Water Quality Standards, Ecotoxicology and Federal regulations affecting Water Quality

Pollution Control

Goal - Emphasis on Sustainable DevelopmentAbility to satisfy basic needs of society today without compromise of those for future generationsManagement of natural resources so that present and future beneficial uses are not impaired

ApproachHolistic/multi-mediaIntegrated/cost-effectiveFocus on public health and environmental protection

Federal Pollution Control Act Amendments 1972 (Clean Water Act 72)

Objective - “Restore and maintain the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the nation’s waters”“national goals”:– Achieve a level of water quality which “provides for

the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish and wildlife” and “for recreation in and on the water” by July 1, 1983

– Eliminate the discharge of pollutants into United States waters by 1985.

The Clean Water Act of 1987

Main Elements:

Reconfirmed goals of 1972 ActA system of national effluent standards for each industry/municipalityTechnology based/water quality based standardsFocus on toxicsNon-point source pollution control Residual Management

StrategyDetermination of Water Quality Criteria based on water’s designated use Identification/MonitoringStandard Setting– Identify/inventory all potentially hazardous pollutants– Estimate potential environmental impact

• Where do they go?• what changes may occur and under what conditions?• consequent ecological significance?

– Social, political and economic considerations

Permits and Enforcement

Criteria and Standards

Criteria - quality solely based on scientific determination, not legally enforceable.Standards – legally enforceable, defines acceptable quality related to unique local situation involving political, economic and social factors.

Ecotoxicology Introduction

Ecotoxicology is concerned with the toxic effects of chemical and physical agents on living organisms, especially on populations and communities within defined ecosystems; it includes the transfer pathway of those agents and their interactions with the environment.

Studies include:Ambient levels and speciation of toxic contaminants in water

their accumulation in biota;

the functional response of biological species and populations to specific chemicals

Importance:environmental impact assessment

risk assessment

risk management

environmental policy

Risk Management and Risk Assessment working together

Riskcharacterization

Does responseassessment

Hazard identification

Exposure assessment

Regulatory decision

ControlsOptions

Risk assessmentRisk Management

Interaction of Pollutants with Natural Systems

Emission of contaminantsBehavior and fate of chemicals - depend on chemical, physical, and biological properties which influence transport, transformation and bioavailability Effect on living organisms Effect on ecosystem

Transport and transformation processes for pollutants

Ecological bases of Ecotoxicology

Ecosystem – a physical and chemical environment-biotope– a community of living beings - biocenose– various biological integration levels in ecosystem– distribution of populations depends closely on the

physicochemical characteristics of the biotopes (zonation phenomena).

The basis for determining the effects of contaminants on ecosystem is at organism levelAt organism level, response can be:– Acute toxicity causing mortality– Chronically accumulating damage ultimately causing death– Sublethal impairment of various aspects of physiology and

morphology– Sublethal behavioral effects– Measurable biochemical changes

Ecological bases of Ecotoxicology (Cont’d)

At population level, response can be:– Size and dynamics (based on birth rates, death rates, gains, from

immigration and losses from emigration)– Cause a reduction or an increase in the natural flowchart of numbers, in

the biomass, sex ratio, etc.

At community level, response can be:– species diversity– predator prey relationship, etc

Change in ecosystem – nutrient cycling rates, patterns of nutrient flow, – physical-chemical conditions etc.

Ecological bases of Ecotoxicology (Cont’d)

Example 1

What will happen When Raw Domestic Sewage from a Sewered Community of 40,000 people flows into a stream?

Example 2 - Effluent Standards(technology based standards) and Stream standards (water quality based standards)

BAT (Best Available Technology) and BCT (Best Conventional Technology)

Enforcement - National Pollution Discharge Elimination Systems (NPDES), section 402 of Clean Water Act 72.

Degradation of water quality occurs even when effluents with technology based standards are still going to exceed the assimilative capacity of receiving water.

Water quality based standards - Total Maximum Daily Load (enforcement via. NPDES)

Effluent Standard and Stream Standards (continued)

Example 3Water Quality Based Toxics Control

I. Introduction• New EPA policy for the development of water quality based

permit limitations for toxic pollutants• Regulation of toxics difficult• Whole effluent approach

II. Whole Effluent Approach Procedure:• Dilute effluent by various dilution factors• Use receiving water for dilute• Place organisms in test chambers for given time period• At given time periods, count organisms for endpoints• Develop NOEL = AF * LC50-96 hr, TUc = 100/NOEL• Permit limits can be expressed as LC50 or NOEL’S

III. Advantages and Disadvantages1. Chemical-specific approach (toxicity bioassay) a. Advantages:

• Treatment more easily designed• Fate of pollutant can be modeled• Chemical analysis can be less expensive bioassay• Specific problem chemicals can be directly limited at source

b. Disadvantages:• All toxicants may not be known• Not always clear which compounds toxic• Expensive to measure individual toxics• Bioavailability, interactions not measured nor known

Water Quality Based Toxics Control (cont’d)

2. Whole Effluent Approach a. Advantages:

• Aggregate toxicity of all constituents measured• Toxics effect(s) limited by limiting one parameter, TU• Bioavailability of toxics assessed• Effects of interactions measured

b. Disadvantages:• Effluent toxicity treatability data lacking• Where chemical/physical changes act in such a way to “release”

downstream, not measured• Properties of specific chemicals in complex effluents not assessed

– Bioaccumulation– Carcinogenicity

Water Quality Based Toxics Control (cont’d)

SummaryEcotoxicology provides the scientific basis for environmental protection policy– Determine fate/behavior of contaminants– risk assessment/management – water quality standard setting

Emerging science, holistic, multi-discipline approach needed to:– further elucidate the vital signs of ecosystem health– diagnose early warning symptoms of ecosystem stress– assess the sensitivity and long-term response of ecosystems to low doses

of contaminants; and,– formulate proper treatment protocols for ecosystem rehabilitation

Federal and state regulations:Federal and state regulations:Water Quality Act of ‘65.Water Quality Act of ‘65.National Environmental Policy Act (‘69).National Environmental Policy Act (‘69).Water Pollution Control Act (‘48 - ‘72).Water Pollution Control Act (‘48 - ‘72).Federal Pollution Control Act Amendments 1972 Federal Pollution Control Act Amendments 1972 (Clean Water Act ’72).(Clean Water Act ’72).Safe Drinking Water Act (‘74, ‘86).Safe Drinking Water Act (‘74, ‘86).Clean Water Act (‘87).Clean Water Act (‘87).IL Groundwater Protection Act (‘87).IL Groundwater Protection Act (‘87).

Water Quality Act of 1965:Water Quality Act of 1965:

This established water quality standards for This established water quality standards for interstateinterstate waters. waters.

This as well as other prior legislation was This as well as other prior legislation was based primarily on issues of based primarily on issues of commerce commerce (interstate, international trade).(interstate, international trade).

National Environmental Policy Act National Environmental Policy Act (1969):(1969):

The 1969 National Environmental Policy Act The 1969 National Environmental Policy Act established the National Environmental established the National Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).Protection Agency (USEPA).– The creation of the EPA increased the separation The creation of the EPA increased the separation

of water of water qualityquality programs from other water programs from other water programs.programs.

Water Pollution Control Act:Water Pollution Control Act:

The The Water Pollution Control Act Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 was of 1948 was amended from ‘56 to ‘72 to fund response to amended from ‘56 to ‘72 to fund response to water pollution issues.water pollution issues.

Funding rose from $50 million in ‘66 to $1.25 Funding rose from $50 million in ‘66 to $1.25 billion by ‘72 (Clean Water Act).billion by ‘72 (Clean Water Act).

Unfortunately, much of this legislation lacked Unfortunately, much of this legislation lacked enforceabilityenforceability..

National goalsNational goals– Eliminate the discharge of pollutants into Eliminate the discharge of pollutants into

navigable waters by 1985 - Zero charge.navigable waters by 1985 - Zero charge.– Interim water quality level that would achieve Interim water quality level that would achieve

“fishable/swimmable” uses.“fishable/swimmable” uses.– Prohibit the discharge of toxic pollutantsProhibit the discharge of toxic pollutants

The 1972 Clean Water Act:The 1972 Clean Water Act:

The 1972 Clean Water Act:The 1972 Clean Water Act:

The The Clean Water Act Clean Water Act combined construction combined construction of of treatment facilitiestreatment facilities with with enforcement enforcement proceduresprocedures to ensure compliance with to ensure compliance with established standards for established standards for navigablenavigable waters. waters.

The Clean Water Act 72 and the The Clean Water Act 72 and the 1987 1987 Clean Water ActClean Water Act: :

The Clean Water Act was revised in 1977 to The Clean Water Act was revised in 1977 to give give statesstates primary responsibility for water primary responsibility for water quality and water use.quality and water use.

The Clean Water Act was re-authorized again The Clean Water Act was re-authorized again in 1987 as the in 1987 as the Clean Water Act Clean Water Act and revised to and revised to include control of non-point sources of include control of non-point sources of pollution.pollution.

1990 Oil Pollution Control Act1990 Oil Pollution Control Act

1969-’75 - Intl. Commission on Civil Liability 1969-’75 - Intl. Commission on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage.for Oil Pollution Damage.

1971-’78 - International Fund for 1971-’78 - International Fund for Compensation established.Compensation established.

1990 - in response to the Exxon Valdez spill, 1990 - in response to the Exxon Valdez spill, OPA enacted.OPA enacted.– ExtendedExtended current CWA spill provisions. current CWA spill provisions.– Created Created newnew section on liability and section on liability and

compensation.compensation.

Other legislation related to water Other legislation related to water qualityquality

Toxic Substances Control Act (1976).Toxic Substances Control Act (1976).

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976).(1976).

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA or Superfund).(CERCLA or Superfund).

The Safe Drinking Water Act:The Safe Drinking Water Act:

Established in 1974 to insure uniform safety Established in 1974 to insure uniform safety and quality of drinking water by identifying and quality of drinking water by identifying contaminants and estab-lishing maximum contaminants and estab-lishing maximum acceptable levels.acceptable levels.

Revised in 1986 to focus more closely on Revised in 1986 to focus more closely on groundwater protection. Criminal penalties groundwater protection. Criminal penalties were also established for violations.were also established for violations.

The Safe Drinking Water ActThe Safe Drinking Water Act

Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL’s) were Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL’s) were initially (‘74) set for only a few parameters initially (‘74) set for only a few parameters (bacteria, chemicals, etc.)(bacteria, chemicals, etc.)– 1986 amendments provided for eighty-three primary 1986 amendments provided for eighty-three primary

contaminants by 1989 and addition of twenty-five more contaminants by 1989 and addition of twenty-five more every three years.every three years.

– 1996 amendments provided for “right to know” public 1996 amendments provided for “right to know” public notification of contaminants.notification of contaminants.

The The Illinois Groundwater Illinois Groundwater Protection Act Protection Act (IGPA):(IGPA):

Established in 1987, this Act was designed to Established in 1987, this Act was designed to provide for a comprehensive program for provide for a comprehensive program for protection of groundwater in Illinois.protection of groundwater in Illinois.

One of Illinois primary problems for groundwater One of Illinois primary problems for groundwater contamination is leaking underground storage contamination is leaking underground storage tanks (LUST). tanks (LUST).

Groundwater quality Groundwater quality classification:classification:

Class I (drinking)Class I (drinking)

Class II (irrigation)Class II (irrigation)

Class III (fish, aquatic life, livestock)Class III (fish, aquatic life, livestock)

Class IV (industrial)Class IV (industrial)

Class V (geothermal)Class V (geothermal)

Class VI (unsuitable or unusable)Class VI (unsuitable or unusable)

Surface water quality classification:Surface water quality classification:

Class AA, A (drinking) Class AA, A (drinking)

Class B (bathing and swimming) Class B (bathing and swimming)

Class C (fish propagation and fishing) Class C (fish propagation and fishing)

Class D (fish survival)Class D (fish survival)

Summary:Summary:Primary federal legislation affecting water Primary federal legislation affecting water quality and treatment include the quality and treatment include the Clean Water Clean Water Act Act and the and the Safe Drinking Water ActSafe Drinking Water Act..

Two approaches to establishing standards for Two approaches to establishing standards for water quality include water quality include Technology-basedTechnology-based and and Water Quality-based Water Quality-based standards.standards.