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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Technology in Society

Technology in Society 30 (2008) 415– 422

0160-79

doi:10.1

E-m

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc

Water technologies and the environment: Ramping up byscaling down

Mark Schaefer

1540 Malvern Hill Place, Herndon VA 20170, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

Keywords:

Water

China

India

Shortage of water

Freshwater

1X/$ - see front matter & 2008 Elsevier Ltd

016/j.techsoc.2008.04.007

ail address: sequoia24@msn.com

a b s t r a c t

The world is facing a global water crisis. Already, deficiencies in water supply and water

quality are causing widespread human suffering. About 1.1 billion people lack access to

clean water, and 2.6 billion do not have access to improved sanitation facilities. Everyday,

4500 children throughout the world die from preventable diseases caused by the lack of

clean water and sanitation. China, India, and the United States are all facing major

shortages of freshwater, and water pollution is having serious impacts on public health

and the environment in both China and India. Major investments in science and

technology will be required to address the water issues of the future. A new generation of

innovative, small-scale technologies is needed to prevent and control pollution, and to

restore watersheds. Creative, collaborative approaches to addressing the world’s decline

in freshwater resources are urgently needed.

& 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Water and the environment

Freshwater resources are facing tremendous pressure throughout the world. Water supplies are dwindling in largegeographic areas, and water quality remains a challenge for all nations, both developed and developing. About 1.1 billionpeople, or 18% of the world’s population, do not have access to safe drinking water, and 2.6 billion people, or 42% lack accessto improved sanitation facilities [1, p. 40]. Climate change and resulting drought, melting glaciers, and rising sea levels willfurther diminish already stressed freshwater supplies, exacerbating the global water crisis.

The lack of access to clean water and sanitation has a tremendous adverse effect on human health and the economy. Indeveloping countries, the majority of diseases are caused by the consumption of contaminated water. Developed nationsthat have the capacity to provide clean water and sanitation are facing major expenses due to outdated infrastructure, anddeveloping countries that lack the infrastructure are facing large construction costs. The global water crisis will intensifybecause of population growth as well as declines in the availability of freshwater. Population growth fuels the demand forwater for direct personal use, agriculture, and for manufacturing products. Particularly problematic is the prediction thatnearly half of the world’s population growth will occur in areas that are already experiencing, or expected to experience,water stress [2]. In some areas of the world, the available freshwater is already fully utilized, and there is no opportunity forgrowth, hence, migration is occurring.

The United Nations has designated 2005–2015 as the International Decade for Action, ‘Water for Life,’ to further theachievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of reducing by half the proportion of people without access tosafe drinking water by 2015 and stopping the unsustainable exploitation of water supplies [3]. In 2002, at the WorldSummit in Johannesburg, two goals beyond the MDGs were established: (1) to develop integrated water resource

. All rights reserved.

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management and water efficiency plans by 2005, and (2) to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people who do not haveaccess to basic sanitation [3]. While the world deploys the technologies and builds the infrastructure to meet the watersupply and sanitation needs of the present, it must simultaneously engineer systems of the future to prepare for therequirements of a rapidly growing population and a world with declining freshwater supplies.

Although the costs are considerable to address issues of global water supply and quality, the economic benefits of suchinvestment vastly exceed the costs. The World Health Organization estimates that globally each $1 spent returns from $3 to$34 to the economy, depending upon the region of the world [1, p. 4].

2. Global challenges

Feeding a rapidly growing global population places a heavy demand on agriculture, the sector of the global economythat already uses 70% of the world’s water [4, p. 14]. Current uses of water in agriculture are highly inefficient, and evenmodest improvements in water management and irrigation systems would greatly ease water supply deficiencies in manyregions of the world.

Water is increasingly a major factor in regional conflicts, as seen in the Middle East and Africa. Changes in hydrologyassociated with climate change, and their associated impacts on human health, accentuate instability in volatile areas ofthe world. The tragedy in Darfur was triggered by an extended drought that led to the loss of land suitable for farming andgrazing. The migration of people in search of land with access to water led to a major conflict with tribes already inhabitingthe more suitable lands. In this situation, a lack of water exacerbated an already tense political situation, resulting inhuman tragedy [5].

About 80% of illness and death in the developing world is related to water. The lack of clean water and sanitation isresponsible for 1.7 million deaths a year, and 90% of those deaths are children [5, p.11]. It is remarkable from a policyperspective that an international public health crisis of this magnitude is not addressed on a more urgent basis. Cancer killsnearly eight million people a year worldwide, and it is estimated that more than 40% of all cancers can be prevented [6].Yet, virtually each of the 1.7 million deaths due to the lack of clean water and sanitation is either preventable or treatable. Itis a matter of using scientific knowledge to devise comprehensive strategies to address the problem, and of directing thenecessary resources for water management programs and the development and application of the appropriatetechnologies. Perhaps even more remarkable is the counterintuitive nature of the public perception of the problem. Theprotection of young is a fundamental human instinct, yet 4500 children throughout the world die everyday frompreventable diseases caused by the lack of clean water and sanitation [1, p. 5]. This unfortunately may have to do withcommon misperceptions, including the general acceptance of adversity that seems to be the commonplace, the tendency todismiss challenges that are perceived as being overwhelming, and the underestimation of risks that occur gradually overtime.

Too often, short-term demands for water for agriculture are given priority over the requirements of ecosystems, and theservices that ecosystems provide are diminished. Eventually, the loss of ecosystem services slows economic growth. Theassumption that society must make a choice between human and ecological needs is wholly incorrect. It is more a matterof devising effective management strategies that balance the use and reuse of water appropriately. Indeed, the goal ofachieving sustainability from both the natural resources and economic perspectives will be out of reach until societydecides to manage water in a way that ensures the achievement of both human health and ecological viability. There mustbe a greater recognition that human health depends upon ecological viability. Maintaining ecological viability requiresintegrated water resources planning on a watershed scale.

Climate change is having major impacts on water resources globally and these impacts will intensify in the future. Themost recent report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) points to impacts on freshwater systemsdue to increases in temperature, sea level, and precipitation. Areas of the world that rely on water from glaciers andsnowmelt will be particularly impacted, as will the coastal areas, due to the rise of sea level and the introduction ofsaltwater into groundwater and estuaries. All regions of the world that were examined by IPCC will experience overall netnegative impacts on water resources and freshwater ecosystems due to climate change [7]. The decline of glaciers isparticularly problematic because they are the source of at least half of the drinking water for 40% of the world’s population[5].

As the sources of the world’s energy change, it will be important to consider the impacts on water resources. Someenergy-related extraction and production processes, such as the development of oil shale, require large volumes of water.Further, pumping and purifying water requires energy. Desalinization processes, for example, are particularly energyintensive. Consequently, energy and water policies must be developed in parallel, with special attention directed to theinterrelationship of environmental and economic impacts.

3. Water challenges facing China, India, and the United States

China, India, and the United States are all facing major shortages of freshwater. All three use huge quantities of water foragriculture and industry, are experiencing growing demand for water for urban centers, and are increasingly diverting

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water resources that have traditionally supported a range of ecosystem services. The economic, social, and environmentalconsequences of these trends are severe, and forward-looking policies must be devised and rapidly implemented.

Ensuring adequate water supplies for human use, including agriculture, while meeting the needs of ecosystems, willrequire careful attention to the efficiency of water use and reuse. Often, apparent instances of water shortage are foundedin inefficiencies of use rather than limitations of supply. It is well established that agriculture throughout the world couldbe far more water efficient. It is a matter of achieving the political will to insist that water be managed efficiently,instituting education and training programs, and applying the appropriate technologies and practices.

Along with the rise of industrialization in China and India, has come a dramatic increase in the demand for water. Waterresources policies and plans for both countries have fallen short, just as they have in the United States.

3.1. Challenges in China

In China, both industrialization and urbanization are greatly increasing the demand for freshwater. China’s urbanpopulation grew from 300 million to 550 million in the 15-year period from 1990 to 2005, and could reach 900 million by2020 [8]. Rapid urban growth and the consequent demand for water, together with the water requirements formanufacturing and agriculture, have severely constrained water supplies.

The decline of water supply and water quality, particularly in northern China, is a formidable problem. Both surface andgroundwater resources have diminished, and watersheds have been severely degraded due to both the lack of water andpollution [9]. Several hundred million Chinese do not have access to safe drinking water and consume water contaminatedwith human and animal waste [10]. In 2002, the World Bank delivered a blunt warning: ‘‘Without a major concertedsuccessful program to improve water resources management, the damage to the environment and to Chinese naturalresources will become irreversible, resulting in huge negative impacts on the quality of life of the Chinese people and onthe Chinese economy in the future’’ [10]. The Chinese government has instituted a range of policies and programs toaddress its water resources challenges, yet, as in other countries, progress has been slow due to the magnitude of itsproblem. Dramatic improvements in water management and efficiency, facilitated by the appropriate application oftechnologies, are required.

The tension between meeting demands for drinking water, manufacturing, and agriculture is illustrated in the YellowRiver basin in northern China. An important food production area responsible for 13% of China’s cultivated land, it holdsonly 3% of the nation’s water resources. It has been projected that by 2025, nonirrigation water use will increase by 75%over 1995 levels, making considerably less water available for irrigation [11].

China has made major investments in urban water and wastewater over the past 25 years. In 1990, 50% of the urbanpopulation was served by municipal water supply utilities. By 2005, this had increased to 88%. Wastewater treatmentcapacity tripled over this same period [8]. Yet, water pollution from industrial sources is a major challenge. The problem israpid population growth and a focus on short-term economic gain. For example, China produces products that are relativelyinexpensive compared to those of other countries. However, it is one of the most polluted nations in the world, and publichealth and the environment have suffered as a result. The costs associated with protecting public health and theenvironment are not reflected in China’s products. Unless China incorporates the true costs of manufacturing into itsproducts and dedicates the required revenues to pollution prevention and remediation, it will continue to sacrificesustained, long-term economic viability for short-term gain. To lesser degrees, other countries throughout the world facethe same challenge. Full cost pricing is the key to addressing water challenges and to achieving sustainable development.

3.2. Challenges in India

India is also facing formidable water resources challenges. The country is heavily dependent upon groundwater, whichprovides 70% of its irrigation water and 80% of its domestic water [12]. However, in 2005, 15% of the nation’s aquifers wereconsidered to be in critical condition, and this number is projected to increase to 60% by 2030 [13]. Water pollutionpresents major public health challenges throughout the country.

In a country where 86% of the people live on less than $2 a day [14], India has made major investments in waterinfrastructure. Since 1960, the government has directed some $120 billion to water resources and irrigation; however, it isnot replacing and upgrading its infrastructure at a pace that keeps up with water supply and demand [13]. Here, as in othercountries, the quality of energy and the quality of water technologies are interrelated. Inefficient, highly polluting dieselwater pumps are powering irrigation and well systems that are often in poor condition. Both water and energy are beingwasted.

3.3. Challenges in the United States

In a global survey of water efficiency in 147 countries, the United States ranked last as the most wasteful and least waterefficient [15]. However, per capita water use in the US has improved over the last two decades, largely due to gains inefficiency in the agricultural sector [15]. Improvements in efficiency are likely to continue in the years ahead, particularly inareas of the South where water resources have been especially constrained, due to extended periods of drought.

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Nationwide, improvements in efficiency are likely to be modest until water prices rise to reflect its true value. However,improvements in management and infrastructure alone will not solve water supply problems in some areas of the country.Areas of the Southwest, for example, simply do not have the water available to meet projected increases in demand.

Water quality in the US has steadily improved over the past three decades. However, major advances in infrastructureare needed, particularly for wastewater treatment, to maintain and improve water quality. Nonpoint source pollution,primarily from agriculture, remains a major water quality challenge in the US as evidenced by pollution levels in theChesapeake Bay and the Gulf of Mexico.

4. Law, policy, and science

Bridging water law, policy, and science is a necessary prerequisite to addressing the global water crisis. When scienceand policy are not linked, the public is poorly served. Water policy is shaped and implemented by a wide range of laws andregulations focused on water supply and quality, as well by policies related to agriculture, energy, housing, and urbandevelopment. The US made rapid progress in improving water quality throughout the period from 1970 to 1985. However,water quality issues remain. China and India face enormous water quality challenges that are only beginning to beaddressed through comparatively weak regulatory infrastructures.

4.1. China

China passed a Water Pollution Prevention Law in 1984 and revised it in 1996. The law has had only limited success inreducing pollution, largely because local governments are reluctant to regulate industries that provide large tax revenues.In 2003, an important improvement was made in the regulatory framework through the establishment of a newEnvironmental Impact Assessment law that requires evaluation and public comment on infrastructure projects.

China is working to address the decline of river ecosystems by instituting integrated river basin management practices.It is also taking steps to reform its system of river basin commissions, which in the past has not adequately accounted forthe environmental and economic impacts of water projects. In 1988, China enacted its first National Water Law, whichincludes provisions for water fees, water withdrawal permits, and the control of water runoff [16].

4.2. India

India has enacted a number of water laws addressing issues related to drinking water supply, river water pollution,conservation, and irrigation. The national government has given the states the authority to regulate water supply, storage,and other matters. Consequently, India’s water law, particularly related to supply, varies by state.

Water pollution is regulated nationally under the authority of the Water Act of 1974. The Act includes provisions relatedto the prevention and control of pollution as well as restoration. The country’s approach to water rights related to surfaceand groundwater has not fostered conservation. Groundwater law has been particularly problematic because it giveslandowners the right to make use of water not only under their own land, but that of neighbors. Because of the decline ofgroundwater resources, the central government of India has encouraged the states to adopt groundwater legislation, and inrecent years some states have enacted such laws. Because of serious water supply and quality issues, including the prospectof more severe deficiencies in the future, India is working to reform and strengthen its water laws [17].

4.3. United States

In the United States, the National Environmental Policy Act, enacted in 1969, requires environmental impact statementsfor legislation and major federal actions. The act has resulted in major improvements in environmental quality from theprotection of wetlands to the prevention of pollution. The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 was established to protectdrinking water supplies from contaminants, principally by establishing standards for drinking water. The Clean Water Actof 1977 was enacted to restore and maintain the integrity of US waters through a National Pollutant Discharge system. ThePollution Prevention Act of 1990 was enacted to reduce or eliminate pollution through improved technologies andproducts. This Act shifted national environmental policy toward prevention and away from control, spurring considerabletechnological innovation.

In 2005, the Senator Paul Simon Water for the Poor Act was enacted. For the first time this law requires that US foreignpolicy include specific programs to foster clean water and sanitation programs in developing countries. The law andresulting US policies have the potential to foster water management, R&D, and technology applications throughout theworld.

5. Benefits of clean water and efficient use

According to the World Health Organization, achieving the MDGs for drinking water and sanitation globally by 2015would result in health care savings of $7.3 billion per year. Time savings for ready access to drinking water and sanitation

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services would add another $63 billion a year [18]. In addition, $3.6 billion a year would be saved through averted deaths. Intotal, $84 billion would be saved each year for an investment of $11 billion annually [19]. These estimates do not accountfor the environmental benefits of clean water, including a wide range of ecosystem services realized through higher qualityriparian habitat and wetlands that foster fisheries productivity and wildlife habitat.

The application of modern irrigation technologies, including monitoring systems, and the resulting efficiencies in wateruse would not only make more water available for nonagricultural uses, but would also result in less pollution and greaterrevenues for farmers. Improved water management and the widespread application of water technologies would easeinternational and national tensions throughout the world.

As more attention is focused on the global water crisis and additional resources are dedicated to it, R&D efforts willexpand, and the resulting innovations will lead to a new generation of water technologies.

6. Pricing and investment priorities

Major changes are needed in national water policies worldwide in order to address the global water crisis. Industrializedcountries and those with larger, rapidly growing major economies, such as China and India, must dedicate considerablymore attention to policies and investments to address their water supply and quality problems to avoid situations wherewater becomes a serious constraint on economic growth.

One obvious and highly effective policy initiative would be to raise the price of water. This would lead to efficiencies inuse and would generate revenues to better maintain existing water supplies and wastewater systems and build newinfrastructure. Efforts to stem the rapid drawdown of groundwater must be given a high priority. The goal is simple: usecannot be allowed to exceed aquifer recharge rates. In some areas of the world, artificial aquifer recharge with treatedwastewater should be explored to improve groundwater supplies.

Investments in water infrastructure must be dramatically increased. Worldwide, on the order of $30 billion is currentlybeing spent annually to meet the MDG of halving by 2015 the number of people without access to safe drinking water andsanitation [4]. The World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF estimate that an additional annual investment of morethan $11 billion is needed to achieve the MDGs [1]. However, others believe the investment will have to be considerablyhigher. The Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council and the Global Water Partnership estimate that between $14and $30 billion will be required annually [4].

7. Technology, water, and the environment

Addressing the enormous worldwide challenges of the freshwater supply and quality will require aggressive watermanagement strategies together with major investments in infrastructure and innovative technologies. In contemplatingopportunities for technology research, development, commercialization, and diffusion, it is useful to consider seven majortechnology classes: water purification, wastewater treatment, water supply and control, irrigation, desalinization,monitoring, and information and decision support systems.

The traditional approach to addressing water supply and quality issues is to focus on large-scale infrastructure andtechnologies. This approach has produced limited success in developing countries largely because progress would bedependent on major financial investments. Future progress will require an emphasis on smaller scale, community-basedprojects. Efficiencies in the agricultural sector are essential.

In general, achieving sustainability requires individual commitment and action, ideally in a local, community setting.Solving water supply and quality issues also require planning and action in the context of watersheds and basins. Especiallyin countries like China and India, community-based approaches that make use of smaller scale, innovative technologies arelikely to lead to a more rapid progress in achieving clean water and sanitation goals than large-scale water projects and theconstruction of massive water and sewage treatment systems. Wind-driven pumps, for example, have been usedsuccessfully for many years in the western United States to provide water for agricultural and home use. There are manyexamples of small-scale, decentralized water supply and sanitation technologies. Still, innovations are needed to improveefficiency and safety and to reduce cost. In particular, water technologies and systems are needed that can be powered bysmall-scale solar and wind technologies.

Perhaps the greatest opportunity to conserve freshwater is through improvements in the efficiency of irrigationsystems. Nearly three-quarters of the water in the US is dedicated to irrigation, and a considerable proportion of that iswasted because it is not delivered with precision to crops. Advancements on several fronts are needed to improve irrigationefficiency, including the development and deployment of inexpensive monitoring and control devices, new water deliverystrategies and technologies, and inexpensive systems that reuse agricultural wastewater. Furthermore, the application ofdecision support software for precision agriculture is critical. Information technologies of this kind are needed to developwater application strategies, control irrigation technologies, and monitor flows.

PureSense has designed an innovative irrigation management system using sensors and weather monitoring devicespowered by solar technologies that result in higher crop yields while conserving water [20]. These systems, coupled tobasic decision support tools for managing agricultural operations, could greatly reduce water use in the developing world.

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The agricultural systems and decision support tools developed for use in North America could be adapted for application inother regions of the world.

Small-scale water purification technologies will be essential to meeting the water supply needs of countries worldwide.A number of systems hold promise in this area. For example, WaterHealth International is marketing UV WaterworksTM, apurification technology based on ultraviolet light disinfection [21]. Efficient, low-cost water purification technologies arelikely to be in great demand in the future.

The LifeStraws is an example of a simple, low-cost, and effective personal water purification technology. About the size offlute, it contains filters, iodine, and activated carbon to remove and disinfect bacteria and parasites as a person sucks waterthrough the straw. Each straw costs a few dollars and can be used for several months. As the cost is reduced, this type oftechnology can be deployed more broadly to benefit those in areas of the world who lack access to clean sources of water [22].

The PlayPump is another innovative, small-scale technology that is improving water supply by linking a merry-go-round with a water pump and storage system. As children play, they help supply water to their school and community. Thissystem has proven to be popular and effective in regions of Africa [23].

Small-scale wastewater treatment technologies that use natural plant processes offer an attractive and energy-efficientalternative to large and centralized infrastructure. The Living Machines is an example of an ecological wastewatertreatment system that mimics wetland processes. Computer-controlled mechanical systems speed up natural processesand treat wastewater so it can be released into the environment or reused for irrigation or landscaping [24].

In the areas of water supply and control, more efficient pumps are needed that can operate via inexpensive, off-the-gridpower sources including solar and wind technologies. A major problem in many countries is the time it takes to travel to awater source, collect the water, and bring it back to a dwelling. Small-scale pumps can greatly reduce the need to travellong distances for water.

Desalinization technologies that are economically viable would greatly increase freshwater supplies in all threecountries. However, significant technological and environmental hurdles must be overcome. At present desalinizationsystems are expensive, and the resulting brine presents disposal problems.

New and improved technologies are needed to monitor water supply and quality, particularly inexpensive sensors andactuators to track and control water flows and measure water quality parameters. Sensors can provide automated,continuous monitoring of water and wastewater flows and can provide warning signals when unusual conditions orstresses occur. Actuators convert electrical signals into mechanical responses, and can automatically control changes inflows or trigger water treatments [25]. More research is needed to improve sensor technologies that allow detection oftoxic substances ranging from metals to organic compounds. Efforts are needed to develop miniature technologies that canbe easily deployed and will operate free of maintenance for long periods. Reliable, low-cost actuators are needed that canbe controlled remotely. In addition, inexpensive telemetry devices are needed to transfer monitoring information by way ofcellular and satellite communications.

Efficiencies in water use will be greatly facilitated by pricing structures that reflect the true value of clean water, and bymonitoring technologies that track the use of water in industrial, municipal, and household settings. Just as labels displayingnutrition content were a first step in raising public awareness (in effect, monitoring) of the calorie and fat content of foods, sowide-scale application of technologies that clearly describe the rate and volume of water use will raise public awareness ofwater-use practices and encourage conservation. Although water is metered in most households in the US, few individualshave any notion of their daily water use. This is primarily because household water meters are obscure devices relegated tobasements or exteriors. For example, if easily understood water use and cost information was transmitted to displays inkitchens or on home computers, consumers would pay more attention to water use and institute conservation measures.

Water technologies are applied throughout the world, yet location, status, and maintenance information about thesetechnologies is either nonexistent or difficult to access. International development organizations, such as the World Bank,have made major investments in both small- and large-scale water infrastructures in developing countries. Tracking thelocation of these investments and their status would facilitate the maintenance of these technologies, would aid in trackingtheir health and economic benefits, and would further policy and planning activities. Geographic information system (GIS)technologies coupled with analytical decisions support tools that can readily map and evaluate these investments.

Decision support systems are needed to integrate data from multiple sources, to facilitate a range of analyses includingmodeling to guide those making decisions about water resources and ecosystem management, as well as the deploymentand operation of technologies. Decision support tools can guide agricultural operations and control irrigation and sprayingsystems. Precision agriculture holds great promise for enhancing the efficiency of water use, reducing chemicalapplications, and limiting water pollution.

Testing and certification greatly facilitate the diffusion of innovative technologies. Timely independent evaluation ofnew technologies from both the effectiveness and cost perspectives is very important. Consumers are more inclined tomake use of new technologies, if they are certified by a trusted source.

8. Science, water, and the environment

Achieving sustainable water use depends on well-integrated R&D activities combined with aggressive commercializa-tion and deployment efforts. Multidisciplinary, international collaborative research efforts will be the key to making rapid

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progress in the water arena. Sustainable water management requires the integration of scientific disciplines, fromhydrology and ecology to economics. Although multidisciplinary research efforts are often called for, in practice they arerarely implemented successfully.

Addressing global water challenges will require a serious, well-funded, and well-coordinated international researcheffort. The Global Water Research Coalition (GWRC) was established in 2002 by 12 leading research organizations fromaround the world to leverage funding and expertize [26]. The Coalition has a long-term goal of achieving a sustained jointresearch effort to address international water issues. The GWRC, the United Nations Environment Programme, and theWHO could join forces to devise a major water R&D program to address the global water crisis.

Water research encompasses a wide range of issues, from the nature of emerging contaminants such as endocrinedisrupters and new pesticides, to the nature of waterborne pathogens, to monitoring strategies. The National ResearchCouncil has developed detailed recommendations for water research focused on the United States [27], including a reportidentifying 43 water-related research issues [28]. Most of their recommendations also apply generally to the needs of othercountries and regions of the world.

I believe there are four broad areas of research activity that offer specific opportunities to address the global watercrisis: (1) documenting the value of ecosystem services, (2) advancing approaches to manage watersheds in an integratedfashion, (3) developing indicators to evaluate water challenges and the impact of efforts to address them, and (4) advancingthe economics associated with water valuation and technology development and deployment.

8.1. Documenting ecosystem services

Understanding and documenting ecosystem services is critical to achieving sustainable water use. In the past, theinability to describe and quantify the wide range of services that ecosystems provide has been partly responsible for thedisproportionate transfer of water from natural systems to agriculture. If the value of aquatic ecosystems was betterquantified, more attention would be directed to conserving these systems, and water policies would increasinglyencompass a more balanced approach to water use. Efficient water use would result, particularly in agriculture—the sectorusing the bulk of the world’s freshwater resources, and the sector that could make major improvements in the efficient useof freshwater.

8.2. Watershed management

Integrated watershed management is a potentially powerful approach to addressing water resources issues. It isimportant to understand the relationships between the many factors that influence water supply and demand, the impactsof water supply and quality on human health and ecosystems, and the mechanisms by which the many competingdemands for water can be prioritized and balanced for the greater good. Integrated watershed management requires aconcerted multidisciplinary effort between the physical, biological, social, and economic sciences. Well-conceived, user-friendly decision support tools will be important to advancing this approach to resource management. In addition, effectiveinstitutional structures and enforceable policies are essential to integrated watershed management.

The saying ‘‘if you do not know where you are going, any road will get you there,’’ points to the importance of settingclear goals and defining the pathway to attain them. Once you are on that path, it is important to understand where you areand how far you have to go to achieve your goal. Indicators serve that function. Numerous organizations and individualshave worked to develop indicators related to water supply and quality, and impacts on human health and the environment.These efforts have been woefully underfunded, and agreement is lacking on what indicators should be employed with whatfrequency and at what geographic scales. Additional research is needed to advance the science underlying indicatordevelopment. Also, more attention must be devoted to achieving a consensus among scientists and policymakers as to theappropriate indicators to employ globally to monitor progress toward water-related goals.

Solutions to water resources challenges will require a commitment to interdisciplinary research in the natural and socialsciences. The economics of water supply and demand is highly complex, as are the myriad issues associated with thecommercialization and diffusion of water technologies. Accelerating the diffusion of water technologies requires creativeapproaches to financing. For example, India and China could accelerate the diffusion of water technologies in rural areasthrough the use of microfinance mechanisms. Devising these mechanisms requires research efforts that cut acrosseconomics and engineering, including life cycle analysis and the impact of globalization on technology innovation anddiffusion. Further, the sustainable use of water is greatly facilitated by an accurate valuation of benefits to public health andthe environment.

The transboundary nature of water challenges is an important reason to advance international collaborations in R&D. Ascountries pursue cooperative approaches to managing large river basins, they should also work collaboratively to furtherthe science and technology to guide and facilitate these efforts. This includes decision support tools that integrateecological information with socioeconomic information and allow the analysis of alternative approaches to river basin andwatershed management. Tools of this kind can be indispensable to conflict resolution efforts associated withtransboundary water management.

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9. Preparing for the future

Addressing the global water crisis will require extraordinary vision and commitment on the part of political leaders,scientists, engineers, economists, and the public. It will also require major investments in a new generation of efficient,small-scale technologies and in the science required to guide the effective management of watersheds. In the absence of amajor collaborative effort to aggressively address water issues, the public health, the environment, and the global economywill suffer.

Acknowledgement

The author wishes to acknowledge the comments and suggestions of William Kirksey, who reviewed a draft of thispaper.

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Mark Schaefer is a consultant to several organizations on green technology development and commercialization, and environmental and science policy,including the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. He has held positions in both the nonprofit and government sectors, including Presidentand CEO of NatureServe, Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Water and Science, Acting Director of the US Geological Survey, and AssistantDirector for Environment in the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP). While at OSTP, he was responsible for a major initiative toadvance the development of environmental and renewable energy technologies.

Earlier in his career he served as a senior staff associate and director of the Washington Office of the Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, andGovernment. He was a staff member at the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment, initially as a Congressional Science Fellow. In addition, heserved for a number of years on the staff of the Office of Research and Development of the US Environmental Protection Agency. He recently completedtwo terms as a member of the Board on Earth Sciences and Resources of the National Research Council. He received a B.A. from the University ofWashington and Ph.D. from Stanford University.