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WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION PREDOMINATED AREA - A CASE STUDY Tang Jock Ki'e TD Master of Environmental Science 367 (Land Use and Water Resource Management) T161 2013 2013

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Page 1: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION PREDOMINATED AREA - A CASE STUDY

Tang Jock Kie

TD Master of Environmental Science367

(Land Use and Water Resource Management)T161 20132013

Pusat KJIidmat MakJumat Akadlmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK

WATER QUALITY MODELING OF OIL PALM PLANTATION PREDOMINATED AREA - A CASE STUDY

TANG JOCK KIE

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Environmental Science I

Faculty of Resource Science and Technology Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest appreciation to my

dissertation supervisor Prof Dr Law Puong Ling He has provided suggestions tremendous

help guidance and useful information for completion of my dissertation

I would like to thank my formal SLUSE coordinators Dr Lim Po Teen Dr Effendi

and current SLUSE coordinator Dr Tay Meng Guan for their encouragement and patience to

provide guidance and support to make this dissertation a success

Finally my deepest gratitude goes to my husband Ting Huong Siong and my family

for their patience understanding continuous support and caring

I

1

ABSTRACT

I

Water quality modeling has always been regarded as a useful tool in water

quality management In this study Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen

Total Suspended Solids and Total Coliform Counts are simulated along Sg Telong

The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order Kinetic Process is assumed

for the fate of the above water qualities along Sg Telong In this study Streeter-Phelp

Model was used to predict downstream Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biological Oxygen

Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TCC) of

Sg Telong It was found that the BOD TSS and TCC levels would drop while DO

levels would increase until it reaches DO saturation point downstream from a

I

discharge point upstream Discharge from other plantations such as Arah Bersama I

I

OPP would affect the deoxygenation rate Kd and the reoxygenation rate Ka

Therefore the actual DO levels may deviate from the simulated results as the river

flows pass Arah Bersama OPP This study also looks into the Deoxygenation Rate Kd

Reaeration Rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks With the measured Deoxygenation

rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks to simulate the fate of BOD

DO TSS and TCC at 100m 200m 600m 1km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km

7km 8km 9km and 99km downstream of discharge point The Deoxygenation rate

I

Kd and Reaeration rate Ka at 273degC were fo~nd to be 0717 s- and 0894 s-

respectively The observed initial Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km The

measured Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km and decreased to 000 mgL at 97

km downstream of discharge point The TSS levels were simulated in four different

ranges for particles with aerodynamic diameters of 50 - 75 11m 76 - 100 11m 101 shy

125 11m and 126 - 15Q 11m with Settling Coefficients Ks at 0003 s- 0005 s- 0009

ii

I

S-I and 0013 S-I at 273degC respectively A comparison of the mathematical model

simulated and measured water qualities at 32 km downstream of discharge point the

simulated results are in good agreement with measured values To achi~ve effective

pollution control water resource management and sustainable development

quantitative contributions and environmental impacts should be identified and

assessed

Keywords Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation

I

r

iii

ABSTRAK

Model kualiti air telah dianggap sebagai alat yang berguna dalam pengurusan

kualiti air Dalam kajian ini Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Total

Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts disimulasi di sepanjang Sg Telong

Keadaan Steady-State dan First-Order Kinetic Process dianggap untuk simulasi kualiti

air di atas sepanjang Sg Telong Dalam Kajian ini Streeter Phelps Model telah

digunakan untuk meramalkan Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen

Total Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts di Sg Telong Ia telah mendapati

bahawa kepakatan BOD TSS dan TCC akan turun manakala kepekatan DO akan

meningkat sehingga mencapai DO tepu dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Pembuangan

sisa daripada ladang-Iadang lain seperti Arah Bersama RRJP akan menjejaskan

Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka Oleh itu kepekatan DO sebenar

mungkin menyimpang daripada keputusan simulasi yang disebabkann oleh aliran

melalui Arah Bersama OPP Kajian ini juga mencari Deoxygenation rate Kd

Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks Dengan Deoxygenation rate Kd

Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks yang diukur kualiti BOD DO

TSS dan TCC di 100m 200m 600m 1 km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km

7km 8km 9km dan hiliran 99km daripada lokasi pembuangan sisa telah diramalkan p

Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka pada 273degC didapati adalah 0717

S-I dan 0894 S-I masing-masing Initial 6)xygen deficit adalah 527 mg L pada 0

km Oxygen Deficit yang diukur adaJah 527 mg L pada 0 -km dan menurun kepada

000 mg L di 97 km hilian dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Tahap TSS yang disimulasi

adalah dalam empat julat yang berlainan bagi zarah dengan diameter aerodinamik 50-

75 lm 76 - 100 lm 101 - 125 lm dan 126-150 lm dengan Settling Coefficient Ks

iv

pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing

Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari

lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang

baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk

mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan

pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan

kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan

untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja

tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran

Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

Abstract 11

Table of Contents Vl

List of Appendices V11

List of Tables Vlll

List of Figures lX

Chapter 1 - Introduction

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

12 Problem Statement 4

13 Objective of Study 5

14 Scope of Study 6

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

21 Water Quality System 9

211 Soil Erosion 10

212 Sediment Transport 11

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12

22 Mathematical Modeling 13

221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling

Chapter 3 - Methodology

31 Description of the Study Area 23

32 Data Collection 29

33 Model Description 29

34 Channel Properties 30

35 Water Quality Modeling 32

351 BOD Modeling 37

352 DO Modeling 38

353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39

3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39

vi

44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling

Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion

41 Water Quality Simulation il 46

411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46

412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50

413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54

Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56

References 57

List of Appendices

31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results

32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia

-

vii

List of Tables

31 Description of Study Points 24

Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32

W2amp W4

33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31

34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40

BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641

Distances Downstream of Discharge Point

Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042

Ranges

Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143

Particles Ranges

Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44

Downstream of Discharge Point

45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53

Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546

Discharge Point

viii

List of Figures

Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and

Sumatra

12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3

13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6

L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7

21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19

31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22

32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25

33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)

26

34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)

28

41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong

51

44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth

52

45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5

53

46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5

55

ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment

has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals

forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The

growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for

people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased

human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature

A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a

result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In

1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a

large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which

contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of

83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2

million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12

Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on

track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said

that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000

1

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 2: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

Pusat KJIidmat MakJumat Akadlmih UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK

WATER QUALITY MODELING OF OIL PALM PLANTATION PREDOMINATED AREA - A CASE STUDY

TANG JOCK KIE

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Environmental Science I

Faculty of Resource Science and Technology Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest appreciation to my

dissertation supervisor Prof Dr Law Puong Ling He has provided suggestions tremendous

help guidance and useful information for completion of my dissertation

I would like to thank my formal SLUSE coordinators Dr Lim Po Teen Dr Effendi

and current SLUSE coordinator Dr Tay Meng Guan for their encouragement and patience to

provide guidance and support to make this dissertation a success

Finally my deepest gratitude goes to my husband Ting Huong Siong and my family

for their patience understanding continuous support and caring

I

1

ABSTRACT

I

Water quality modeling has always been regarded as a useful tool in water

quality management In this study Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen

Total Suspended Solids and Total Coliform Counts are simulated along Sg Telong

The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order Kinetic Process is assumed

for the fate of the above water qualities along Sg Telong In this study Streeter-Phelp

Model was used to predict downstream Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biological Oxygen

Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TCC) of

Sg Telong It was found that the BOD TSS and TCC levels would drop while DO

levels would increase until it reaches DO saturation point downstream from a

I

discharge point upstream Discharge from other plantations such as Arah Bersama I

I

OPP would affect the deoxygenation rate Kd and the reoxygenation rate Ka

Therefore the actual DO levels may deviate from the simulated results as the river

flows pass Arah Bersama OPP This study also looks into the Deoxygenation Rate Kd

Reaeration Rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks With the measured Deoxygenation

rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks to simulate the fate of BOD

DO TSS and TCC at 100m 200m 600m 1km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km

7km 8km 9km and 99km downstream of discharge point The Deoxygenation rate

I

Kd and Reaeration rate Ka at 273degC were fo~nd to be 0717 s- and 0894 s-

respectively The observed initial Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km The

measured Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km and decreased to 000 mgL at 97

km downstream of discharge point The TSS levels were simulated in four different

ranges for particles with aerodynamic diameters of 50 - 75 11m 76 - 100 11m 101 shy

125 11m and 126 - 15Q 11m with Settling Coefficients Ks at 0003 s- 0005 s- 0009

ii

I

S-I and 0013 S-I at 273degC respectively A comparison of the mathematical model

simulated and measured water qualities at 32 km downstream of discharge point the

simulated results are in good agreement with measured values To achi~ve effective

pollution control water resource management and sustainable development

quantitative contributions and environmental impacts should be identified and

assessed

Keywords Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation

I

r

iii

ABSTRAK

Model kualiti air telah dianggap sebagai alat yang berguna dalam pengurusan

kualiti air Dalam kajian ini Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Total

Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts disimulasi di sepanjang Sg Telong

Keadaan Steady-State dan First-Order Kinetic Process dianggap untuk simulasi kualiti

air di atas sepanjang Sg Telong Dalam Kajian ini Streeter Phelps Model telah

digunakan untuk meramalkan Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen

Total Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts di Sg Telong Ia telah mendapati

bahawa kepakatan BOD TSS dan TCC akan turun manakala kepekatan DO akan

meningkat sehingga mencapai DO tepu dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Pembuangan

sisa daripada ladang-Iadang lain seperti Arah Bersama RRJP akan menjejaskan

Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka Oleh itu kepekatan DO sebenar

mungkin menyimpang daripada keputusan simulasi yang disebabkann oleh aliran

melalui Arah Bersama OPP Kajian ini juga mencari Deoxygenation rate Kd

Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks Dengan Deoxygenation rate Kd

Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks yang diukur kualiti BOD DO

TSS dan TCC di 100m 200m 600m 1 km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km

7km 8km 9km dan hiliran 99km daripada lokasi pembuangan sisa telah diramalkan p

Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka pada 273degC didapati adalah 0717

S-I dan 0894 S-I masing-masing Initial 6)xygen deficit adalah 527 mg L pada 0

km Oxygen Deficit yang diukur adaJah 527 mg L pada 0 -km dan menurun kepada

000 mg L di 97 km hilian dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Tahap TSS yang disimulasi

adalah dalam empat julat yang berlainan bagi zarah dengan diameter aerodinamik 50-

75 lm 76 - 100 lm 101 - 125 lm dan 126-150 lm dengan Settling Coefficient Ks

iv

pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing

Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari

lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang

baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk

mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan

pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan

kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan

untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja

tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran

Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

Abstract 11

Table of Contents Vl

List of Appendices V11

List of Tables Vlll

List of Figures lX

Chapter 1 - Introduction

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

12 Problem Statement 4

13 Objective of Study 5

14 Scope of Study 6

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

21 Water Quality System 9

211 Soil Erosion 10

212 Sediment Transport 11

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12

22 Mathematical Modeling 13

221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling

Chapter 3 - Methodology

31 Description of the Study Area 23

32 Data Collection 29

33 Model Description 29

34 Channel Properties 30

35 Water Quality Modeling 32

351 BOD Modeling 37

352 DO Modeling 38

353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39

3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39

vi

44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling

Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion

41 Water Quality Simulation il 46

411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46

412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50

413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54

Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56

References 57

List of Appendices

31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results

32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia

-

vii

List of Tables

31 Description of Study Points 24

Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32

W2amp W4

33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31

34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40

BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641

Distances Downstream of Discharge Point

Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042

Ranges

Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143

Particles Ranges

Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44

Downstream of Discharge Point

45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53

Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546

Discharge Point

viii

List of Figures

Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and

Sumatra

12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3

13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6

L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7

21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19

31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22

32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25

33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)

26

34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)

28

41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong

51

44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth

52

45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5

53

46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5

55

ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment

has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals

forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The

growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for

people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased

human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature

A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a

result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In

1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a

large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which

contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of

83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2

million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12

Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on

track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said

that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000

1

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 3: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest appreciation to my

dissertation supervisor Prof Dr Law Puong Ling He has provided suggestions tremendous

help guidance and useful information for completion of my dissertation

I would like to thank my formal SLUSE coordinators Dr Lim Po Teen Dr Effendi

and current SLUSE coordinator Dr Tay Meng Guan for their encouragement and patience to

provide guidance and support to make this dissertation a success

Finally my deepest gratitude goes to my husband Ting Huong Siong and my family

for their patience understanding continuous support and caring

I

1

ABSTRACT

I

Water quality modeling has always been regarded as a useful tool in water

quality management In this study Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen

Total Suspended Solids and Total Coliform Counts are simulated along Sg Telong

The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order Kinetic Process is assumed

for the fate of the above water qualities along Sg Telong In this study Streeter-Phelp

Model was used to predict downstream Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biological Oxygen

Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TCC) of

Sg Telong It was found that the BOD TSS and TCC levels would drop while DO

levels would increase until it reaches DO saturation point downstream from a

I

discharge point upstream Discharge from other plantations such as Arah Bersama I

I

OPP would affect the deoxygenation rate Kd and the reoxygenation rate Ka

Therefore the actual DO levels may deviate from the simulated results as the river

flows pass Arah Bersama OPP This study also looks into the Deoxygenation Rate Kd

Reaeration Rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks With the measured Deoxygenation

rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks to simulate the fate of BOD

DO TSS and TCC at 100m 200m 600m 1km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km

7km 8km 9km and 99km downstream of discharge point The Deoxygenation rate

I

Kd and Reaeration rate Ka at 273degC were fo~nd to be 0717 s- and 0894 s-

respectively The observed initial Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km The

measured Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km and decreased to 000 mgL at 97

km downstream of discharge point The TSS levels were simulated in four different

ranges for particles with aerodynamic diameters of 50 - 75 11m 76 - 100 11m 101 shy

125 11m and 126 - 15Q 11m with Settling Coefficients Ks at 0003 s- 0005 s- 0009

ii

I

S-I and 0013 S-I at 273degC respectively A comparison of the mathematical model

simulated and measured water qualities at 32 km downstream of discharge point the

simulated results are in good agreement with measured values To achi~ve effective

pollution control water resource management and sustainable development

quantitative contributions and environmental impacts should be identified and

assessed

Keywords Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation

I

r

iii

ABSTRAK

Model kualiti air telah dianggap sebagai alat yang berguna dalam pengurusan

kualiti air Dalam kajian ini Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Total

Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts disimulasi di sepanjang Sg Telong

Keadaan Steady-State dan First-Order Kinetic Process dianggap untuk simulasi kualiti

air di atas sepanjang Sg Telong Dalam Kajian ini Streeter Phelps Model telah

digunakan untuk meramalkan Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen

Total Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts di Sg Telong Ia telah mendapati

bahawa kepakatan BOD TSS dan TCC akan turun manakala kepekatan DO akan

meningkat sehingga mencapai DO tepu dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Pembuangan

sisa daripada ladang-Iadang lain seperti Arah Bersama RRJP akan menjejaskan

Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka Oleh itu kepekatan DO sebenar

mungkin menyimpang daripada keputusan simulasi yang disebabkann oleh aliran

melalui Arah Bersama OPP Kajian ini juga mencari Deoxygenation rate Kd

Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks Dengan Deoxygenation rate Kd

Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks yang diukur kualiti BOD DO

TSS dan TCC di 100m 200m 600m 1 km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km

7km 8km 9km dan hiliran 99km daripada lokasi pembuangan sisa telah diramalkan p

Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka pada 273degC didapati adalah 0717

S-I dan 0894 S-I masing-masing Initial 6)xygen deficit adalah 527 mg L pada 0

km Oxygen Deficit yang diukur adaJah 527 mg L pada 0 -km dan menurun kepada

000 mg L di 97 km hilian dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Tahap TSS yang disimulasi

adalah dalam empat julat yang berlainan bagi zarah dengan diameter aerodinamik 50-

75 lm 76 - 100 lm 101 - 125 lm dan 126-150 lm dengan Settling Coefficient Ks

iv

pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing

Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari

lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang

baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk

mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan

pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan

kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan

untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja

tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran

Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

Abstract 11

Table of Contents Vl

List of Appendices V11

List of Tables Vlll

List of Figures lX

Chapter 1 - Introduction

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

12 Problem Statement 4

13 Objective of Study 5

14 Scope of Study 6

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

21 Water Quality System 9

211 Soil Erosion 10

212 Sediment Transport 11

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12

22 Mathematical Modeling 13

221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling

Chapter 3 - Methodology

31 Description of the Study Area 23

32 Data Collection 29

33 Model Description 29

34 Channel Properties 30

35 Water Quality Modeling 32

351 BOD Modeling 37

352 DO Modeling 38

353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39

3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39

vi

44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling

Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion

41 Water Quality Simulation il 46

411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46

412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50

413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54

Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56

References 57

List of Appendices

31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results

32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia

-

vii

List of Tables

31 Description of Study Points 24

Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32

W2amp W4

33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31

34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40

BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641

Distances Downstream of Discharge Point

Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042

Ranges

Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143

Particles Ranges

Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44

Downstream of Discharge Point

45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53

Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546

Discharge Point

viii

List of Figures

Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and

Sumatra

12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3

13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6

L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7

21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19

31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22

32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25

33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)

26

34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)

28

41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong

51

44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth

52

45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5

53

46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5

55

ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment

has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals

forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The

growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for

people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased

human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature

A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a

result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In

1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a

large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which

contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of

83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2

million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12

Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on

track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said

that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000

1

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 4: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

1

ABSTRACT

I

Water quality modeling has always been regarded as a useful tool in water

quality management In this study Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen

Total Suspended Solids and Total Coliform Counts are simulated along Sg Telong

The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order Kinetic Process is assumed

for the fate of the above water qualities along Sg Telong In this study Streeter-Phelp

Model was used to predict downstream Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Biological Oxygen

Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TCC) of

Sg Telong It was found that the BOD TSS and TCC levels would drop while DO

levels would increase until it reaches DO saturation point downstream from a

I

discharge point upstream Discharge from other plantations such as Arah Bersama I

I

OPP would affect the deoxygenation rate Kd and the reoxygenation rate Ka

Therefore the actual DO levels may deviate from the simulated results as the river

flows pass Arah Bersama OPP This study also looks into the Deoxygenation Rate Kd

Reaeration Rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks With the measured Deoxygenation

rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling Coefficient Ks to simulate the fate of BOD

DO TSS and TCC at 100m 200m 600m 1km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km

7km 8km 9km and 99km downstream of discharge point The Deoxygenation rate

I

Kd and Reaeration rate Ka at 273degC were fo~nd to be 0717 s- and 0894 s-

respectively The observed initial Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km The

measured Oxygen deficit was 527 mglL at O-km and decreased to 000 mgL at 97

km downstream of discharge point The TSS levels were simulated in four different

ranges for particles with aerodynamic diameters of 50 - 75 11m 76 - 100 11m 101 shy

125 11m and 126 - 15Q 11m with Settling Coefficients Ks at 0003 s- 0005 s- 0009

ii

I

S-I and 0013 S-I at 273degC respectively A comparison of the mathematical model

simulated and measured water qualities at 32 km downstream of discharge point the

simulated results are in good agreement with measured values To achi~ve effective

pollution control water resource management and sustainable development

quantitative contributions and environmental impacts should be identified and

assessed

Keywords Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation

I

r

iii

ABSTRAK

Model kualiti air telah dianggap sebagai alat yang berguna dalam pengurusan

kualiti air Dalam kajian ini Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Total

Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts disimulasi di sepanjang Sg Telong

Keadaan Steady-State dan First-Order Kinetic Process dianggap untuk simulasi kualiti

air di atas sepanjang Sg Telong Dalam Kajian ini Streeter Phelps Model telah

digunakan untuk meramalkan Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen

Total Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts di Sg Telong Ia telah mendapati

bahawa kepakatan BOD TSS dan TCC akan turun manakala kepekatan DO akan

meningkat sehingga mencapai DO tepu dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Pembuangan

sisa daripada ladang-Iadang lain seperti Arah Bersama RRJP akan menjejaskan

Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka Oleh itu kepekatan DO sebenar

mungkin menyimpang daripada keputusan simulasi yang disebabkann oleh aliran

melalui Arah Bersama OPP Kajian ini juga mencari Deoxygenation rate Kd

Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks Dengan Deoxygenation rate Kd

Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks yang diukur kualiti BOD DO

TSS dan TCC di 100m 200m 600m 1 km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km

7km 8km 9km dan hiliran 99km daripada lokasi pembuangan sisa telah diramalkan p

Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka pada 273degC didapati adalah 0717

S-I dan 0894 S-I masing-masing Initial 6)xygen deficit adalah 527 mg L pada 0

km Oxygen Deficit yang diukur adaJah 527 mg L pada 0 -km dan menurun kepada

000 mg L di 97 km hilian dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Tahap TSS yang disimulasi

adalah dalam empat julat yang berlainan bagi zarah dengan diameter aerodinamik 50-

75 lm 76 - 100 lm 101 - 125 lm dan 126-150 lm dengan Settling Coefficient Ks

iv

pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing

Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari

lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang

baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk

mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan

pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan

kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan

untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja

tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran

Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

Abstract 11

Table of Contents Vl

List of Appendices V11

List of Tables Vlll

List of Figures lX

Chapter 1 - Introduction

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

12 Problem Statement 4

13 Objective of Study 5

14 Scope of Study 6

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

21 Water Quality System 9

211 Soil Erosion 10

212 Sediment Transport 11

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12

22 Mathematical Modeling 13

221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling

Chapter 3 - Methodology

31 Description of the Study Area 23

32 Data Collection 29

33 Model Description 29

34 Channel Properties 30

35 Water Quality Modeling 32

351 BOD Modeling 37

352 DO Modeling 38

353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39

3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39

vi

44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling

Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion

41 Water Quality Simulation il 46

411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46

412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50

413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54

Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56

References 57

List of Appendices

31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results

32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia

-

vii

List of Tables

31 Description of Study Points 24

Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32

W2amp W4

33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31

34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40

BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641

Distances Downstream of Discharge Point

Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042

Ranges

Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143

Particles Ranges

Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44

Downstream of Discharge Point

45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53

Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546

Discharge Point

viii

List of Figures

Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and

Sumatra

12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3

13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6

L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7

21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19

31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22

32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25

33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)

26

34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)

28

41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong

51

44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth

52

45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5

53

46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5

55

ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment

has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals

forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The

growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for

people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased

human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature

A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a

result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In

1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a

large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which

contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of

83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2

million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12

Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on

track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said

that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000

1

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 5: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

S-I and 0013 S-I at 273degC respectively A comparison of the mathematical model

simulated and measured water qualities at 32 km downstream of discharge point the

simulated results are in good agreement with measured values To achi~ve effective

pollution control water resource management and sustainable development

quantitative contributions and environmental impacts should be identified and

assessed

Keywords Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation

I

r

iii

ABSTRAK

Model kualiti air telah dianggap sebagai alat yang berguna dalam pengurusan

kualiti air Dalam kajian ini Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Total

Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts disimulasi di sepanjang Sg Telong

Keadaan Steady-State dan First-Order Kinetic Process dianggap untuk simulasi kualiti

air di atas sepanjang Sg Telong Dalam Kajian ini Streeter Phelps Model telah

digunakan untuk meramalkan Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen

Total Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts di Sg Telong Ia telah mendapati

bahawa kepakatan BOD TSS dan TCC akan turun manakala kepekatan DO akan

meningkat sehingga mencapai DO tepu dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Pembuangan

sisa daripada ladang-Iadang lain seperti Arah Bersama RRJP akan menjejaskan

Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka Oleh itu kepekatan DO sebenar

mungkin menyimpang daripada keputusan simulasi yang disebabkann oleh aliran

melalui Arah Bersama OPP Kajian ini juga mencari Deoxygenation rate Kd

Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks Dengan Deoxygenation rate Kd

Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks yang diukur kualiti BOD DO

TSS dan TCC di 100m 200m 600m 1 km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km

7km 8km 9km dan hiliran 99km daripada lokasi pembuangan sisa telah diramalkan p

Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka pada 273degC didapati adalah 0717

S-I dan 0894 S-I masing-masing Initial 6)xygen deficit adalah 527 mg L pada 0

km Oxygen Deficit yang diukur adaJah 527 mg L pada 0 -km dan menurun kepada

000 mg L di 97 km hilian dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Tahap TSS yang disimulasi

adalah dalam empat julat yang berlainan bagi zarah dengan diameter aerodinamik 50-

75 lm 76 - 100 lm 101 - 125 lm dan 126-150 lm dengan Settling Coefficient Ks

iv

pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing

Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari

lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang

baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk

mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan

pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan

kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan

untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja

tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran

Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

Abstract 11

Table of Contents Vl

List of Appendices V11

List of Tables Vlll

List of Figures lX

Chapter 1 - Introduction

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

12 Problem Statement 4

13 Objective of Study 5

14 Scope of Study 6

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

21 Water Quality System 9

211 Soil Erosion 10

212 Sediment Transport 11

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12

22 Mathematical Modeling 13

221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling

Chapter 3 - Methodology

31 Description of the Study Area 23

32 Data Collection 29

33 Model Description 29

34 Channel Properties 30

35 Water Quality Modeling 32

351 BOD Modeling 37

352 DO Modeling 38

353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39

3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39

vi

44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling

Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion

41 Water Quality Simulation il 46

411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46

412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50

413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54

Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56

References 57

List of Appendices

31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results

32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia

-

vii

List of Tables

31 Description of Study Points 24

Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32

W2amp W4

33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31

34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40

BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641

Distances Downstream of Discharge Point

Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042

Ranges

Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143

Particles Ranges

Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44

Downstream of Discharge Point

45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53

Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546

Discharge Point

viii

List of Figures

Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and

Sumatra

12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3

13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6

L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7

21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19

31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22

32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25

33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)

26

34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)

28

41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong

51

44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth

52

45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5

53

46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5

55

ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment

has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals

forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The

growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for

people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased

human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature

A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a

result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In

1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a

large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which

contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of

83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2

million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12

Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on

track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said

that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000

1

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 6: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

ABSTRAK

Model kualiti air telah dianggap sebagai alat yang berguna dalam pengurusan

kualiti air Dalam kajian ini Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen Total

Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts disimulasi di sepanjang Sg Telong

Keadaan Steady-State dan First-Order Kinetic Process dianggap untuk simulasi kualiti

air di atas sepanjang Sg Telong Dalam Kajian ini Streeter Phelps Model telah

digunakan untuk meramalkan Biochemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen

Total Suspended Solids dan Total Coliform Counts di Sg Telong Ia telah mendapati

bahawa kepakatan BOD TSS dan TCC akan turun manakala kepekatan DO akan

meningkat sehingga mencapai DO tepu dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Pembuangan

sisa daripada ladang-Iadang lain seperti Arah Bersama RRJP akan menjejaskan

Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka Oleh itu kepekatan DO sebenar

mungkin menyimpang daripada keputusan simulasi yang disebabkann oleh aliran

melalui Arah Bersama OPP Kajian ini juga mencari Deoxygenation rate Kd

Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks Dengan Deoxygenation rate Kd

Reoxygenation rate Ka dan Settling Coefficient Ks yang diukur kualiti BOD DO

TSS dan TCC di 100m 200m 600m 1 km 2km 3km 32km 4km 5km 6km

7km 8km 9km dan hiliran 99km daripada lokasi pembuangan sisa telah diramalkan p

Deoxygenation rate Kd dan Reoxygenation rate Ka pada 273degC didapati adalah 0717

S-I dan 0894 S-I masing-masing Initial 6)xygen deficit adalah 527 mg L pada 0

km Oxygen Deficit yang diukur adaJah 527 mg L pada 0 -km dan menurun kepada

000 mg L di 97 km hilian dari lokasi pembuangan sisa Tahap TSS yang disimulasi

adalah dalam empat julat yang berlainan bagi zarah dengan diameter aerodinamik 50-

75 lm 76 - 100 lm 101 - 125 lm dan 126-150 lm dengan Settling Coefficient Ks

iv

pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing

Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari

lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang

baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk

mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan

pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan

kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan

untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja

tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran

Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

Abstract 11

Table of Contents Vl

List of Appendices V11

List of Tables Vlll

List of Figures lX

Chapter 1 - Introduction

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

12 Problem Statement 4

13 Objective of Study 5

14 Scope of Study 6

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

21 Water Quality System 9

211 Soil Erosion 10

212 Sediment Transport 11

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12

22 Mathematical Modeling 13

221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling

Chapter 3 - Methodology

31 Description of the Study Area 23

32 Data Collection 29

33 Model Description 29

34 Channel Properties 30

35 Water Quality Modeling 32

351 BOD Modeling 37

352 DO Modeling 38

353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39

3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39

vi

44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling

Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion

41 Water Quality Simulation il 46

411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46

412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50

413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54

Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56

References 57

List of Appendices

31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results

32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia

-

vii

List of Tables

31 Description of Study Points 24

Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32

W2amp W4

33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31

34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40

BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641

Distances Downstream of Discharge Point

Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042

Ranges

Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143

Particles Ranges

Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44

Downstream of Discharge Point

45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53

Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546

Discharge Point

viii

List of Figures

Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and

Sumatra

12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3

13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6

L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7

21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19

31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22

32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25

33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)

26

34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)

28

41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong

51

44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth

52

45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5

53

46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5

55

ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment

has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals

forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The

growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for

people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased

human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature

A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a

result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In

1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a

large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which

contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of

83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2

million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12

Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on

track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said

that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000

1

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 7: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

pada 0003 S-l 0005 S-l 0009 S-l dan 0013 S-l pada 273degC masing-masing

Perbezaan di antara model matematik simulasi dengan kajian kualiti air di 32 km dari

lokasi pembuangan sisa Keputusan simulasi model berada dalam perjanjian yang

baik dengan water qualities yang dikumpul dalam makmal Dalam usaha untuk

mencapai kawalan pencemaran yang berkesan pengurusan sumber air dan

pembangunan mampan sumber-sumber pencemaran sumbangan kuantitatif dan

kesan perlu dikenal pasti dan dinilai Model matematik dan pengiraan yang diperlukan

untuk meramalkan kesan-kesan pencemaran sebagai kajian dan pemerhatian sahaja

tidak mencukupi untuk menangani masalah pencemaran

Kata Kunci Oil Palm Plantation BOD DO TSS TCC Streeter Phelps Equation

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

Abstract 11

Table of Contents Vl

List of Appendices V11

List of Tables Vlll

List of Figures lX

Chapter 1 - Introduction

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

12 Problem Statement 4

13 Objective of Study 5

14 Scope of Study 6

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

21 Water Quality System 9

211 Soil Erosion 10

212 Sediment Transport 11

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12

22 Mathematical Modeling 13

221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling

Chapter 3 - Methodology

31 Description of the Study Area 23

32 Data Collection 29

33 Model Description 29

34 Channel Properties 30

35 Water Quality Modeling 32

351 BOD Modeling 37

352 DO Modeling 38

353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39

3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39

vi

44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling

Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion

41 Water Quality Simulation il 46

411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46

412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50

413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54

Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56

References 57

List of Appendices

31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results

32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia

-

vii

List of Tables

31 Description of Study Points 24

Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32

W2amp W4

33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31

34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40

BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641

Distances Downstream of Discharge Point

Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042

Ranges

Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143

Particles Ranges

Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44

Downstream of Discharge Point

45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53

Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546

Discharge Point

viii

List of Figures

Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and

Sumatra

12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3

13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6

L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7

21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19

31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22

32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25

33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)

26

34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)

28

41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong

51

44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth

52

45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5

53

46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5

55

ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment

has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals

forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The

growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for

people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased

human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature

A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a

result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In

1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a

large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which

contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of

83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2

million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12

Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on

track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said

that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000

1

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 8: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

Abstract 11

Table of Contents Vl

List of Appendices V11

List of Tables Vlll

List of Figures lX

Chapter 1 - Introduction

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

12 Problem Statement 4

13 Objective of Study 5

14 Scope of Study 6

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

21 Water Quality System 9

211 Soil Erosion 10

212 Sediment Transport 11

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 12

22 Mathematical Modeling 13

221 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand 16Modeling

Chapter 3 - Methodology

31 Description of the Study Area 23

32 Data Collection 29

33 Model Description 29

34 Channel Properties 30

35 Water Quality Modeling 32

351 BOD Modeling 37

352 DO Modeling 38

353 Total Suspended Solids Modeling 39

3531 Settling and Stokes Law 39

vi

44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling

Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion

41 Water Quality Simulation il 46

411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46

412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50

413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54

Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56

References 57

List of Appendices

31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results

32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia

-

vii

List of Tables

31 Description of Study Points 24

Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32

W2amp W4

33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31

34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40

BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641

Distances Downstream of Discharge Point

Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042

Ranges

Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143

Particles Ranges

Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44

Downstream of Discharge Point

45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53

Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546

Discharge Point

viii

List of Figures

Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and

Sumatra

12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3

13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6

L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7

21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19

31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22

32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25

33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)

26

34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)

28

41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong

51

44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth

52

45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5

53

46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5

55

ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment

has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals

forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The

growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for

people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased

human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature

A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a

result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In

1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a

large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which

contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of

83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2

million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12

Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on

track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said

that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000

1

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 9: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

44 354 Total Colifonn Count Modeling

Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion

41 Water Quality Simulation il 46

411 Simulated BOD and DO Levels 46

412 Simulated Total Suspended Solid Downstream 50

413 Simulated Total Colifonn Counts 54

Chapter 5 - Conclusion 56

References 57

List of Appendices

31 Baseline Surface Water Analysis Results

32 National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia

-

vii

List of Tables

31 Description of Study Points 24

Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32

W2amp W4

33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31

34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40

BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641

Distances Downstream of Discharge Point

Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042

Ranges

Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143

Particles Ranges

Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44

Downstream of Discharge Point

45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53

Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546

Discharge Point

viii

List of Figures

Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and

Sumatra

12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3

13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6

L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7

21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19

31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22

32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25

33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)

26

34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)

28

41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong

51

44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth

52

45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5

53

46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5

55

ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment

has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals

forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The

growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for

people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased

human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature

A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a

result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In

1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a

large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which

contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of

83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2

million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12

Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on

track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said

that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000

1

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 10: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

List of Tables

31 Description of Study Points 24

Channel and Water Quality Characteristics of Sg Telong atW5 30 32

W2amp W4

33 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Value as a Function of Temperatures 31

34 Typical Soil Particle Size Distribution 40

BOD Decays Oxygen Deficits and DO Concentration at Various 4641

Distances Downstream of Discharge Point

Depth of Sg Telong vs Particle Settling Time at Different Particles 5042

Ranges

Depth of Sg Telong vs Downstream of Loading Point for Different 5143

Particles Ranges

Total Suspended Solids Reduction at Various Distances 52 44

Downstream of Discharge Point

45 Total Reduction for Four Different Ranges of Particles Sizes 53

Total Coliform Counts at Various Distances Downstream of 5546

Discharge Point

viii

List of Figures

Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and

Sumatra

12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3

13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6

L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7

21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19

31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22

32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25

33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)

26

34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)

28

41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong

51

44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth

52

45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5

53

46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5

55

ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment

has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals

forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The

growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for

people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased

human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature

A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a

result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In

1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a

large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which

contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of

83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2

million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12

Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on

track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said

that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000

1

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 11: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

List of Figures

Distribution of closed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical 3 l1 peatlands in the lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia Borneo and

Sumatra

12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008 3

13 Locality Plan of Study Area 6

L4 Site Plan of Study Area 7

21 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve - The Streeter-Phelps Model 19

31 Research Methodology Flow Chart 22

32 Flow Direction of Sg Telong (W2 is located downstream of W5) 25

33 Site Plan Showing 14 Points Under Study Located Downstream of Discharge Point (W5)

26

34 Flow Direction and the 14 Simulation Points Downstream of Loading Points (Discharge)

28

41 BOD Decays vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

42 Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations and Oxygen Deficits vs Distance Downstream ofW5 Discharge ofWTK Plantation

47

43 The particle Settling Time for Different Particle Diameter to teh Bottom of Sg Telong

51

44 The Particle Settling Time for Different Particle Size at different depth

52

45 Total Suspended Solids Reduction vs Distance Downstream of Discharge Point W5

53

46 The Decays of Total Coliform Counts vs Distances Downstream of Loading Point W 5

55

ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment

has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals

forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The

growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for

people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased

human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature

A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a

result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In

1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a

large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which

contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of

83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2

million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12

Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on

track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said

that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000

1

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 12: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 Oil Palm Developments in Malaysia

Due to population growth and rapid demand for better living standard the environment

has become the important prospect for an the human needs The land air water soil minerals

forest plant natural resources from forest and water system comprise the environment The

growth of modem industry and economic development has contributed a lot of advantages for

people particularly in the raising of general standards of living however it has also increased

human impact to the environment in ways that dramatically affect the balance of nature

A tremendous increase in the areas und~r oil palm cultivation especially oil palm is a

result of the growth of global demand for edible oil and animal proteins in the last two decade In

1990 the areas for developing oil palm plantation was 203 miUion hectares however there is a

large increase (172) of the areas for oil palm plantation development in 2001 which

contributing 350 million hectares in Malaysia Based on the study of Koh et ai 2011 a total of

83 million ha of a closed canopy oil-palm plantation was developed in Peninsular Malaysia (2

million) Borneo (24 million) and Sumatra (39 million) ~s shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12

Minister of State Land Development Mr James Masing told The Star that Sarawak is on

track to become the largest producer of palm oil by the end of the decade in Malaysia He said

that plantation area in Sarawak has climbed to 920000 hectares in June 2010 up from 840000

1

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 13: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

hectares a year ago Sarawak is targeting 2 million hectares by 2020 (Mongabaycom 20 10)

Malaysia is the worlds largest exporter of palm oil contributing of about 1062 miUion tonnes

or 611 of the total exports of 1737 million tonnes in 2001 Malaysia is also the largest

producer of palm oil accounting for about 1180 million tonnes or 509 of total production

(Teoh 2002)

The main activities of oil palm plantation development are (i) Pre-development (ii)

Nursery establishment (iii) Site Preparation (iv) Field Establishment (v) maintenance and

harvesting (vi) re-planting abandonment These activities involve deforestation land clearing

earthworks the settlement of workers and application of chemical fertilizers which could result

in adverse impacts to the environments The oil palm plantation development has caused the

ecological impact due to land development soil erosion due to land clearing and air pollution

caused by open burning and water pollution du~ to usage of agro-chemicals and soil erosion The

development has also caused the loss of carbon sequestration of swamps and social changes due

to the land alienation to the developer of oil palm plantation Soil erosion and water pollution are

two main consequences from the oil palm plantation development

2

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 14: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

100E 105E 110E 115E

5N

O

legend D Pealland _ Closed canopy oil palm

5S 0 300km I I tit I

100E

5S

110E 115E

Figure 11 Distribution ofclosed canopy oil palm plantations and tropical peatlands in the

lowlands ofPeninsular Malaysia Borneo and Sumatra

Source Koh et ai 2011

Oil palm plantings and forest loss inlndonesia and Malaysia 1990-2008 l OOO OC ilO

5000000

o lil90 1991 1992 1993 1I9C 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2CIOO 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2OlT7 2001

-5000000

-lCXlDOOOO

-151)O()())O Inctone~li1-NatJfal fOfCU IOiit

M~L1ysi~ -Niiturll forest loss

-10000000 I

fnOnIabaycom

Figure 12 The natural forest loss in Indonesia and Malaysia 1990 - 2008

Source Payoff 2011

3

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 15: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

12 Problem Statement

Rivers are the most vulnerable water bodies to poHution as the rivers are the main inland

water resources for domestic agricultural industrials and transportation uses The deterioration

of river water quality has called for actions that should be undertaken to protect rehabilitate

recover and improve the health of the river Soil erosion and water pollution are two main

consequences from oil palm plantation development

In Malaysia the Environmental Quality Act (1974) is Federal Act enacted to ensure

prevention abatement pollution control and enhancement of the environment The oil palm

plantation development that involves an area exceeding 500 ha is considered a prescribed

activity under the First Schedule Activity No 1 (i) - Agricultural Development of the Natural

Resources and Environmental (PrescribeQ Activities) (Amendment) order 1997 Thus

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study is required to address the potential impacts on

the environment

In view of this situation mathematical models and computation to be included in the EIA

report are the essential part in addressing how the oil palm plantation development may have

effects to the environment by predicting the effects ~f waste load to the waterway Information

about predicted changes are needed for assigning the significance of impact prescribing

mitigation measures and designing and developing environmental management plans and

monitoring programs The more accurate the prediction the more confident the EIA consultants

4

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 16: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akadtmik UMVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAllt

will be in prescribing significance measures to reduce the adverse effects of the project

development

In an effort to monitor and identify the potential source of pollution to major rives in

Sarawak Natural Resources and Environmental Board NREB has conducted River Water

Quality Monitoring Program (RWQMP) since 1999 The purpose of the monitoring is to

maintain the water quality of rivers to at least Class HB of the National Water Quality Standards

for Malaysia (NWQSM) In order to achieve effective monitoring mathematical modeling is

needed to predict the effects of the pollution as survey and observation are insufficient to address

the pollution problem

13 Objective of Study

The primary objective of this study is to simulate the levels of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts

(TeC) along Sg Telong (downstream of discharge point) which runs through the oil palm

plantations In this study Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationReoxygenation rate Ka and

Settling Coefficient Ks in Streeter Phelps Equation were used to simulate the BOD decays DO

defic it TSS removal ~nd TCC decays for various distances downstream of the discharge point

5

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 17: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

14 The Scope of Study

The stuav site is iocatea ill oli oaim oiamations or ~ua Lana UStrlt l~ _

Sarawak (Figure 13) The area is characterized by land use predominantly comprises of oil palm

plantations The oil palm plantations are Arah Bersama OPP Usaha Wawasan OPP (has not been

planted with oil palm during the time of study) and WTK OPP (Figure 14)

8TUDYAREA

--11 10 I 0- 1 ~-Figure 13 Locality Plan of Study Area

6

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 18: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

I I 1 I I I I

I I I IbullI

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I IbullI I I I I

ARAH BERSAMA PLANTATION

I I

I I

I I

I I

-shy

-----shyt

I I

I

SOP PLANTATION

I I shy

I I I

f I

l_11~~-1 I

~ ~ ~tO

bullII

I

LEGEND 11_1 Road

1-1River

00 Bridie

1 reg 1 Water SampUng Point

SCALE

~_~--

Figure 14 Site Plan of Studv Area

7

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 19: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

There are two main rivers in the study area ie Sungai Telong and Batang Suai A

tributary of Sungai Telong originated from the site for the Usaha Wawasan Oil Palm Plantation

(OPP) and has been converted into part of the drainage network of the oil palm plantation

Another larger tributary of Sungai Telong flows along the border of the Usaha Wawasan OPP

receiving flow from its sub-tributaries originating from the hilly terrain south of the study area

and from the within the WTK OPP (Figure 14)

A simulation model of the prediction of the steady-state water quality of BOD was

developed based on Streeter Phelps Modeling Sungai Telong was chosen because it directly

receives the runoffs and discharges from the plantations The Streeter Phelps Equation was used

to simulate the DO concentration at each river reach due to the BOD loading BOD is the key

variables in water quality modeling Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen

required by the aerobic microorganisms to decpmpose the organic materials in the river When

the organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by

microorganisms by converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components

Dissolved oxygen is consumed during the decomposition process This study focuses on the

determination of the Deoxygenation rate Kd ReaerationJReoxygenation rate Ka and Settling rate

Ks With the measured Deoxygenation rate Kd Rearation rate Ka and Settling rate Ks they are

applied to the equatio to simulate the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Dissolved Oxygen

(DO) Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Coliform Counts (TSS) for various distance

downstream of the discharge point

8

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 20: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cUltivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activit ies The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 21: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Oil palm plantation development can be defined as opening up of new land areas

especially from the forest for the purpose of cultivating oil palm tree and carrying out other

related activities such as land clearing construction of access road biomass management and

disposal earthworks application of agro-chemicals and planting and replanting activities The

most significant factor of forest conversion that has been constantly under study is the

conversion of forests to oil palm plantations The forests provide wide variety of highly valuable

and important ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation water filtration carbon

sequestration and storage pest control and moderation of weather extremes and their impacts

Mongabaycom 2010 reported that the Minister of State Land Development Datuk Dr

James Masing Sarawak is targeting to convert 2 million hectares of land into oil palm plantation

by 2020 which could be the biggest crude palm oil producing state in Malaysia In 2010 the area

planted with oil palm in Sarawak had reached 920000ha compared with 840000ha in 2009

Datuk Dr James Masing announced that the state plan for more aggressive development of

Native Customary Land (NCR) which covers an estimated 15 million hectares as Sarawak still I

has a lot of land yet to be opened up

During the nursery establishment and site preparation the forest is cleared which

contributes to the destruction of the tree canopy and the cover crop resulting in increased

9

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 22: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

exposure of the soil surface The loss of trees which anchor the soil with their roots causes

widespread erosion

During heavy tropical rain falls the rain washed away the bared soil when flowing down

the slopes and transported to the river which in turn causes siltation and sedimentation Excess

amount of silt and sediment that introduced into the water course can harmfully affect the water

quality and essential component of fish habitat Siltation and sedimentation reduce in channel

capacity ofwaterways cause the river beds to become shallower increasing the severity of floods

and creates shoals and sandbars that make difficulty of river navigation

21 Water Quality System

211 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion caused by the removal of soil-trapping trees in the process of deforestation

for the purposes of oil palm plantation development near waterways and the sediments carried

by the runoff after rainfall from cleared land can damage the river lake and marine and destroy

each ecosystem Due to the clearing of the cover crop for oil palm plantation developments the

lands are exposed to various eroding agent especial)y wind and water As a result of oil

plantation developments eroded soil will be deposited in the waterways once the transport

energy is completely exhausted The factors influencing the soil erosion are soil erodibility

rainfall topography and vegetation cover The soil erodibility is termed as vulnerability of soil

to different erosion process which influence by the soil structure texture and percentage of

10

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 23: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

organic matter Vegetation cover protects the soil from washing away by surface runoff and

raindrop with the root anchoring the soil The steepness of the land affects the rates of the surface

runoff and the amount of the soil to be eroded Rainfall characteristic such as intensity

frequency and duration of the rain will influence the surface runoff to be generated

The washing of surface runoff loaded with eroded soil particles will increase the total

suspended solids and turbidity of the receiving water courses which in tum will affect the

aquatic life by destructing the habitat

212 Sediment Transport

According to Foster 1982 erosion and sedimentation by water involve the processes of

detachment transport and deposition of soil patti cIes Most sediment in surface waters is carried

from the upstream by surface erosion and comprises a mineral component arising from the

erosion of bedrock and an organic component arising during soil-forming processes which

involves biological and microbiological production and decomposition

Sediment particles are separated into three categories when they are transported in a

water course including suspended material which includes silt clay and sand the coarser which

is inactive bedload and the siltation load The particles will be transported laterally by water

currents However some of the particles may settle differently depending on their size and

density Some of the particles will remain permanently on the bottom of the water course yet

solids can be re-introduced into the water by turbulence

11

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12

Page 24: WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM … Quality Modeling of Oil Palm... · WATER QUALITY MODELINP OF OIL PALM PLANTATION ... The Steady-State condition is considered and First-Order

Suspended load consists of inorganic material included sand silt and clay-sized particles

and organic fraction which comprised of algae zooplankton bacteria and detritus Those

materials are suspended in the water course by the turbulence of the water It can be further

categorized into the wash load which is considered as the silt- and clay-sized materia~ in lt62 Ilm

in particle diameter The amount of sand which is gt62 Ilm in particle size in the suspended load

is directly proportional to the turbulence It is originated from the erosion of the bed and banks of

the river Suspended sediment forms most of the transported load in many rivers

Bedload is stony material that moves by rolling along the bed of the river as it is heavy to

be suspended by the current of the river Siltation load refers to the particles that are light to be

picked off the river bed by turbulence however as it is too heavy to be suspended therefore it

sink back to the river bed

213 Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dissolved Oxygen is vital for the survival of aerobic microorganisms and the aquatic

organisms DO level is a measure of the availability of oxygen dissolved in the water bodies

According to Nas et all 2008 Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen required

by the aerobic microorganisms to decompose the Qrganic materials in the river When the

organic matters are discharged into the water bodies they are biodegraded by microorganisms by

converting the organics into new cells and oxidized waste components Dissolved oxygen is

consumed during the decomposition process When the organic matter from biochemical oxygen

demanding substance such as sewage and palm oil mill effluent is discharged into the water

12