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WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION PREDOMINATED AREA - A CASE STUDY
Tang Jock Kie
TD Master of Environmental Science367
(Land Use and Water Resource Management)T161 20132013
Pusat KJIidmat MakJumat Akadlmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK
WATER QUALITY MODELING OF OIL PALM PLANTATION PREDOMINATED AREA - A CASE STUDY
TANG JOCK KIE
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Environmental Science I
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
2013
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest appreciation to my
dissertation supervisor Prof Dr Law Puong Ling He has provided suggestions tremendous
help guidance and useful information for completion of my dissertation
I would like to thank my formal SLUSE coordinators Dr Lim Po Teen Dr Effendi
and current SLUSE coordinator Dr Tay Meng Guan for their encouragement and patience to
provide guidance and support to make this dissertation a success
Finally my deepest gratitude goes to my husband Ting Huong Siong and my family
for their patience understanding continuous support and caring
I
1
ABSTRACT
I
Water quality modeling has always been regarded as a useful tool in water
quality management In this study Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen
Total Suspended Solids and Total Coliform Counts are simulated along Sg Telong
The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order Kinetic Process is assumed
for the fate of the above water qualities along Sg Telong In this study Streeter-Phelp
Model was used to predict downstream Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TCC) of
Sg Telong It was found that the BOD TSS and TCC levels would drop while DO
levels would increase until it reaches DO saturation point downstream from a
I
discharge point upstream Discharge from other plantations such as Arah Bersama I
I
OPP would affect the deoxygenation rate Kd and the reoxygenation rate Ka
Therefore the actual DO levels may deviate from the simulated results as the river
flows pass Arah Bersama OPP This study also looks into the Deoxygenation Rate Kd
Reaeration Rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks With the measured Deoxygenation
rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks to simulate the fate of BOD
DO TSS and TCC at 100m 200m 600m 1km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km
7km 8km 9km and 99km downstream of discharge point The Deoxygenation rate
I
Kd and Reaeration rate Ka at 273degC were fo~nd to be 0717 s- and 0894 s-
respectively The observed initial Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km The
measured Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km and decreased to 000 mgL at 97
km downstream of discharge point The TSS levels were simulated in four different
ranges for particles with aerodynamic diameters of 50 - 75 11m 76 - 100 11m 101 shy
125 11m and 126 - 15Q 11m with Settling Coefficients Ks at 0003 s- 0005 s- 0009
ii
I
S-I and 0013 S-I at 273degC respectively A comparison of the mathematical model
simulated and measured water qualities at 32 km downstream of discharge point the
simulated results are in good agreement with measured values To achi~ve effective
pollution control water resource management and sustainable development
quantitative contributions and environmental impacts should be identified and
assessed
Keywords Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation
I
r
iii
ABSTRAK
Model kualiti air telah dianggap sebagai alat yang berguna dalam pengurusan
kualiti air Dalam kajian ini Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Total
Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts disimulasi di sepanjang Sg Telong
Keadaan Steady-State dan First-Order Kinetic Process dianggap untuk simulasi kualiti
air di atas sepanjang Sg Telong Dalam Kajian ini Streeter Phelps Model telah
digunakan untuk meramalkan Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen
Total Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts di Sg Telong Ia telah mendapati
bahawa kepakatan BOD TSS dan TCC akan turun manakala kepekatan DO akan
meningkat sehingga mencapai DO tepu dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Pembuangan
sisa daripada ladang-Iadang lain seperti Arah Bersama RRJP akan menjejaskan
Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka Oleh itu kepekatan DO sebenar
mungkin menyimpang daripada keputusan simulasi yang disebabkann oleh aliran
melalui Arah Bersama OPP Kajian ini juga mencari Deoxygenation rate Kd
Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks Dengan Deoxygenation rate Kd
Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks yang diukur kualiti BOD DO
TSS dan TCC di 100m 200m 600m 1 km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km
7km 8km 9km dan hiliran 99km daripada lokasi pembuangan sisa telah diramalkan p
Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka pada 273degC didapati adalah 0717
S-I dan 0894 S-I masing-masing Initial 6)xygen deficit adalah 527 mg L pada 0
km Oxygen Deficit yang diukur adaJah 527 mg L pada 0 -km dan menurun kepada
000 mg L di 97 km hilian dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Tahap TSS yang disimulasi
adalah dalam empat julat yang berlainan bagi zarah dengan diameter aerodinamik 50-
75 lm 76 - 100 lm 101 - 125 lm dan 126-150 lm dengan Settling Coefficient Ks
iv
pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing
Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari
lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang
baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk
mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan
pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan
kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan
untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja
tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran
Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
Abstract 11
Table of Contents Vl
List of Appendices V11
List of Tables Vlll
List of Figures lX
Chapter 1 - Introduction
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
12 Problem Statement 4
13 Objective of Study 5
14 Scope of Study 6
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
21 Water Quality System 9
211 Soil Erosion 10
212 Sediment Transport 11
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12
22 Mathematical Modeling 13
221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling
Chapter 3 - Methodology
31 Description of the Study Area 23
32 Data Collection 29
33 Model Description 29
34 Channel Properties 30
35 Water Quality Modeling 32
351 BOD Modeling 37
352 DO Modeling 38
353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39
3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39
vi
44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling
Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion
41 Water Quality Simulation il 46
411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46
412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50
413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54
Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56
References 57
List of Appendices
31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results
32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
-
vii
List of Tables
31 Description of Study Points 24
Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32
W2amp W4
33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31
34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40
BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641
Distances Downstream of Discharge Point
Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042
Ranges
Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143
Particles Ranges
Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44
Downstream of Discharge Point
45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53
Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546
Discharge Point
viii
List of Figures
Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and
Sumatra
12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3
13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6
L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7
21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19
31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22
32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25
33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)
26
34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)
28
41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong
51
44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth
52
45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5
53
46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5
55
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment
has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals
forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The
growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for
people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased
human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature
A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a
result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In
1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a
large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which
contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of
83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2
million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12
Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on
track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said
that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000
1
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
Pusat KJIidmat MakJumat Akadlmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK
WATER QUALITY MODELING OF OIL PALM PLANTATION PREDOMINATED AREA - A CASE STUDY
TANG JOCK KIE
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Environmental Science I
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
2013
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest appreciation to my
dissertation supervisor Prof Dr Law Puong Ling He has provided suggestions tremendous
help guidance and useful information for completion of my dissertation
I would like to thank my formal SLUSE coordinators Dr Lim Po Teen Dr Effendi
and current SLUSE coordinator Dr Tay Meng Guan for their encouragement and patience to
provide guidance and support to make this dissertation a success
Finally my deepest gratitude goes to my husband Ting Huong Siong and my family
for their patience understanding continuous support and caring
I
1
ABSTRACT
I
Water quality modeling has always been regarded as a useful tool in water
quality management In this study Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen
Total Suspended Solids and Total Coliform Counts are simulated along Sg Telong
The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order Kinetic Process is assumed
for the fate of the above water qualities along Sg Telong In this study Streeter-Phelp
Model was used to predict downstream Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TCC) of
Sg Telong It was found that the BOD TSS and TCC levels would drop while DO
levels would increase until it reaches DO saturation point downstream from a
I
discharge point upstream Discharge from other plantations such as Arah Bersama I
I
OPP would affect the deoxygenation rate Kd and the reoxygenation rate Ka
Therefore the actual DO levels may deviate from the simulated results as the river
flows pass Arah Bersama OPP This study also looks into the Deoxygenation Rate Kd
Reaeration Rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks With the measured Deoxygenation
rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks to simulate the fate of BOD
DO TSS and TCC at 100m 200m 600m 1km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km
7km 8km 9km and 99km downstream of discharge point The Deoxygenation rate
I
Kd and Reaeration rate Ka at 273degC were fo~nd to be 0717 s- and 0894 s-
respectively The observed initial Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km The
measured Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km and decreased to 000 mgL at 97
km downstream of discharge point The TSS levels were simulated in four different
ranges for particles with aerodynamic diameters of 50 - 75 11m 76 - 100 11m 101 shy
125 11m and 126 - 15Q 11m with Settling Coefficients Ks at 0003 s- 0005 s- 0009
ii
I
S-I and 0013 S-I at 273degC respectively A comparison of the mathematical model
simulated and measured water qualities at 32 km downstream of discharge point the
simulated results are in good agreement with measured values To achi~ve effective
pollution control water resource management and sustainable development
quantitative contributions and environmental impacts should be identified and
assessed
Keywords Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation
I
r
iii
ABSTRAK
Model kualiti air telah dianggap sebagai alat yang berguna dalam pengurusan
kualiti air Dalam kajian ini Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Total
Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts disimulasi di sepanjang Sg Telong
Keadaan Steady-State dan First-Order Kinetic Process dianggap untuk simulasi kualiti
air di atas sepanjang Sg Telong Dalam Kajian ini Streeter Phelps Model telah
digunakan untuk meramalkan Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen
Total Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts di Sg Telong Ia telah mendapati
bahawa kepakatan BOD TSS dan TCC akan turun manakala kepekatan DO akan
meningkat sehingga mencapai DO tepu dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Pembuangan
sisa daripada ladang-Iadang lain seperti Arah Bersama RRJP akan menjejaskan
Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka Oleh itu kepekatan DO sebenar
mungkin menyimpang daripada keputusan simulasi yang disebabkann oleh aliran
melalui Arah Bersama OPP Kajian ini juga mencari Deoxygenation rate Kd
Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks Dengan Deoxygenation rate Kd
Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks yang diukur kualiti BOD DO
TSS dan TCC di 100m 200m 600m 1 km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km
7km 8km 9km dan hiliran 99km daripada lokasi pembuangan sisa telah diramalkan p
Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka pada 273degC didapati adalah 0717
S-I dan 0894 S-I masing-masing Initial 6)xygen deficit adalah 527 mg L pada 0
km Oxygen Deficit yang diukur adaJah 527 mg L pada 0 -km dan menurun kepada
000 mg L di 97 km hilian dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Tahap TSS yang disimulasi
adalah dalam empat julat yang berlainan bagi zarah dengan diameter aerodinamik 50-
75 lm 76 - 100 lm 101 - 125 lm dan 126-150 lm dengan Settling Coefficient Ks
iv
pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing
Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari
lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang
baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk
mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan
pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan
kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan
untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja
tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran
Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
Abstract 11
Table of Contents Vl
List of Appendices V11
List of Tables Vlll
List of Figures lX
Chapter 1 - Introduction
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
12 Problem Statement 4
13 Objective of Study 5
14 Scope of Study 6
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
21 Water Quality System 9
211 Soil Erosion 10
212 Sediment Transport 11
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12
22 Mathematical Modeling 13
221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling
Chapter 3 - Methodology
31 Description of the Study Area 23
32 Data Collection 29
33 Model Description 29
34 Channel Properties 30
35 Water Quality Modeling 32
351 BOD Modeling 37
352 DO Modeling 38
353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39
3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39
vi
44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling
Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion
41 Water Quality Simulation il 46
411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46
412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50
413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54
Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56
References 57
List of Appendices
31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results
32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
-
vii
List of Tables
31 Description of Study Points 24
Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32
W2amp W4
33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31
34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40
BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641
Distances Downstream of Discharge Point
Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042
Ranges
Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143
Particles Ranges
Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44
Downstream of Discharge Point
45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53
Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546
Discharge Point
viii
List of Figures
Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and
Sumatra
12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3
13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6
L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7
21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19
31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22
32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25
33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)
26
34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)
28
41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong
51
44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth
52
45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5
53
46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5
55
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment
has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals
forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The
growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for
people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased
human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature
A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a
result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In
1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a
large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which
contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of
83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2
million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12
Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on
track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said
that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000
1
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest appreciation to my
dissertation supervisor Prof Dr Law Puong Ling He has provided suggestions tremendous
help guidance and useful information for completion of my dissertation
I would like to thank my formal SLUSE coordinators Dr Lim Po Teen Dr Effendi
and current SLUSE coordinator Dr Tay Meng Guan for their encouragement and patience to
provide guidance and support to make this dissertation a success
Finally my deepest gratitude goes to my husband Ting Huong Siong and my family
for their patience understanding continuous support and caring
I
1
ABSTRACT
I
Water quality modeling has always been regarded as a useful tool in water
quality management In this study Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen
Total Suspended Solids and Total Coliform Counts are simulated along Sg Telong
The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order Kinetic Process is assumed
for the fate of the above water qualities along Sg Telong In this study Streeter-Phelp
Model was used to predict downstream Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TCC) of
Sg Telong It was found that the BOD TSS and TCC levels would drop while DO
levels would increase until it reaches DO saturation point downstream from a
I
discharge point upstream Discharge from other plantations such as Arah Bersama I
I
OPP would affect the deoxygenation rate Kd and the reoxygenation rate Ka
Therefore the actual DO levels may deviate from the simulated results as the river
flows pass Arah Bersama OPP This study also looks into the Deoxygenation Rate Kd
Reaeration Rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks With the measured Deoxygenation
rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks to simulate the fate of BOD
DO TSS and TCC at 100m 200m 600m 1km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km
7km 8km 9km and 99km downstream of discharge point The Deoxygenation rate
I
Kd and Reaeration rate Ka at 273degC were fo~nd to be 0717 s- and 0894 s-
respectively The observed initial Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km The
measured Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km and decreased to 000 mgL at 97
km downstream of discharge point The TSS levels were simulated in four different
ranges for particles with aerodynamic diameters of 50 - 75 11m 76 - 100 11m 101 shy
125 11m and 126 - 15Q 11m with Settling Coefficients Ks at 0003 s- 0005 s- 0009
ii
I
S-I and 0013 S-I at 273degC respectively A comparison of the mathematical model
simulated and measured water qualities at 32 km downstream of discharge point the
simulated results are in good agreement with measured values To achi~ve effective
pollution control water resource management and sustainable development
quantitative contributions and environmental impacts should be identified and
assessed
Keywords Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation
I
r
iii
ABSTRAK
Model kualiti air telah dianggap sebagai alat yang berguna dalam pengurusan
kualiti air Dalam kajian ini Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Total
Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts disimulasi di sepanjang Sg Telong
Keadaan Steady-State dan First-Order Kinetic Process dianggap untuk simulasi kualiti
air di atas sepanjang Sg Telong Dalam Kajian ini Streeter Phelps Model telah
digunakan untuk meramalkan Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen
Total Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts di Sg Telong Ia telah mendapati
bahawa kepakatan BOD TSS dan TCC akan turun manakala kepekatan DO akan
meningkat sehingga mencapai DO tepu dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Pembuangan
sisa daripada ladang-Iadang lain seperti Arah Bersama RRJP akan menjejaskan
Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka Oleh itu kepekatan DO sebenar
mungkin menyimpang daripada keputusan simulasi yang disebabkann oleh aliran
melalui Arah Bersama OPP Kajian ini juga mencari Deoxygenation rate Kd
Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks Dengan Deoxygenation rate Kd
Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks yang diukur kualiti BOD DO
TSS dan TCC di 100m 200m 600m 1 km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km
7km 8km 9km dan hiliran 99km daripada lokasi pembuangan sisa telah diramalkan p
Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka pada 273degC didapati adalah 0717
S-I dan 0894 S-I masing-masing Initial 6)xygen deficit adalah 527 mg L pada 0
km Oxygen Deficit yang diukur adaJah 527 mg L pada 0 -km dan menurun kepada
000 mg L di 97 km hilian dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Tahap TSS yang disimulasi
adalah dalam empat julat yang berlainan bagi zarah dengan diameter aerodinamik 50-
75 lm 76 - 100 lm 101 - 125 lm dan 126-150 lm dengan Settling Coefficient Ks
iv
pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing
Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari
lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang
baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk
mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan
pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan
kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan
untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja
tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran
Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
Abstract 11
Table of Contents Vl
List of Appendices V11
List of Tables Vlll
List of Figures lX
Chapter 1 - Introduction
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
12 Problem Statement 4
13 Objective of Study 5
14 Scope of Study 6
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
21 Water Quality System 9
211 Soil Erosion 10
212 Sediment Transport 11
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12
22 Mathematical Modeling 13
221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling
Chapter 3 - Methodology
31 Description of the Study Area 23
32 Data Collection 29
33 Model Description 29
34 Channel Properties 30
35 Water Quality Modeling 32
351 BOD Modeling 37
352 DO Modeling 38
353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39
3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39
vi
44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling
Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion
41 Water Quality Simulation il 46
411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46
412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50
413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54
Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56
References 57
List of Appendices
31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results
32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
-
vii
List of Tables
31 Description of Study Points 24
Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32
W2amp W4
33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31
34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40
BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641
Distances Downstream of Discharge Point
Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042
Ranges
Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143
Particles Ranges
Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44
Downstream of Discharge Point
45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53
Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546
Discharge Point
viii
List of Figures
Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and
Sumatra
12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3
13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6
L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7
21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19
31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22
32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25
33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)
26
34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)
28
41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong
51
44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth
52
45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5
53
46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5
55
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment
has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals
forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The
growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for
people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased
human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature
A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a
result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In
1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a
large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which
contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of
83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2
million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12
Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on
track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said
that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000
1
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
1
ABSTRACT
I
Water quality modeling has always been regarded as a useful tool in water
quality management In this study Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen
Total Suspended Solids and Total Coliform Counts are simulated along Sg Telong
The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order Kinetic Process is assumed
for the fate of the above water qualities along Sg Telong In this study Streeter-Phelp
Model was used to predict downstream Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TCC) of
Sg Telong It was found that the BOD TSS and TCC levels would drop while DO
levels would increase until it reaches DO saturation point downstream from a
I
discharge point upstream Discharge from other plantations such as Arah Bersama I
I
OPP would affect the deoxygenation rate Kd and the reoxygenation rate Ka
Therefore the actual DO levels may deviate from the simulated results as the river
flows pass Arah Bersama OPP This study also looks into the Deoxygenation Rate Kd
Reaeration Rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks With the measured Deoxygenation
rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks to simulate the fate of BOD
DO TSS and TCC at 100m 200m 600m 1km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km
7km 8km 9km and 99km downstream of discharge point The Deoxygenation rate
I
Kd and Reaeration rate Ka at 273degC were fo~nd to be 0717 s- and 0894 s-
respectively The observed initial Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km The
measured Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km and decreased to 000 mgL at 97
km downstream of discharge point The TSS levels were simulated in four different
ranges for particles with aerodynamic diameters of 50 - 75 11m 76 - 100 11m 101 shy
125 11m and 126 - 15Q 11m with Settling Coefficients Ks at 0003 s- 0005 s- 0009
ii
I
S-I and 0013 S-I at 273degC respectively A comparison of the mathematical model
simulated and measured water qualities at 32 km downstream of discharge point the
simulated results are in good agreement with measured values To achi~ve effective
pollution control water resource management and sustainable development
quantitative contributions and environmental impacts should be identified and
assessed
Keywords Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation
I
r
iii
ABSTRAK
Model kualiti air telah dianggap sebagai alat yang berguna dalam pengurusan
kualiti air Dalam kajian ini Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Total
Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts disimulasi di sepanjang Sg Telong
Keadaan Steady-State dan First-Order Kinetic Process dianggap untuk simulasi kualiti
air di atas sepanjang Sg Telong Dalam Kajian ini Streeter Phelps Model telah
digunakan untuk meramalkan Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen
Total Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts di Sg Telong Ia telah mendapati
bahawa kepakatan BOD TSS dan TCC akan turun manakala kepekatan DO akan
meningkat sehingga mencapai DO tepu dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Pembuangan
sisa daripada ladang-Iadang lain seperti Arah Bersama RRJP akan menjejaskan
Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka Oleh itu kepekatan DO sebenar
mungkin menyimpang daripada keputusan simulasi yang disebabkann oleh aliran
melalui Arah Bersama OPP Kajian ini juga mencari Deoxygenation rate Kd
Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks Dengan Deoxygenation rate Kd
Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks yang diukur kualiti BOD DO
TSS dan TCC di 100m 200m 600m 1 km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km
7km 8km 9km dan hiliran 99km daripada lokasi pembuangan sisa telah diramalkan p
Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka pada 273degC didapati adalah 0717
S-I dan 0894 S-I masing-masing Initial 6)xygen deficit adalah 527 mg L pada 0
km Oxygen Deficit yang diukur adaJah 527 mg L pada 0 -km dan menurun kepada
000 mg L di 97 km hilian dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Tahap TSS yang disimulasi
adalah dalam empat julat yang berlainan bagi zarah dengan diameter aerodinamik 50-
75 lm 76 - 100 lm 101 - 125 lm dan 126-150 lm dengan Settling Coefficient Ks
iv
pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing
Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari
lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang
baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk
mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan
pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan
kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan
untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja
tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran
Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
Abstract 11
Table of Contents Vl
List of Appendices V11
List of Tables Vlll
List of Figures lX
Chapter 1 - Introduction
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
12 Problem Statement 4
13 Objective of Study 5
14 Scope of Study 6
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
21 Water Quality System 9
211 Soil Erosion 10
212 Sediment Transport 11
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12
22 Mathematical Modeling 13
221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling
Chapter 3 - Methodology
31 Description of the Study Area 23
32 Data Collection 29
33 Model Description 29
34 Channel Properties 30
35 Water Quality Modeling 32
351 BOD Modeling 37
352 DO Modeling 38
353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39
3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39
vi
44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling
Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion
41 Water Quality Simulation il 46
411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46
412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50
413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54
Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56
References 57
List of Appendices
31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results
32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
-
vii
List of Tables
31 Description of Study Points 24
Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32
W2amp W4
33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31
34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40
BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641
Distances Downstream of Discharge Point
Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042
Ranges
Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143
Particles Ranges
Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44
Downstream of Discharge Point
45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53
Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546
Discharge Point
viii
List of Figures
Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and
Sumatra
12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3
13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6
L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7
21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19
31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22
32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25
33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)
26
34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)
28
41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong
51
44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth
52
45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5
53
46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5
55
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment
has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals
forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The
growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for
people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased
human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature
A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a
result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In
1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a
large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which
contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of
83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2
million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12
Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on
track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said
that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000
1
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
S-I and 0013 S-I at 273degC respectively A comparison of the mathematical model
simulated and measured water qualities at 32 km downstream of discharge point the
simulated results are in good agreement with measured values To achi~ve effective
pollution control water resource management and sustainable development
quantitative contributions and environmental impacts should be identified and
assessed
Keywords Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation
I
r
iii
ABSTRAK
Model kualiti air telah dianggap sebagai alat yang berguna dalam pengurusan
kualiti air Dalam kajian ini Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Total
Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts disimulasi di sepanjang Sg Telong
Keadaan Steady-State dan First-Order Kinetic Process dianggap untuk simulasi kualiti
air di atas sepanjang Sg Telong Dalam Kajian ini Streeter Phelps Model telah
digunakan untuk meramalkan Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen
Total Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts di Sg Telong Ia telah mendapati
bahawa kepakatan BOD TSS dan TCC akan turun manakala kepekatan DO akan
meningkat sehingga mencapai DO tepu dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Pembuangan
sisa daripada ladang-Iadang lain seperti Arah Bersama RRJP akan menjejaskan
Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka Oleh itu kepekatan DO sebenar
mungkin menyimpang daripada keputusan simulasi yang disebabkann oleh aliran
melalui Arah Bersama OPP Kajian ini juga mencari Deoxygenation rate Kd
Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks Dengan Deoxygenation rate Kd
Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks yang diukur kualiti BOD DO
TSS dan TCC di 100m 200m 600m 1 km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km
7km 8km 9km dan hiliran 99km daripada lokasi pembuangan sisa telah diramalkan p
Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka pada 273degC didapati adalah 0717
S-I dan 0894 S-I masing-masing Initial 6)xygen deficit adalah 527 mg L pada 0
km Oxygen Deficit yang diukur adaJah 527 mg L pada 0 -km dan menurun kepada
000 mg L di 97 km hilian dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Tahap TSS yang disimulasi
adalah dalam empat julat yang berlainan bagi zarah dengan diameter aerodinamik 50-
75 lm 76 - 100 lm 101 - 125 lm dan 126-150 lm dengan Settling Coefficient Ks
iv
pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing
Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari
lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang
baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk
mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan
pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan
kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan
untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja
tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran
Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
Abstract 11
Table of Contents Vl
List of Appendices V11
List of Tables Vlll
List of Figures lX
Chapter 1 - Introduction
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
12 Problem Statement 4
13 Objective of Study 5
14 Scope of Study 6
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
21 Water Quality System 9
211 Soil Erosion 10
212 Sediment Transport 11
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12
22 Mathematical Modeling 13
221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling
Chapter 3 - Methodology
31 Description of the Study Area 23
32 Data Collection 29
33 Model Description 29
34 Channel Properties 30
35 Water Quality Modeling 32
351 BOD Modeling 37
352 DO Modeling 38
353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39
3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39
vi
44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling
Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion
41 Water Quality Simulation il 46
411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46
412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50
413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54
Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56
References 57
List of Appendices
31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results
32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
-
vii
List of Tables
31 Description of Study Points 24
Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32
W2amp W4
33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31
34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40
BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641
Distances Downstream of Discharge Point
Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042
Ranges
Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143
Particles Ranges
Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44
Downstream of Discharge Point
45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53
Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546
Discharge Point
viii
List of Figures
Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and
Sumatra
12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3
13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6
L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7
21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19
31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22
32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25
33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)
26
34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)
28
41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong
51
44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth
52
45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5
53
46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5
55
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment
has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals
forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The
growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for
people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased
human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature
A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a
result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In
1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a
large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which
contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of
83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2
million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12
Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on
track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said
that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000
1
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
ABSTRAK
Model kualiti air telah dianggap sebagai alat yang berguna dalam pengurusan
kualiti air Dalam kajian ini Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Total
Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts disimulasi di sepanjang Sg Telong
Keadaan Steady-State dan First-Order Kinetic Process dianggap untuk simulasi kualiti
air di atas sepanjang Sg Telong Dalam Kajian ini Streeter Phelps Model telah
digunakan untuk meramalkan Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen
Total Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts di Sg Telong Ia telah mendapati
bahawa kepakatan BOD TSS dan TCC akan turun manakala kepekatan DO akan
meningkat sehingga mencapai DO tepu dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Pembuangan
sisa daripada ladang-Iadang lain seperti Arah Bersama RRJP akan menjejaskan
Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka Oleh itu kepekatan DO sebenar
mungkin menyimpang daripada keputusan simulasi yang disebabkann oleh aliran
melalui Arah Bersama OPP Kajian ini juga mencari Deoxygenation rate Kd
Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks Dengan Deoxygenation rate Kd
Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks yang diukur kualiti BOD DO
TSS dan TCC di 100m 200m 600m 1 km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km
7km 8km 9km dan hiliran 99km daripada lokasi pembuangan sisa telah diramalkan p
Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka pada 273degC didapati adalah 0717
S-I dan 0894 S-I masing-masing Initial 6)xygen deficit adalah 527 mg L pada 0
km Oxygen Deficit yang diukur adaJah 527 mg L pada 0 -km dan menurun kepada
000 mg L di 97 km hilian dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Tahap TSS yang disimulasi
adalah dalam empat julat yang berlainan bagi zarah dengan diameter aerodinamik 50-
75 lm 76 - 100 lm 101 - 125 lm dan 126-150 lm dengan Settling Coefficient Ks
iv
pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing
Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari
lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang
baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk
mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan
pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan
kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan
untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja
tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran
Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
Abstract 11
Table of Contents Vl
List of Appendices V11
List of Tables Vlll
List of Figures lX
Chapter 1 - Introduction
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
12 Problem Statement 4
13 Objective of Study 5
14 Scope of Study 6
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
21 Water Quality System 9
211 Soil Erosion 10
212 Sediment Transport 11
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12
22 Mathematical Modeling 13
221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling
Chapter 3 - Methodology
31 Description of the Study Area 23
32 Data Collection 29
33 Model Description 29
34 Channel Properties 30
35 Water Quality Modeling 32
351 BOD Modeling 37
352 DO Modeling 38
353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39
3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39
vi
44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling
Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion
41 Water Quality Simulation il 46
411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46
412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50
413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54
Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56
References 57
List of Appendices
31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results
32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
-
vii
List of Tables
31 Description of Study Points 24
Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32
W2amp W4
33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31
34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40
BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641
Distances Downstream of Discharge Point
Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042
Ranges
Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143
Particles Ranges
Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44
Downstream of Discharge Point
45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53
Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546
Discharge Point
viii
List of Figures
Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and
Sumatra
12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3
13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6
L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7
21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19
31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22
32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25
33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)
26
34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)
28
41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong
51
44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth
52
45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5
53
46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5
55
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment
has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals
forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The
growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for
people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased
human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature
A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a
result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In
1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a
large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which
contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of
83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2
million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12
Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on
track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said
that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000
1
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing
Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari
lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang
baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk
mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan
pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan
kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan
untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja
tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran
Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
Abstract 11
Table of Contents Vl
List of Appendices V11
List of Tables Vlll
List of Figures lX
Chapter 1 - Introduction
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
12 Problem Statement 4
13 Objective of Study 5
14 Scope of Study 6
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
21 Water Quality System 9
211 Soil Erosion 10
212 Sediment Transport 11
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12
22 Mathematical Modeling 13
221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling
Chapter 3 - Methodology
31 Description of the Study Area 23
32 Data Collection 29
33 Model Description 29
34 Channel Properties 30
35 Water Quality Modeling 32
351 BOD Modeling 37
352 DO Modeling 38
353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39
3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39
vi
44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling
Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion
41 Water Quality Simulation il 46
411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46
412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50
413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54
Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56
References 57
List of Appendices
31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results
32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
-
vii
List of Tables
31 Description of Study Points 24
Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32
W2amp W4
33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31
34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40
BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641
Distances Downstream of Discharge Point
Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042
Ranges
Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143
Particles Ranges
Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44
Downstream of Discharge Point
45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53
Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546
Discharge Point
viii
List of Figures
Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and
Sumatra
12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3
13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6
L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7
21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19
31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22
32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25
33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)
26
34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)
28
41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong
51
44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth
52
45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5
53
46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5
55
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment
has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals
forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The
growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for
people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased
human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature
A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a
result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In
1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a
large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which
contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of
83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2
million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12
Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on
track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said
that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000
1
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
Abstract 11
Table of Contents Vl
List of Appendices V11
List of Tables Vlll
List of Figures lX
Chapter 1 - Introduction
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
12 Problem Statement 4
13 Objective of Study 5
14 Scope of Study 6
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
21 Water Quality System 9
211 Soil Erosion 10
212 Sediment Transport 11
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12
22 Mathematical Modeling 13
221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling
Chapter 3 - Methodology
31 Description of the Study Area 23
32 Data Collection 29
33 Model Description 29
34 Channel Properties 30
35 Water Quality Modeling 32
351 BOD Modeling 37
352 DO Modeling 38
353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39
3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39
vi
44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling
Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion
41 Water Quality Simulation il 46
411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46
412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50
413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54
Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56
References 57
List of Appendices
31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results
32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
-
vii
List of Tables
31 Description of Study Points 24
Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32
W2amp W4
33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31
34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40
BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641
Distances Downstream of Discharge Point
Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042
Ranges
Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143
Particles Ranges
Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44
Downstream of Discharge Point
45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53
Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546
Discharge Point
viii
List of Figures
Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and
Sumatra
12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3
13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6
L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7
21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19
31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22
32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25
33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)
26
34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)
28
41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong
51
44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth
52
45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5
53
46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5
55
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment
has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals
forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The
growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for
people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased
human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature
A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a
result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In
1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a
large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which
contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of
83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2
million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12
Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on
track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said
that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000
1
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling
Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion
41 Water Quality Simulation il 46
411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46
412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50
413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54
Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56
References 57
List of Appendices
31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results
32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
-
vii
List of Tables
31 Description of Study Points 24
Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32
W2amp W4
33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31
34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40
BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641
Distances Downstream of Discharge Point
Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042
Ranges
Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143
Particles Ranges
Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44
Downstream of Discharge Point
45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53
Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546
Discharge Point
viii
List of Figures
Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and
Sumatra
12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3
13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6
L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7
21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19
31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22
32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25
33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)
26
34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)
28
41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong
51
44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth
52
45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5
53
46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5
55
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment
has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals
forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The
growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for
people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased
human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature
A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a
result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In
1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a
large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which
contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of
83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2
million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12
Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on
track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said
that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000
1
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
List of Tables
31 Description of Study Points 24
Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32
W2amp W4
33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31
34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40
BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641
Distances Downstream of Discharge Point
Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042
Ranges
Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143
Particles Ranges
Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44
Downstream of Discharge Point
45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53
Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546
Discharge Point
viii
List of Figures
Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and
Sumatra
12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3
13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6
L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7
21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19
31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22
32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25
33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)
26
34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)
28
41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong
51
44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth
52
45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5
53
46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5
55
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment
has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals
forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The
growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for
people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased
human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature
A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a
result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In
1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a
large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which
contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of
83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2
million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12
Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on
track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said
that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000
1
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
List of Figures
Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and
Sumatra
12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3
13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6
L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7
21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19
31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22
32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25
33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)
26
34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)
28
41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation
47
43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong
51
44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth
52
45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5
53
46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5
55
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment
has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals
forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The
growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for
people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased
human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature
A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a
result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In
1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a
large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which
contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of
83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2
million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12
Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on
track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said
that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000
1
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia
Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment
has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals
forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The
growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for
people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased
human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature
A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a
result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In
1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a
large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which
contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of
83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2
million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12
Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on
track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said
that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000
1
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)
Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes
or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest
producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production
(Teoh 2002)
The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)
Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and
harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing
earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result
in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the
ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution
caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The
development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due
to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are
two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development
2
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
100E 105E 110E 115E
5N
O
legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm
5S 0 300km I I tit I
100E
5S
110E 115E
Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the
lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra
Source Koh et ai 2011
Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO
5000000
o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001
-5000000
-lCXlDOOOO
-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit
M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss
-10000000 I
fnOnIabaycom
Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008
Source Payoff 2011
3
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
12 Problem Statement
Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland
water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration
of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate
recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main
consequences from oil palm plantation development
In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure
prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm
plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed
activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural
Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on
the environment
In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA
report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have
effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information
about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing
mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and
monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants
4
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt
will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project
development
In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in
Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water
Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to
maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is
needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address
the pollution problem
13 Objective of Study
The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts
(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm
plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and
Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO
defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point
5
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
14 The Scope of Study
The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _
Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm
plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been
planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)
8TUDYAREA
--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area
6
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
I I 1 I I I I
I I I IbullI
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I
ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION
I I
I I
I I
I I
-shy
-----shyt
I I
I
SOP PLANTATION
I I shy
I I I
f I
l_11~~-1 I
~ ~ ~tO
bullII
I
LEGEND 11_1 Road
1-1River
00 Bridie
1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point
SCALE
~_~--
Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area
7
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A
tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation
(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation
Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP
receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area
and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)
A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was
developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly
receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used
to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key
variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen
required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When
the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by
microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components
Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the
determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate
Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are
applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance
downstream of the discharge point
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
CHAPTER 2
LITERA TURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas
especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other
related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and
disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The
most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the
conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable
and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon
sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts
Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr
James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation
by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area
planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009
Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of
Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I
has a lot of land yet to be opened up
During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which
contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased
9
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes
widespread erosion
During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down
the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess
amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water
quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel
capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods
and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation
21 Water Quality System
211 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation
for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried
by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy
each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the
lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil
plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport
energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility
rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil
to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of
10
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and
raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface
runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity
frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated
The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total
suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the
aquatic life by destructing the habitat
212 Sediment Transport
According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of
detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried
from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the
erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which
involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition
Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a
water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which
is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water
currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and
density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet
solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence
11
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12
Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles
and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those
materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further
categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm
in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load
is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of
the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers
Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to
be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be
picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it
sink back to the river bed
213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic
organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies
According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required
by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the
organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by
converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is
consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen
demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water
12