning. However, it is also clear that just because a philosopher believes one view of mind, body and soul, it does not follow that they automatically reject an alternative view.

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Discussing soul, mind and body.

Create a table that details the following:How might the materialist criticise a dualist approach to questions about consciousness?Don’t forget the names of key scholars.

How might the dualist respond to materialist criticisms?Don’t forget the names of key scholars.

Summary Diagram: Mind, body and soul

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TASK 10:1. Using the summary diagram, copy it onto A3 paper. Add a brief explanation of the

ideas outlined and a diagram to help you remember. 2. Read though the revision advice and sample question with guidance. 3. Create an exam mat for the above assessment question.

Which do you

find more

convincing

substa