Water Flow Conflictsin the Tigris and Euphrates River Basin

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Stephanie Shewey

Water it is the World’s most valuable resource. It makes up more than 75 percent of the World’s

surface area and is a part of every living organism. The human body is even made up of 70 percent of

1 http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2009/07/13/world/20090713EUPHRATES_index.html?scp=3&sq=euphrates&st=cse

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water. Water is a crucial resource and unfortunately our World’s water has been and still is neglected.

Pollution, evaporation, and salinity increases are finally starting to take a toll on people and the

environment. Water now under such stresses is finally starting to make people realize that this crucial

resource must be taken seriously.

In the Middle East water is becoming increasingly scarce. In this arid region, water is causing an

increase in political hostilities. Key rivers such as the Tigris and Euphrates are internationally recognized

for environmental problems. Major disruptions such as high salinity concentrations, pollution and the

disappearance of major waterways are impacting the everyday lives of people in the Middle East.

The Tigris and Euphrates rivers were home to great ancient civilizations and traced out the

boundaries for the countries in the Middle East. “Few, if any, rivers exhibit such historic affinities and

associations as the Euphrates and Tigris” (Trondalen 160). Throughout the past millennia, the Tigris and

Euphrates rivers have been home to the rise and fall of great civilizations such as the Sumerians and

Babylonians. They have major roles in the Bible and they even played a dominate role in the spread of

Islam. Disputes over these rivers date back as far as 6,000 years. Regrettably due to current military and

political conflicts such as the Iraq-Iranian War, US coalitions, and UN intervention water scarcity has

been slid under the radar.

Location and Description

The Tigris and Euphrates rivers flow through a dry region between 45 degrees North and 25

degrees North latitude. This area is commonly referred to as the Middle East. Both rivers originate in the

highlands of Turkey and have different flowing patterns. The Tigris is 1,150 miles long and begins in the

Taurus Mountains at the Dicle River of the Kurdistan region of eastern Turkey. The Tigris then flows

southeastward along the Syrian-Turkish border and enters Iraq. As it enters Iraq it is fed from several

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main tributaries. The first is the Greater Zab which originates in Turkey and enters the Tigris River in

Mosul, Iraq. The second contributor is the Little Zab which originates in the Zagros Mountains in Iran and

flows down meeting the Tigris in Fatha. The Diyala and Karkheh rivers both originate in Iran and meet

the Tigris in Baghdad just before the Shatt al Arab. Most of these tributaries are fed from the melting of

snowcaps accumulated in Turkey during the winter months. Even though shorter than the Euphrates the

Tigris has a larger water volume input making it very prone to flooding.

Tigris and Euphrates River Basin2

The Euphrates River is 1,585 miles long and begins on the Anatolian Plateau in eastern Turkey

and flows southward through Syria and Iraq. The chief tributaries are the Karasu, Murat, Munzur, and

2 http://maps.unomaha.edu/peterson/funda/MapLinks/SWAsia/40.gif3

Peril which all originate in Turkey. The only large tributary outside of Turkey is Khabur which joins the

Euphrates in Syria. These main tributaries are fed by underground springs south of the border between

Turkey and Syria. Having so few tributaries in the distance that it travels makes it very problematic for

pollution. The Euphrates River also does not carry as much water mass as the Tigris which makes it much

harder to navigate. Only in a few areas can you navigate by small boat.

In between the Tigris and Euphrates is an area called Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia which literally

means “between the rivers” flourishes with agriculture and diverse cultures. One major distinct culture

is the Marsh Arabs; a culture group that has been declining in population this past century. The

Euphrates and Tigris Rivers join together approximately northwest of Basra, Iraq where the Shatt al Arab

is formed and continues until it empties into the Persian Gulf. The southern end of the Shatt al Arab is

the border between Iraq and Iran. During different seasons the width of the Shatt al Arab can vary from

232 meters to 800 meters.

Turkey, Syria, and Iraq’s use of the Rivers

The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers are essential resources for economic activities in all three

countries. From farming to housework these rivers help supply water to the working force. In Turkey

one of the main objectives is to use the rivers for hydroelectric power. A new project called GAP, a

Turkish acronym for Southern Anatolian Project, was started in the 1960s. This $30 billion project was

first introduced to provide irrigation and electricity to poverty-stricken areas. This project will construct

22 new dams and 19 new hydroelectric power plants on the Euphrates River alone. This will in turn

boost the economy in this region. This land which has never been intensely irrigation before will not

have the opportunity to use intense irrigation and agriculture techniques. With GAP, Turkey is in hopes

of generating 27 GWh/ year (Gigawatt an hour/ year) and increasing land salinity by 50 percent. By

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generating 27 GWh/year Turkey will generate over double of what it is generating now. Another reason

for GAP is to assist areas where the Kurdish separatists movement PKK (Kurdish Workers Party) resides.

Supporting the southeast region financially, Turkey feels that is will help alleviate some of the pressures

of the PKK. In hopes to cause turn, they hope to cause tension and political instability to decrease. GAP

has cause antagonistic relations between all three countries and will be discussed more in the latter of

this thesis.

GAP: Southern Anatolia Project3

Syria prior to the 1950s had little use of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. After economic

problems, Syria finally realized the full potential of the rivers. Today when statistically looking at Syria,

80-90 percent of their surface water comes from these rivers. “By expanding agriculture in the

Euphrates basin it will help Syria reduce its dependence on imported food as well as promote agro-

related manufacturing industries such as cotton textiles, edible oils, vegetable and fruit processing, and

milk processing.4” The construction of dams on the Euphrates as well as its main tributary, Khabour,

3 http://www.kurdishherald.com/issue/005/images/article03-d.jpg4 http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA296559&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf

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helps supply water for irrigation. Unfortunately with many efforts to increase irrigation, irrigated lands

have been abandoned due to water logging and salinization. The largest dam in Syria built on the

Euphrates is the Tabqa Dam. This dam not is not only important for irrigation but for energy production.

In the 70s, the Tabqa Dam provided over 60 percent of Syria’s electricity. Now due to low water levels,

this form of electricity is unreliable. Syria is also suffering from a large increasing urban population. This

makes Syria in desperate need of a more reliable water source. The Euphrates is polluted with chemicals

from agriculture, industry, and sewage making it an unreliable source of drinking water. The

infrastructure and treatment plants are also a major problem when it comes to finding reliable drinking

water. The infrastructure is old and due to old pipes and cracks Syria must rationalize its drinking water

in large cities such as Damascus and Aleppo. Damascus, Syria’s capital frequently goes without water at

night due to old water pipes. 35 percent has been estimated to be lost somewhere along these pipelines

due to cracks and leaks alone. Reliable drinking water is increasingly becoming one of Syria’s top

priorities.

Ancient cultures, such as Sumerians and Babylonians who lived in now day Iraq, used these

rivers extensively. Since Iraq is the most arid of the three countries they tend to find most of their water

from these two rivers. Almost 98 percent of their total surface water comes from the Tigris and

Euphrates. Due to fluctuations in water flow from seasonal and controlled factors, water storage was

and still is one of Iraq’s main priorities. Before water shortages, Mesopotamian civilizations thrived with

well irrigated and flood controlled structures. The first flood controlled structures were built on the

Habbaniya and Abu Dibbis Lakes. In 1911 construction of the Hindiya Barrage on the Euphrates began.

This and other barrages help collect water for irrigation. 90 percent of the water collected is used for

irrigation in Iraq. During past conflicts such as the Gulf War, Iraq suffers from damages on these dams

and barrages which helped protect their water supply. Some projects were stopped completely due to

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security reasons and the inability to collect funds to start back up. 80 percent of all planned projects

have been halted since the start of the Gulf War.

Since headwaters are found outside of Iraq, Iraq is at the mercy of the water conditions that

exists in Syria and Turkey. “Since Iraq is located furthest downstream on the Euphrates and Tigris, all

river developments undertaken in Turkey and Syria may have an impact on the water flowing into Iraq”

(Trondalen 182). This makes Iraq very vulnerable to any changes these two countries make on the rivers.

Iraq has many more complex problems than Turkey and Syria. Iraq is very dry and flat making it very

prone to evaporation. Evaporation, among all other problems, makes collecting water supply very

difficult. Iraq has extreme dry months sometimes lasting up to six months from May to October. The

temperatures during this time can get up to 120 degrees Fahrenheit. Their climate is a major factor in

increased evaporation. Another cause of increased evaporation is foreign water intervention. With the

construction of new dams and barrages upstream, Iraq must increase water storage due to the

unpredictability of water flow. Large collections of water are more susceptible to evaporation therefore

making it very problematic. A project instituted to help with salinity problems was the Main Outfall

Drain Project. Supposed to be completed in 1992, the purpose of this project was to drain saline runoff

from 1.5 million hectares to the Shatt al Arab. This in turn would reduce salinity issues in Mesopotamia.

Unfortunately this project has been halted since the start of the Gulf War.

The Marsh Arabs

One internationally publicized problem in Iraq is the disappearance of the Marsh Arabs. Because

of water shortages and military intervention, this civilization that once lived in the bountiful marsh

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wetlands of Mesopotamia have either fled or been killed. This large group of Shiite Muslims, known as

the Ma’dan, lives in the Amara Marsh. The Amara Marsh is near the convergence of the Tigris and

Euphrates Rivers and is suffering now from a major water shortage. The Ma’dan has a population of

500,000 and is believed to be descendants of the Sumerians and Babylonians. Ma’dan culture revolves

around agriculture, weaving reed mats, fishing and raising buffalo (Thesiger). During the past few

decades the Ma’dan have had their crucial life resource, water, taken away from them.

Reed boat traveling through Amara Marshland overlooking reed huts. 1954 5

In 1951 the Haigh Report was drawn up by a British Engineer working for the Iraqi government.

The government issued this report due to supposed neglect to the marsh as well as more water

potential elsewhere. In order to reclaim the water, Iraq built a series of canals and embankments on the

Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. This project was the beginning of many to drain the Amara marshland.

5 Thesiger, Wilfred. The Marsh Arabs. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1964.8

During the Iraq-Iran War and under Saddam Hussein’s power the waters were purposely diverted for a

reason similar to the Haigh Report. Unfortunately this was not the case. Various organizations such as

the UN and the Supreme Council of the Islamic revolution in Iraq (SCIRI) monitored this situation and

found alarming results. “All have found evidence to indicate that the Iraq Government has been

attempting to force the Ma’dan people from their homes through water diversion tactics copied from

the Haigh Report. Iraq’s majority Sunni government is attempting to weaken the Ma’dan because they

are Shiite Muslims, maintaining religious links with Iran’s Shiite leadership.”6 This leaves the Ma’dan

people and their environment close to destruction.

Ma’dan child in reed boat.19527

The livestock, birds, crops, and fish are dwindling in numbers. Stable crops such as rice and

millet are no longer able to grow due to water scarcity and higher salinity. Because of low water levels,

transportation of goods has been at an all time low in the Amara marsh. This puts a large detriment on

their economy forcing many of the Ma’dan to flee elsewhere, generally to Iran.

6 http://www1.american.edu/TED/ice/marsh.htm7 Thesiger, Wilfred. The Marsh Arabs. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1964.

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Today the UN and the European Parliament are passing resolutions to restore the drained

Amara marshland. In 1995, The European Parliament passed a resolution stating that the Ma’dan and

other Shiite Marsh Arabs were a minority, and due to the Iraqi government, survival was threatened.

The resolution described the treatment of the Iraqi government as genocide. The UN has passed

resolutions to end military intervention and to put an end to draining the marshlands.

Restoration efforts have been made in order to compensate for the lost marshland in

Mesopotamia. Even though strong efforts are in effect the environment is taking longer to respond due

to such neglect and quick destruction. One environmental problem is the increasing salinity in the Shatt

al Arab and north of this convergence zone. Since 2006 a long standing drought has increased the

salinity levels from 1 ppt (parts per thousand) to 9-13 ppt. This is a gigantic leap in salinities; increases

like these changes the biodiversity drastically. Marine species that have never been this far north before

are starting to make up a large part of the population. Important freshwater fish species has declined by

75 percent. Warming temperatures also helps make a significant decline in biodiversity.

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Water shortages of the Mesopotamian Marshlands8

Conferences since 2001 have been held to help restore the marshlands. Even though action has

attempted to be productive, water is still not getting to this region. If water is getting there, it is normally

polluted or has extreme salinity levels. Due to the current drought Turkey and Syria continue to build

dams on the rivers because they too are desperate in collecting water. This makes it very difficult to try

and restore the Mesopotamia.

Water Conditions

There are two major problems that exist within the Tigris and Euphrates River Basin. First is the

quantity of water flowing. As explained there are many new and old dams constructed on the rivers

particularly at the beginning reducing the water flow significantly. Iraq and Syria both suffer from such

8 http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/from_wetlands_to_dry_lands_the_destruction_of_the_mesopotamian_marshlands11

water shortages. Second major problem is water quality. Runoff from irrigation, salinity changes and

chemical pollutants are taking tolls on these rivers to where restrictions are put on them. Irrigation and

domestic use must now be very careful when taking water from the rivers.

Rainfall in the Tigris and Euphrates River valleys fluctuates from season to season. With a variety

of water fluctuations these three countries have diverse water needs.

Distribution of annual rainfall. 9

Over 50 percent of the average annual runoff is produced two months during spring when the

snow melts in the highlands of Turkey. This produces an annual runoff of 32.7 BCM (billion cubic

meters). The lowest flows occur during late summer and early fall. In this case dams and water storage is

plausible was of storing water during dry months. The Euphrates River collects most of its water from

Turkey; 88-98 percent to be exact. Syria provides between 2-12 percent where Iraq provides no

9 http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/middle_east_rainfall_1973.jpg12

significant amount to the Euphrates. With water accumulation there is also water withdraws. Turkey

takes an annual withdraw of 24, 300 MCM/ year (million cubic meters) and leaves an available 6,700

MCM/ year to flow into Syria. While flowing through Syria the Euphrates collects an annual 12,600

MCM/ year from its tributaries. Syria then leaves 6,900 MCM/ year to flow into Iraq. Iraq must then

portion up the Euphrates throughout the entire country since it has no main tributaries.

The Tigris River starts in the Turkish highlands and obtains 40 percent of its water from this

region. Only a small .2 percent is captured in Syria and 51 percent is collected from the main tributaries

in Iraq. 9 percent of the annual runoff actually comes from the neighboring country Iran in the Zagros

Mountains. The Tigris River accumulates an average water supply of 49.2 BCM/ year. Turkey begins with

an annual supply of 18,500 MCM/ year and leaves an estimated 11,800 for Syria and Iraq. Iraq with

collection from tributaries receives 28,700 MCM/ year. All of these calculations were taken from the US

Army Corps of Engineers.

It is very difficult to find any statistical information related to the water quality in the Tigris and

Euphrates Rivers. Most of the information is estimates and descriptions of personal accounts. One

reason for estimates and not facts is that these rivers actually have restrictions on them. These

restrictions can limit the amount of studying you can do. Water quality is normally associated with

diseases and the scarcity of drinkable water. Water quality, if anything, should be one of the

contributing factors on what should happen during the negotiations of the water flow. In 2000, Turkey

conducted a study on fish that were passing through the Ataturk Dam. Heavy metals such as Cu, Fe, Mn,

and Zn were found in the fish’s tissues. These heavy metals were exposed due to industrial wastes,

mining and to Turkey’s expanding population. Turkey believes that there are no extreme risks but health

concerns say otherwise. Studies performed during the later 90’s showed that the Tigris River carried a

large amount of raw sewage which was in turn was spreading diseases such as E. coli to local

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populations. Percentages were not available but there was interesting data about dead bodies and oil

leaks being present in the Tigris River as well. Dead bodies were commonly present during the Iraq-Iran

War. In Baghdad Dr. Husni Mohammed delivered a study on the water quality of the Tigris River.

Without statistical evidence he confirmed that the “Tigris River water is a concentrated cocktail of

pesticides, fertilizers, oil, gasoline and heavy metals.”10 One alarming concern is the high concentration

of oil and benzene in the river. “The health effects of benzene -- an ingredient found in gasoline and jet

fuel -- are well known and severe. Short-term exposure can cause significant damage to the nervous

system and dramatic suppression of the immune system. Consistent consumption of benzene-tainted

water can cause long-term effects including cancer (particularly Leukemia), birth defects and damage to

the reproductive system.”11 No statistical evidence is provided that high concentrations exist but the

actuality that it does exist is alarming. Abdul Salam Abdulali a resident and water manager on the Tigris

said, "I am married to the water," he said standing atop his dredging machine as it floated atop the river.

"But it is too polluted now. I wish I could eat the fish, but when I cut them open I can smell the oil." 5

10 http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/481

11 http://newstandardnews.net/content/index.cfm/items/481

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Oil Refinery on the Tigris River shows pollution that that enters the river. 12

Hostilities

Over the past century heated animosities over water flow and quality have arisen between the

three countries. The very first example of a water hostility occurred in 1975 when Syria put a dam on the

Euphrates River called the Tabqa. This dam was intended to store some 12 billion cubic meters of water

to irrigate 259,000 acres of land. Iraq was furious when they calculated that the Euphrates River was

flowing at less than a fraction of what it was capable of. Iraq facing a year’s worth of crops in ruin, took

action. Iraq claimed that Syria was confiscating their water. Syria first denied their claim but realized

that Iraq was not going to give in that easily. As the relations between the two countries deteriorated an

emergency meeting with the Arab League was called on May 1-3, 1975. The meeting only helped the

situation temporarily. On July 8th Syria withdrew all military personnel from Baghdad as well as ordering

the Iraqi military to remove their personnel from their capital of Damascus. Iraq followed orders and

also asked the Syrians to move their personnel out of their country. Both the Iraqi and Syrian militaries

restricted travel to and from the countries on their airfields. They also prepared troops along the border.

12 http://newstandardnews.net/content/photos/iraq_tigris_refinery-garbage.jpg15

On August 1st the buildup of troops along the borders of Syria and Iraq was disturbing. The Saudi Prince

Fahd on August 12th tried to intervene to stop the growing tensions between Syria and Iraq. After his

approach Syria and Iraq came to a final agreement that Syria would keep 42 percent of the flow of the

Euphrates River while allowing 58 percent to flow through to Iraq. Even though this agreement was not

made publicly it did lessen the tensions between the two countries.

It was not until April of 1990 that a far worse water predicament took place. From January 13 to

February 12 of 1990 Turkey decided to cut off the Euphrates River for one whole month. They did this in

order to make a reservoir behind their newly constructed Ataturk Dam. Even though the water cutoff

was during winter months when farming activities wine down, Turkey demonstrated its ability to cut off

the river entirely. Turkey confessed that this was part of their project GAP. Even though GAP was a great

effort by the Turkish government to help poverty-stricken areas, Syria and Iraq were not as pleased. In

order to keep good relations Turkey promised Syria that is would keep an average rate of 500 cubic

meters per second of the Euphrates River flowing into Syria from Turkey. If they did this, Syria had to

promise Turkey that it would tighten security along their borders as well as discontinuing support of

Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK). Turkey also used this as an opportunity to go against the Syrian

President at the time Hafez Assad, who was a supporter of the PKK. This plan backfired and Syria was

unable to satisfy Turkey with their demands. Both sides eventually issued military threats to one other.

At this time Syria and Iraq who were both suffering from water shortages decided to form an alliance

against Turkey. Before military intervention Turkey quickly restored the water flow before a war broke

loose. An outcome of this event was that the hostilities between Syria and Turkey have grown even

deeper. The Turkish President Suleyman Demirel issued a few words of frustration on this matter,

“Neither Syria or Iraq can lay claim to Turkey's rivers any more than Ankara could claim their oil. This is a

matter of sovereignty. We have a right to do anything we like. The water resources are Turkey's, the oil

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resources are theirs. We don't say we share their oil resources and they cannot say they share our water

resources."13

Ataturk Dam in Turkey14

After the continuing of the GAP project in Turkey, Syria continued to support Turkey’s enemy

the PKK. During the 90’s numerous battles were taken place between the Turkish military and the PKK.

Thousands of lives were lost and aggression between the two countries rose. Turkey then formed

military alliances with Israel which has improved Syria’s and Iraq’s relationship and has formed a united

front against Turkey.

In 1999 Turkey extended GAP on the Tigris River by building a large dam in Ilisu, 40 miles outside

of Syria. After this and similar dams are finished, Turkey will irrigate 600,000 hectares of land from the

Tigris River. This will reduce the annual flow by 5 to 7 billion cubic meters. This is “about one-third of its

total natural flow into Syria and Iraq. Because the Tigris is the only practical alternative to the Euphrates

13 http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/tigris.htm#r514 http://static.panoramio.com/photos/original/1795531.jpg

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as a source of water for these two countries, any diminution in its flow would be a serious threat to their

food supply and general well-being” (Klare 181).

Political Agreements

Each country has its own ideas as to what should be done to make an equitable distribution of

water in the Euphrates and Tigris River Basin. Each is very different from one another making it

extremely difficult any resolutions. Something needs to be decided upon so these rivers can stop

declining in quality. If something doesn’t happen in the near future all hope for a possible solution may

be lost for the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

Turkey has a very strong idea as to what should be done. One position of Turkey is that since the

Tigris River is a border for Syria the country should have no say as to what happens with this river.

Relations between the two countries are fraught with tension not only because the Tigris and Euphrates

Rivers but because of the Orontes River. The Orontes River begins in Syria and Jordan, and Turkey has

the end of the river. Since no agreement has been made on the Orontes River, Turkey feels that Syria

has no say about the Tigris. A second proposal by Turkey is that the two countries, Syria and Iraq, have

no right to dispute over the dams they constructed, particularly the Ataturk Dam. Turkey argues that the

dams actually help these countries by reducing flood problems during the rainy season and providing

water during the dry seasons. Turkey implies that since the rivers start in their country they can do

whatever they want with them. They also agree that the rivers should be treated as one entity. One

agreement should be made that contains both waterways. The last argument “is that the waters should

be used in Turkey where the land capabilities and thereby economic efficiency is highest” (Trondalen

170). Turkey contains 21 percent of the Euphrates and 14 percent of the Tigris Rivers. Ranked 16 th in the

World for their GDP, Turkey is in high hopes of only boosting their economy even more. Iraq ranks 63 rd

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and Syria ranks 67th. Up to this point Turkey has been the loner in signing any agreement. Syria and Iraq

have already come up with some propositions as to what needs to be done with the waterways but

Turkey rejects them.

Syria believes that the two rivers should be treated as two separate entities. With more

perseverance than Turkey, Syria has already made an agreement with Iraq. This agreement stated

before was that the Euphrates River shall be split 48 -52 percent. Syria should receive 48 percent of the

river while Iraq gets 52 percent. Syria has also made the conclusion that it will not sign an agreement

with Turkey unless Iraq also agrees. The Syrian government has come up with four objectives on how an

agreement should be made. First each country should claim the demands on each river separately.

Second, the capacity of each river that flows through the country should be calculated and settled upon.

Third, “if the total water demand does not exceed the total water supply, the water shall be allocated

according to the stated figures on water demand for each country” (Trondalen 172). Fourth, if the water

demands for a country exceed the amount of water available, then that amount should be deducted

from each country’s water demand proportionally.

Iraq’s, unlike the other two countries, key argument is about the historical rights of the rivers.

Iraq insists that the life demands and history of these rivers are in serious jeopardy. They believe that

they are in danger of losing a sacred entity such as the Mesopotamian civilizations. Iraq agrees with Syria

in that both rivers need to be looked upon separately. One reason for separate entities is major

tributaries of the Tigris River are from Iran. If merging the two together you would also have to include

negotiations with Iran on the Euphrates which Iraq finds unacceptable. The Turkish and Syrian

governments do not care much about Iraq’s historical history of the rivers. Due to the flow of the rivers,

Iraq suffers the most from the pollution and environmental problems. For that reason Iraq demands that

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any agreement must contain rules and procedures that are necessary in increasing water quality. Iraq

also agrees with Syria’s four objectives on how water demands should be executed.

Possible Solutions

The anticipated combined demand for water from the three countries is actually greater than

the total volume of the two rivers. This makes it very difficult to work out a solution to address the

multiple issues that the Tigris and Euphrates River Basin has.

This first issue that needs to be addressed is the inefficient irrigation techniques that are

practiced. Irrigation practices such as flood and furrow wastes so much water. Flooding land is a lazy but

effective way to irrigate crops, but wastes a large portion of water. Furrow irrigation is also a lazy but

effective way to irrigate crops. By using furrow irrigation the farmer would place the crops up in rows

and then flood the land that surrounds them. This would not drown the crop but give it an abundant

amount of water. This type of irrigation also wastes a lot of water. If new irrigation techniques were

introduced then water would not go to wastes. One alternative irrigation technique is overhead

sprinklers. Water would be sprayed directly on the crops instead of flooding them. This technique does

require machinery but would cut water use by 30 percent. The last more effective irrigation technique is

drip irrigation. This technique includes sending water through pipes with tiny holes. These tiny holes

would then send water to the plant directly. These hoses can be controlled and very little of the water is

lost to evaporation. This method is slightly labor intensive but with job scarcity this type of irrigation

would not only help water be used more efficiently but also help with creating jobs for each country’s

economy. Switching to drip irrigation would cut water needs in half for each country.

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Flood Irrigation15

Furrow Irrigation 16

Drip Irrigation17

Overhead Sprinklers18

15 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/LevelBasinFloodIrrigation.JPG16 http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/irrigation-furrow.jpg17 http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/pictures/irdrip.jpg18 http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/irrigation-overhead-spray.jpg

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If new crops that were more drought resistant were introduced, then there would not be such a

reliance on water. Grain which is one of all three countries main crops requires 1,000 gallons of water

per $200 made profit. That is not much money for such a large amount of water. Countries should look

to import grain from other countries that are not having such drought issues and switch to crops such as

“cassava, finger and pearl millet, tef, fonio, amaranth species, sorghum, date palm”19

Many treatment plants on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers are old and outdated. Sewage plants

are causing major problems on the Tigris River in Iraq. Since current conflicts, damages on these

treatment plants have caused pollution to seep into the water. If repairs were made to these treatment

plants pollution would not seep into the water. Oil refineries are also a major contributor to pollution in

the rivers. Oil refineries should be charge an outstanding fee for making such additions to the rivers.

The future of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers are ultimately up to the countries themselves. If

they do not practice water safe techniques then they are in jeopardy of losing not only a sacred entity

but an economic integral. Each small issue must be addressed independently before you try to solve the

water scarcity and neglect as a whole. Making such solutions should be the top priorities for Turkey,

Syria, and Iraq.

Turkey, Syria and Iraq have a long way until an official agreement will take place on the Tigris

and Euphrates Rivers. Small steps have been taken but they are taking too long to progress. Something

must be done to help these rivers. The future of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers rely on what these

countries decide to do. Either to take action or to let them suffer is up to them.

19 http://www.farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/73-3script_en.asp.22

Literature References

Brown, Lester. Plan B 3.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008.

Klare, Michael. Resource Wars. Henry Holt and Company: New York, 2002.

Thesiger, Wilfred. The Marsh Arabs. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1964.

Trondalen, Jon. Water and Peace for the People: Possible Solutions to Water Disputes in the Middle East. Paris, France: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2008.

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