water executive summary - unescounesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001444/144409e.pdf · water a shared...

www.unesco.org/water/wwap

Watera shared responsibility

The United NationsWorld Water Development Report 2

Exec

utive

Sum

mar

y

UN-WATER/WWAP/2006/3

http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap

For some, the water crisis means having to walk long distances every day to fetch

enough drinking water – clean or unclean – just to get by. For others, it means

suffering from avoidable malnutrition or disease caused by drought, flood or

inadequate sanitation. Still others experience it as a lack of funds, institutions or

knowledge to solve local problems of water use and allocation.

Water,a shared responsibilityThe United Nations World Water Development Report 2 (WWDR 2)

www.unesco.org/water/wwap

Many countries are still not on track to reach the

water-related targets of the Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs) – threatening their

security, development and environmental

sustainability – and millions of people die each year

from treatable water-borne diseases. While water

pollution and the destruction of ecosystems increase,

we are witnessing the consequences that climate

change, natural disasters, poverty, warfare,

globalization, population growth, urbanization and

disease – all of which impinge on the water sector

– have on so many of the people of the world.

It is widely accepted that sustainable and equitable

water management must be undertaken using an

integrated approach, that assessment of the

resource is the basis for rational decision-making,

and that national capacities to undertake such

assessments must be further supported and

expanded at local through international levels. It is

therefore paramount to provide the best possible

understanding of the state of the world’s freshwater

resources to the world at large.

The triennial World Water Development Report

(WWDR) lays the foundation for a continuous,

global monitoring system and shows the United

Nations system at work, pooling the unique

perspectives and expertise of the 24 UN

agencies that comprise UN-Water, in

partnership with governments and

other entities concerned with

freshwater issues.

Water, a Shared Responsibility (March 2006) is the

main outcome of Phase 2 of the World Water

Assessment Programme (WWAP), founded in 2000

as a collective response of the UN system to assist

countries in reaching their commitments in key

water-related challenge areas. WWDR 2 offers a

comprehensive and holistic assessment of the

world’s water, while bringing the issues of water

governance, knowledge accessibility and the

specific challenges of managing water into the

mainstream of development thinking and practices,

across all the major intersections of water, human

well-being and development.

Bearing in mind users needs, the 2006 Report aims

to be practical in orientation, offers best practices

as well as in-depth theoretical and analytic

analyses to help stimulate ideas and actions for

better stewardship in the water sector. The use of

hundreds of maps, tables, figures, boxed examples,

indicators and case studies illustrate that only our

global cooperation will help to ensure an integrated,

equitable and sustainable management of the

world’s most precious resource – water.


Table of Contents

Preface. . . . . . .1

SECTION 1 - CHANGING CONTEXTS

Chapter 1: Living in a Changing World. . . . . . .3

Chapter 2: The Challenges of Governance (UNDP, with IFAD) . . . . . . .7

Chapter 3: Water and Human Settlements in anUrbanizing World (UN-HABITAT). . . . . . .10

SECTION 2 - CHANGING NATURALSYSTEMS

Chapter 4: The State of the Resource(UNESCO & WMO, with IAEA). . . . . . .12

Chapter 5: Coastal and Freshwater Ecosystems(UNEP). . . . . . .15

SECTION 3 - CHALLENGES FOR WELL-BEINGAND DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 6: Protecting and Promoting HumanHealth (WHO & UNICEF). . . . . . .18

Chapter 7: Water for Food, Agriculture andRural Livelihoods (FAO & IFAD). . . . . . .21

Chapter 8: Water and Industry (UNIDO). . . . . . .24

Chapter 9: Water and Energy (UNIDO). . . . . . .27

SECTION 4 - MANAGEMENT RESPONSESAND STEWARDSHIP

Chapter 10: Managing Risks: Securing the Gainsof Development (WMO, ISDR & UNU). . . . . . .30

Chapter 11: Sharing Water (UNESCO). . . . . . .33

Chapter 12: Valuing and Charging for Water(UNDESA). . . . . . .35

Chapter 13: Enhancing Knowledge and Capacity(UNESCO). . . . . . .38

SECTION 5 - SHARING RESPONSIBILITIES

Chapter 14: Case Studies: Moving Towards anIntegrated Approach. . . . . . .41

Chapter 15: Conclusions and Recommendationsfor Action. . . . . . .43

Photos credits. . . . . . .46

Order form. . . . . . .47

Survey. . . . . . .48

1

In the three years since the launch of the first World WaterDevelopment Report (2003), the world has witnessed considerablechange. There have been many instances of major water-relateddisasters: the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami; the 2004 and 2005hurricanes in the Caribbean, the west Pacific and the United States; the2005 floods in Central and Eastern Europe as well as in many otherregions; and the extensive droughts in Niger, Mali, Spain and Portugal.These are reminders of both the destructive power of water and themisery deriving from lack of it in so many regions of the world.

These extreme events are only the most prominent illustrations offundamental changes that are affecting water resources worldwide. Inmany cases, this evolution is most probably linked to slow butpersistent changes in global climates, a phenomenon that is supportedby a growing body of evidence: the combination of lower precipitationand higher evaporation in many regions is diminishing water quantitiesin rivers, lakes and groundwater storage; while increased pollution isdamaging ecosystems and the health, lives and livelihoods of thosewithout access to adequate safe drinking water and basic sanitation.

Major demographic changes are also seriously affecting the quality andquantity of available freshwater on the planet. While the moredeveloped countries enjoy relatively stable populations, the less-developed regions of the world are generally experiencing rapid growthand population shifts, particularly in towns, small cities and mega-cities. In many rapidly growing urban areas, it is proving impossible tobuild the infrastructure necessary to deliver water supply andsanitation facilities to service the population, leading to poor health,low quality of life and, in many cases, to social unrest. To the urbandemands for water must be added the increasing demands on water forfood production, energy creation and industrial uses.

Large shifts in the geographic distribution of populations occur invarious contexts, often adding to water supply problems and socialtension. In areas, such as Darfur, there are both internally displacedpersons and transboundary refugees. Legal and illegal economicmigrants are swelling populations in parts of the United States andWestern Europe, as elsewhere. Tourism to many holiday destinations ofthe world often exerts a strain on the water supplies of these regions.Whether it is the result of continued unrest and warfare, terroristactivities or economic instability, population movement is a factor thathas a substantial impact on water availability in the world.

PREFACE


The United NationsWorld Water Development Report 2

2

E X E C U T I V E S U M M A R Y | W A T E R : A S H A R E D R E S P O N S I B I L I T Y

PR

EF

AC

E

It is against these changes in the global situation - some rapid and very noticeable, others insidious and yetpersistent - that the governance of water resources must be assessed. This second Report, Water, A SharedResponsibility, sets water issues against this evolving background and places greater emphasis on governanceissues.

It is proving extremely difficult for many governments to effectively confront the many and intertwined issuesconcerning water. Not only is it difficult for departments within national governments to collaborate effectively,but problems are compounded when many management decisions have to be taken at sub-national andcommunity levels, as the linkage and cooperation between different levels of government is often tenuous atbest. The challenges for government agencies to link to NGOs and the private sector for resolving water issuesfurther complicate management and decision-making. The task of managing water becomes even more complexwhen rivers flow from one country to another. The building of cooperative upstream-downstream relationships isbecoming increasingly important with close to half of the world's people living in river basins or above aquifersthat cross international borders.

An important goal of the World Water Assessment Programme - founded in 2000 at the request of governmentswithin the Commission on Sustainable Development - is therefore to assist governments in developing andimplementing their national water management plans. Thus, a number of case studies have been developed andincluded in the Report. In the first Report, 7 case studies involving 12 countries were included to illustrate thevariety of circumstance in different regions of the world. Since then, the number of case studies has grown to17 involving 42 countries. In a single volume, it is not possible to describe all case studies in detail. Thus we havechosen to summarize the case studies in the Report and publish the details of each study on our website. Thisstrategy also allows us to make necessary updates as new data and information become available.

As we move through the International Decade for Action, 'Water for Life', 2005-2015, the World WaterDevelopment Reports will provide a series of assessments to facilitate the monitoring of change in the watersector, both on a global basis and within a growing number of case-study countries and river basins. The purposeof the Decade is to focus on the implementation of water-related programmes and projects, while striving toensure cooperation at all levels, including the participation and involvement of women, to achieve theinternationally-agreed water-related goals (Agenda 21, the UN Millennium Declaration and the JPOI as well asthose of the 12th and 13th sessions of the Commission on Sustainable Development). A number of issuesidentified by UN-Water as priorities for the Decade include coping with water scarcity, access to drinking water,sanitation and hygiene, and disaster risk reduction, particularly in Africa.

The triennial World Water Development Reports will provide substantive content for the Decade's agenda(subsequent editions of the Report are scheduled for production in 2009, 2012 and 2015) and lay the foundationfor a continuous, global monitoring system, pooling the unique perspectives and expertise of the 24 UN agenciesthat comprise UN-Water, in partnership with governments and other entities concerned with freshwater issues.

We trust that you will find this and future Reports both informative and stimulating.

The key challenges of contemporary watermanagement can only be understood withinthe very broad context of the world's socio-economic systems. Changing demographics andpopulation movements; shifts in geopolitics, with newcountry boundaries and alliances; fast developinginformation and communication technologies; plus theimpacts of climate change and extreme weatherconditions are all making the world a more challengingplace for decision-makers. Poverty, warfare andpreventable disease still affect much of the world'spopulation, often in developing countries and inincreasingly crowded urban conditions. These areelements of the broad and often fast changing contextswithin which we must place our discussions on waterresources management.

It is within this setting that the world's water managersmust administer what is becoming an increasinglyscarce and fluctuating resource. In an attempt tomaximize development opportunities in a sustainablefashion, this must be done within the socio-economiccontext of the water basin concerned. The pressuresthat they face in this task are many and varied. It isincreasingly recognized that an Integrated WaterResources Management (IWRM) approach is needed toconsider all such factors and issues simultaneously inorder to secure the equitable and sustainablemanagement of freshwater. This integrated approach towater management is a central tenet of the Report andunderpins the perspective taken in all chapters across allchallenge areas.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) areproviding important global targets. Settingtargets is vital for focusing attention and providingincentives to mobilize action on key issues of

development. Recognizing the need to speed up povertyalleviation and socio-economic development, 8 MDGswith specific quantifiable targetswere set by the United Nations(UN) General AssemblyMillennium Meeting in 2000to be achieved by 2015 from a1990 baseline. Additional goalsrelated to sanitation and theinclusion of IWRM in nationalplans were established duringthe World Summit onSustainable Development in2002 in Johannesburg.

By setting these goals,the UN system has taken a lead role in findingways to share the world's resources moreequitably, while offering more protection fromnatural hazards. Moves towards eradicating extremepoverty, which affects 40 percent of the world'spopulation, are underway. Water has a crucial role toplay in this endeavour. This report examines theseissues, as well as the current developments in andthinking behind more refined and better adaptedmonitoring tools for the water sector.

Setting targets establishes concrete quantifiableobjectives, while focusing attention on the issues athand and providing incentives to take action andmobilize the resources necessary for reaching the goals.However, targets are needed not only at the global level,but also at national, sub-national and community levels,where action has to be taken, for which regular andreliable monitoring is required. Setting up such amonitoring system for water-related goals and targetsis also a central element of this Report.

C H A P T E R 1 | L I V I N G I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D

There is a enough water for everyone. The problem we face today is largely one ofgovernance: equitably sharing this water while ensuring the sustainability of naturalecosystems. At this point in time, we have not yet achieved this balance.

3

AboveA typical dug well in Bahai,north eastern Chad, which wasalso shared with refugees arrivingfrom Sudan in early 2004.

1CHAPTER 1

Living in a Changing World

4


WATER AND THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

GOAL 1. ERADICATE EXTREMEPOVERTY AND HUNGER1

Water is a factor of production in virtually allenterprise, including agriculture, industry andthe services sector. Improved nutrition and foodsecurity reduces susceptibility to diseases,including HIV/AIDS, malaria among others.Access to electricity is key to improving qualityof life in the modern age. Competition betweenthe various sectors must be balanced by policiesthat recognize the ability and responsibility ofall sectors to address the issues of poverty andhunger.

Targets:Halve, between 1990 and 2015, theproportion of people whose income is lessthan $1 a dayHalve, between 1990 and 2015, theproportion of people who suffer fromhunger

WWDR2 Water-related Indicators:Percentage of undernourished peoplePercentage of poor people living in ruralareasRelative importance of agricultureIrrigated land as percentage of cultivatedlandRelative importance of agriculture waterwithdrawals in water balanceExtent of land salinized by irrigationImportance of groundwater in irrigationDietary Energy Supply (DES)

see Water for Food, Agriculture and

Rural Livelihoods: Chapter 7

Trends in industrial water useWater use by sectorOrganic pollution emissions by industrialsectorIndustrial water productivityTrends in ISO 14001 certification, 1997-2002Access to electricity and domestic useElectricity generation by fuel, 1971-2001Capability for hydropower generation, 2002

Total primary energy supply by fuelCarbon intensity of electricity production,2002Volume of desalinated water produced

see Water and Industry: Chapter 8

see Water and Energy: Chapter 9

GOAL 2. ACHIEVE UNIVERSALPRIMARY EDUCATIONPromotion of a healthy school environment isan essential element of ensuring universalaccess to education and school enrolment,attendance, retention and performance areimproved; teacher placement is improved. Inthis respect access to adequate drinking waterand sanitation is key.

Target: Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere,boys and girls alike will be able to completea full course of primary schooling

WWDR2 Water-related Indicator: Knowledge Index

see Enhancing Knowledge and

Capacity: Chapter 13

GOAL 3. PROMOTE GENDEREQUALITY AND EMPOWERWOMENEducating women and girls will permit them tofulfil their potential as full partners in thedevelopment effort.

Target: Eliminate gender disparity in primary andsecondary education, preferably by 2015and in all levels of education no later than2015

WWDR2 Water-related Indicator: Access to information, participation andjustice in water decisions

see Challenges

of Governance: Chapter 2

GOAL 4. REDUCE CHILDMORTALITYImprovements in access to safe drinking waterand adequate sanitation will help preventdiarrhoea, and lay a foundation for the controlof soil-transmitted helminths andschistosomiasis among other pathogens.

Target: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and2015, the under-five mortality rate

WWDR2 Water-related Indicators: Mortality in children <5 yrsPrevalence of underweight children <5 yrsPrevalence of stunting among children <5 yrs

see Protecting and Promoting

Human Health: Chapter 6

GOAL 5. IMPROVE MATERNALHEALTHImproved health and nutrition reducesusceptibility to anaemia and other conditionsthat affect maternal mortality. Sufficientquantities of clean water for washing pre-and-post birth cut down on life-threateninginfection.

Target:Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990and 2015, the maternal mortality rate

WWDR2 Water-related Indicator: DALY (Disability Adjusted Life Year)



1. Although industry and energy are not directly addressed by the Millennium Development Goals, they play an important role in providing employment, income and improved standard of living.

5

C H A P T E R 1 | L I V I N G I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D

SE

CT

ION

1

2. Only the most relevant targets have been listed for this goal.

GOAL 6. COMBAT HIV, AIDS,MALARIA AND OTHERDISEASESImproved water supply and sanitation reducessusceptibility to/severity of HIV/AIDS and othermajor diseases.

Targets: Halt by 2015 and begin to reverse thespread of HIV/AIDSHalt by 2015 and begin to reverse theincidence of malaria and other majordiseases

WWDR2 Water-related Indicator: DALY (Disability Adjusted Life Year)



GOAL 7. ENSUREENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITYHealthy ecosystems are essential for themaintenance of biodiversity and human well-being. We depend upon them for our drinkingwater, food security and a wide range ofenvironmental goods and services.

Target: Integrate the principles of sustainabledevelopment into country policies andprogrammes and reverse the loss ofenvironmental resources

WWDR2 Water-related Indicators:Water Stress IndexGroundwater developmentPrecipitation annuallyTARWR volume (total annual renewablewater resources)TARWR per capitaSurface water (SW) as a % TARWRGroundwater (GW) as a % of TARWROverlap % TARWRInflow % TARWR Outflow % TARWR

Total Use as % TARWRsee the State of

the Resource: Chapter 4

Fragmentation and flow regulation of riversDissolved nitrogen (NO3 + NO2)Trends in freshwater habitat protectionTrends in freshwater speciesBiological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

see Coastal and Freshwater

Ecosystems: Chapter 5

Targets: Halve by 2015 the proportion of people ofpeople without sustainable access to safedrinking water and basic sanitationBy 2020, to have achieved a significantimprovement in the lives of at least 100million slum dwellers

WWDR2 Water-related Indicators: Urban Water and Sanitation Governance IndexIndex of Performance of Water Utilitiessee Water and Human Settlements in

an Urbanizing World: Chapter 3

Access to safe drinking waterAccess to basic sanitation



GOAL 8. DEVELOP A GLOBALPARTNERSHIP FORDEVELOPMENT2

Water has a range of values that must berecognized in selecting governance strategies.Valuation techniques inform decision-makingfor water allocation, which promote sustainablesocial, environmental and economicdevelopment as well as transparency andaccountability in governance. Developmentagendas and partnerships should recognize thefundamental role that safe drinking water andbasic sanitation play in economic and socialdevelopment.

Targets Develop further an open trading andfinancial system that is rule-based,predictable and non-discriminatory,includes a commitment to goodgovernance, development and povertyreduction — nationally and internationallyAddress the special needs of landlocked andsmall island developing states

WWDR2 Water-related Indicators:Water sector share in total public spendingRatio of actual to desired level of publicinvestment in water supplyRate of cost recoveryWater charges as a percent of householdincome

see Valuing and Charging for

Water: Chapter 12

Water interdependency indicatorCooperation indicator Vulnerability indicatorFragility indicatorDevelopment indicator

see Sharing Water: Chapter 11

Disaster Risk IndexRisk and Policy Assessment Index Climate Vulnerability Index

see Managing Risks: Chapter 10

Progress toward implementing IWRMsee Challenges

of Governance: Chapter 2

WATER AND THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

6


SE

CT

ION

1

In order to monitor progress towards thesedevelopment goals, we need milestones. Thesecome in the form of indicators, which are well-definedstatistics that can be interpreted beyond their face-value to provide an indication of the condition anddirection of the system or process being measured.These indicators must meet well-defined scientificcriteria and be selected through a carefully planned andimplemented process, including stakeholder involvementand testing, making their development a lengthy andreiterative process. They are invaluable tools for policy-makers, who need information to be able to makeinformed decisions about the distribution of scarceresources.

Indicator development for this report focuses onutilizing and adapting existing knowledge, datasets andindicators to develop robust and reliable indicators thatare easy to use and understand to promotebetter water resource management. This isdone by providing a clear assessment ofthe state of water resources, identifyingthe emergence of critical water resourcesissues and monitoring progress towardsachieving water policy objectives.

Water is a fluctuating resource,making it difficult to measure intime and in space. This means thatcoordinating and harmonizing datacollection on both spatial and temporal

scales is critical. As information needs may differ atlocal, regional and global levels, indicators developed forone spatial scale may not be applicable to another.WWAP's 17 case studies serve to provide a basis onwhich to analyse change in the water sector byhighlighting a number of scenarios in differentgeographic regions where conditions of water-relatedstress and socio-economic circumstances are different.

Temporal scales also present challenges. For instance,water availability depends strongly on the season. Thusa mean annual value of water availability may conceal asevere shortage of water in dry periods and an excess ofwater during the wet season.

Water is an essential component of security,and numerous key development issuesinfluence water resources and the naturalenvironment. In all of these issues, the situation isnever static, often changing in ways that are difficult topredict. The main point, however, is the extent to whichall of these development problems affect the poor andunderprivileged. It is a challenge to the application ofIWRM to factor in the many variables insofar as possibleinto the water management framework so as to reducevulnerability and to increase the resilience andresourcefulness of individuals, communities andgovernments, especially in lower-income countries.

Action to address poverty alleviation, equitable resourceallocation and risk management, while preservingnatural ecosystems, is a challenge and responsibility forall levels of society. The UN, and the internationalcommunity in general, has an responsibility for action;but that responsibility must be shared with nationalgovernments, and sub-national and local communities.In the end, each one of us has an individual responsibilityto act and succeed, not only for the sake of globalsociety, but also for that of generations to come.

AboveKibera slum, Nairobi, Kenya.

RightYoung men washing in theriver, India.

C H A P T E R 2 | T H E C H A L L E N G E S O F G O V E R N A N C E

Such decisions on water governance are made by theminute across the world. The settings vary, as do thepeople and groups involved: urban and ruralhouseholds, neighbourhoods, small businesses andcorporate boardrooms, the offices of local, state andnational governments, and the international arena. Inreal life situations, the difference between having andnot having daily access to fair water provision is amatter of survival. How and for whom water isgoverned affects river flows, groundwater tables andpollution levels. It also determines theshare of water between upstream anddownstream water users. The capacityof countries to provide water supplyand sanitation for all and implementboth poverty reduction strategies andIntegrated Water Resource Management(IWRM) plans to meet new waterdemands as well as manage conflictsand risks depends to a large extent ontheir ability to establish sound andeffective governance systems.

The concept of governance hasevolved and gained ground overthe past decade. Within theinternational political arena, the issueof governance was once avoided in North-Southdevelopment dialogue. Today, it is increasingly acceptedas a vital issue to be addressed at all levels. The framingof water challenges in terms of governance has alloweda broadening of the water agenda. The scrutiny ofcorruption, democratization processes and powerimbalances between both rich and poor countries andrich and poor people is increasingly accepted. Indeed,governance and politics are increasingly viewed as apart of the problem and therefore as an essential partof any solution to water crises.

Over the past decade, water issues have featured highon the international political agenda. Hopes and

expectations have been raised by recent agreements ontime-bound water targets to improve the watersituation for billions of people established at theMillennium Summit and the 2002 World Summit onSustainable Development (WSSD). Paradoxically, actualfunding for the water sector in developing countries iscurrently stagnating. A positive sign, though, is thatsome countries, such as South Africa, have stepped uptheir commitments towards fulfilling national andinternational water and development targets.

Water stress tends to occur where individualrights and liberties are limited. A country-basedcomparison of per capita water availability anddemocratic governance would show that manycountries are facing a double challenge of water scarcity and stress and limited political rights and civicliberties. This is particularly the case for the Middle Eastand North Africa. Reform of the water sector, therefore,must go hand-in-hand with overall governance reform.It is highly unlikely that more effective participation,transparency, decentralization and IWRM will take firmroot in water sectors unless the country's overallgovernance system allows it. As part of the broadening

7

2CHAPTER 2

The Challenges of Governance

By

UNDP(United Nations

DevelopmentProgramme)

with

IFAD(International Fund

for AgricultureDevelopment)

Decisions on water management are a top priority. Who has the right to water and itsbenefits? Who is making water allocation decisions on who is supplied with water -and from where, when and how?

AboveHydraulic drilling stations,equipped with pumps that areusually manual, are graduallyreplacing the traditionalvillage wells, as seen here innorthern Côte d'Ivoire.

RightPipeline, outskirts of Gangtok,Sikkim, India.

8


of the water agenda, there is an increasing need toharmonize and coordinate international water targetsand principles with other international regimes, such asglobal or regional trading alliances. Unless waterconcerns are integrated within broader national andinternational processes of trade, stability and moreequitable governance, the chances of achieving theinternational water targets remain poor. There is thus aneed to collaborate with new partners outside the waterrealm and form more inclusive water developmentnetworks.

Development becomes more deeply rooted insystems where governments, private firms andcivil society work together in collaborativeundertakings. Recent decades have seen a great dealof emphasis placed on increasing the role of the privatesector in water management. Complete privatization ofwater services in developing countries, however, has notbeen able to meet expectations for improved andextended water supply and sanitation services. There is,thus, a need for improving dialogue on water betweengovernments, civil society and the private sector. Bettergovernance combined with an integrated managementapproach, increased transparency, participation anddialogue in a climate of trust-building could improvenegotiations and minimize the tensions within thewater sector. It is perhaps naïve to think that alldisputes and differences can be bridged, but a societythat claims to attack water problems must make serious

efforts to develop effective institutions and processesthat can mediate disputes (through the judiciary system,informal conflict resolution mechanisms and elections), orat least minimize their impacts (e.g. compensation tovulnerable groups).

National water reform and implementation isprogressing, although sometimes at apainstakingly slow pace. Although progress is beingmade in some areas, such as the recognition of waterrights, other needed reforms - such as decentralization- have been slow to come. Recent moves bygovernments in lower-income countries to delegateresponsibility have had limited success. Governmentsare not delegating the needed powers and resourcesand have, in some cases, taken back the delegatedresponsibility. However, the difficulty of implementingspecific reforms like this are often related to largerorganizational problems within the sector.In many developing-country settings, the water sectorand its institutions are plagued by fragmentation,marginalization and low capacity. Unfortunately, the marginalization of water departments and ministriesin a country's overall political affairs is common. Manycountries did not meet the WSSD 2005 target ofdeveloping IWRM plans. Ultimately, these plans and theinternational water targets they strive to meet willmean little unless they are supported by legislation andproperly implemented.

SE

CT

ION

1

Country readiness to meet the Johannesburg target on IWRM planning by 2005

Region Number of Countries Good Progress Some Steps Initial Stagesurveyed

AfricaCentral Africa 7 3 4Eastern Africa 5 1 2 2Med (North Africa) 5 1 3 1Southern Africa 12 2 5 5West Africa 16 2 4 10Total 45 6 17 22

Asia and PacificCentral Asia 8 2 4 2China 1 1South Asia 6 4 2Southeast Asia 8 4 4Pacific 18 2 8 8Total 41 5 20 16

Latin America and the CaribbeanCaribbean 6 6Central America 7 2 3 2South America 9 1 5 3Total 22 3 14 5Total 108 14 51 43

Source: GWP, 2003.

C H A P T E R 2 | T H E C H A L L E N G E S O F G O V E R N A N C E

Many government reforms fail because theynever get past the implementation stage. Howcan the prospects for effective implementation beimproved? It has been observed that a reformprogramme has a much better chance of succeeding ifthere is economic rationality in its design, politicalsensitivity in its implementation, and close and constantattention to political-economic interactions and social-institutional factors. Countries must intensify actionsand political commitment towards the implementationof existing water policies, plans and legislation. Thiswould go a long way towards achieving internationalwater targets.

The global battle against corruption requiresincreased effort and action at all levels.Corruption costs the water sector millions of dollarsevery year. It siphons off scarce monetary resources anddiminishes a country's prospects for providing waterand sanitation for all. Although corruption takes placein all countries, in some it occurs on a more systematicbasis. It is often viewed as a part of normal businesspractice between public agencies, citizens and theprivate sector - as well as within the public sector itself.However, the fight against corruption is on the increase.Many bilateral and multilateral organizations,governments, civil-society organizations and privatebusinesses are currently developing internal andexternal governance guidelines and codes of conduct,and are sponsoring anti-corruption/improvedgovernance research and development programmes.Nonetheless, if the movement to abate corruption is tobe truly effective, it must include efforts in thefollowing areas:

public-sector reform

increased salaries for public officials

strict enforcement of existing rules and regulations

improved accountability and transparency

multilateral cooperation and coordination to trackfinancial flows and monitor international contracts.

Governance systems are intrinsically linked topolitical processes and power. The road to improved governance means engaging withpolitical power and learning how to manoeuvre inhighly politicized contexts. Improving water governanceis a challenge as it necessarily involves reform effortsthat reach beyond the water sector. Water stakeholdersat all levels can assist reform by working towards

integrated policies and outcomes that encourage multi-stakeholder participation and decentralization.Furthermore, making strategic inputs into policy-makingand other decision-making processes will requirestakeholders to manoeuvre to a much greater extent indifferent social and political contexts. This meansunderstanding the political game and its rules.

There is no blueprint for improved governance- each society must find its own route. It isimportant to develop institutions and governancesystems that can respond effectively to situationscharacterized by variability, risk, uncertainties andchange. Conventional water planning remains rigid andthe challenge remains to develop adaptive governanceframeworks and institutions. More attention needs to begiven to resilient institutions and approaches that cangovern or guide the complex, surprise-laden process ofwater governance central to long-term management atregional, basin, aquifer and local levels. This suggeststhat the most appropriate solutions may be those thatemphasize, both the importance of enabling processesand frameworks that can be applied to resolve issues insituations of economic or other constraints and incontexts of change.

9

AboveA woman leads the discussionat the Bubel Village Reflectgroup, Orissa, India. The groupexamines local developmentproblems and agrees collectiveaction.

SE

CT

ION

1

10


3CHAPTER 3

Water and Human Settlements in anUrbanizing World

By

UN-HABITAT

There have been significant trends worldwidetowards the growth of urbanization. In mostAfrican and Asian countries, people are migrating fromrural to urban settlements. Most notable are reports of

burgeoning populations inthe peripheries of many ofthe world's mega-cities. Notso heavily reported, butnonetheless significant, isthe growth of large numbersof smaller cities and towns,most of which are feelingthe strains of rapidexpansion. In the developingworld, with totalpopulations set to increase,

overall rural populations are expected to remain largelyunchanged in numbers, while urban populations areexpected to grow rapidly. However, differences willremain: Latin America is significantly more urbanizedthan Africa or Asia, although Asia lays claim to some ofthe world's largest cities. By contrast, in some of themore developed countries where the vast majority ofthe population lives in cities, there are signs of countermigration: people abandoning the cities for better livingstandards in surrounding smaller communities.

Low-lying coastal situations are becomingincreasingly densely inhabited. Not only are manyof the cities and mega-cities of the world located incoastal areas, but rural densities near coastlines are alsoincreasing. Many of these locations are below, or veryclose to, sea level. As a result, the likelihood of flooding

is growing as sea levels rise and the intensity andoccurrence of storms increase. The vulnerability ofpopulations in such regions poses additional challengesfor the civil authorities responsible.

Challenges posed by expansion in many citiesand mega-cities are compounded by theunsuitability of much of the land for humansettlement. This is the case for the developing worldin particular. The best and most suitable land forsettlement is already occupied, while the remainingland, generally occupied by poor, recent migrants, isoften the most flood-prone in valley bottoms or themost landslide-prone on surrounding hillsides. These arealso areas where the implementation of basic servicessuch as drinking water and sanitation are the mostdifficult and expensive. The problem is exacerbated bythe rate of population increase, which far exceeds theabsorptive capacities of the communities. Theinfrastructures needed to service the influx simplycannot be built within such short time-scales.

As human settlements are the major pollutersof water resources, good water and wastewatermanagement is essential to limit pollution andminimize health risks. The expansion of urban areasand agricultural frontiers usually present newopportunities for disease. This is likely to continue asthe global population keeps growing and pressureincreases to develop agriculture, roads andtransportation systems in previously unsettled areas.Furthermore, as industries tend to be concentrated in or

Water resources management challenges differ enormously depending on the type ofhuman settlement. The spectrum of settlement types stretches from the very low-density scattered single dwellings found in rural areas, through villages and smalltowns, to the much more dense and crowded cities and mega-cities. Half of the world'spopulation and most of the world's economic output is located in urban areas. Today,large cities present a particular challenge, with 400 cities worldwide housing over1 million inhabitants.

AboveJakarta slum on a river bank,Indonesia.

around cities, and agricultural productionpredominantly in the surrounding available areas,measures to stem pollution and introduce and maintainefficient and safe drinking water and wastewaterdisposal mechanisms must be extended. This is essentialto ensure the health of populations and particularly theinhabitants of large urban communities. Failure to meetthese challenges will have a disastrous effect on thefurther expansion of cities.

Water resources management will always facethe challenge of balancing the needs ofdifferent water users. This is the case both in largeurban or relatively small rural communities. The waterneeds of the agricultural production, energy andindustrial sectors are often in competition. So, while theoverriding need to ensure adequate clean water fordrinking, hygiene and sanitation and wastewaterdisposal, are of paramount importance, theynonetheless need to be balanced with consideration ofthese and other needs.

Human settlements provide the context foraction. The struggle to achieve the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs) for water and sanitation willhave to be achieved in cities, towns and villages. This iswhere much of the industrial production and economicactivities are concentrated and where most criticalgovernance decisions are made. With the strongphysical and financial growth of cities in comparison tomore dispersed rural settlements, water challenges arebecoming increasingly urban in nature. City andmunicipal governments play critical roles in watermanagement ensuring provision of water, sanitationand wastewater removal. How tasks related to water

governance fit within broaderframeworks of environmental andeconomic policy are of crucialimportance. It is at this level thatpolicy initiatives become reality andneed both political and administrativesupport as conflicts have to beresolved and consensus found among competinginterests and parties. Actions must be coordinated andmanaged in these areas if there is to be significantimprovement in the lives of at least 100 million slumdwellers by 2020.

11

C H A P T E R 3 | W A T E R A N D H U M A N S E T T L E M E N T S I N A N U R B A N I Z I N G W O R L D

SE

CT

ION

1

AboveWatercans in Santiago, CapeVerde.

Slums in Curitiba, Brazil.Source: Derived from statistics in UN, 2004.

12


4CHAPTER 4

The State of theResource

By

UNESCO(United NationsEducational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)

WMO(World Meteorological Organization)

with

IAEA(International Atomic Energy Agency)

Over the past decade, awareness has grown over theneed to develop sustainable practices for the protection,management and efficient use of water resources.Natural units, such as river basins and aquifer systems,are becoming widely recognized and increasinglyadopted by national and regional programmes. However,the combination of different economic, environmentaland social pressures often results in increased wateruse, competition and pollution - in addition to highlyinefficient water supply practices. Responsibility for thislies in the fact that decision-making, at almost all levels,

remains principally driven by short-term economic andpolitical considerations and lacks the long-term visionneeded to implement sustainable developmentpractices. If our water resources are to continueproviding valuable and beneficial services, there must bea higher level of commitment and awareness towardsdeveloping and maintaining long-term integratedapproaches and solutions.

Because the roles and interactions of thehydrological cycle components are often notfully appreciated, it is difficult to set upadequate protection and prevention strategies.Climate, particularly precipitation and temperature, isthe primary driver of water resources, interacting withlandmasses, oceans and topography. Yet, all componentsof the hydrological cycle - precipitation, infiltration,runoff, evaporation, and transpiration - must be takeninto account when developing water managementplans. It is important that the role played by each isbetter understood: for example, how rain and snowdirectly supply terrestrial ecosystems and soil moisturewith a water source for agricultural development andterrestrial ecosystems, or how glacial melting influenceswater availability in many nations.

More data are needed on groundwater andaquifer systems, particularly for developingcountries where the lack of adequate surfacewater resources is most extreme. Groundwatercan be of great value, particularly in arid regions wheresurface water is often scarce. Although aquifers can betapped to supplement inadequate surface resources,there are high potential risks if the aquifers are notreplenished naturally or by human intervention. Itbecomes only a matter of time before these resourcesrun out or become economically inaccessible. Highlevels of exploitation - more than 50 percent ofrecharge - are currently occurring in many countries inthe Middle East, Southern and Northern Africa, Asia,certain countries in Europe, and Cuba. Tracking andcomparing groundwater use to recharge volumes atnational and sub-national levels is therefore vital -particularly for individual aquifers. This enables

There are many demands made on the world's water resources: drinking, hygiene, theproduction of food, energy and industrial goods, and the maintenance of naturalecosystems. Global water resources, however, are limited and unevenly distributed. Thiscomplicates water management, particularly for decision-makers, who are faced with thechallenge of managing and developing water resources in a sustainable fashion in theface of the pressures of economic growth, major population increases and climate change.

AboveRainwater is collected in thiscontainer and filtered toprovide drinking water inKomati, Swaziland.

13

C H A P T E R 4 | T H E S T A T E O F T H E R E S O U R C E

identification of areas where corrective action is neededto maintain groundwater development sustainability.

Although, several large-scale efforts are underway toupgrade monitoring and networks, for example inEurope and India, groundwater assessment, monitoringand data management activities are for the most partminimal or ineffective in many developing countries andare being downsized in many developed counties. This isparticularly true in both Asia and Africa where there hasbeen a dramatic reduction in water monitoringprogrammes. Increased financial investment is neededto increase understanding of groundwater resourcesand aquifer systems. Meanwhile, regions that depend ongroundwater should develop more comprehensive waterlevel and quality monitoring programmes.

In many regions of the world, human influenceis becoming more important than naturalfactors. River regimes are being very significantlyinfluenced in many regions through the construction ofdams and diversions. These range from the very large -such as the Three Gorges Dam in China - to themultitude of small dams such as the hillside terracesystems common in Southeast Asia, which althoughindividually small, have a large cumulative effect onriver flows. Dams act as very effective sediment traps,so effective in fact, that each dam is given a 'lifetime'after which the lake will become completely filled andthe dam will cease to be effective.

Landscape change, or the removal, destruction orimpairment of natural ecosystems, has the greatestcritical impact on the sustainability of natural waterresources. Deforestation, urbanization and increase inareas of farmland all significantly influence the qualityand quantities of water flows. Furthermore, landscapechanges complicate our ability to predict impacts on

water resources. This makes it much harder to advanceour understanding of future effects of climate change.

Poor quality waterand unsustainablesupplies limitnational economicdevelopment and canlead to adversehealth and livelihoodconditions. Today, weare reasonably able torecognize the impacts ofpollution and excessivegroundwater and surfacewater withdrawals onwater quality andquantity. Specific programmes should now be funded toreduce these impacts in developing countries.Meanwhile, at national and river-basin levels, there is an

SE

CT

ION

2

AboveBus driving across floodedplateau in the Andes, Bolivia.

14


emerging awareness of the need for good data on waterquality. This is essential to evaluate impacts and todesign improved water use and re-use strategies tomeet quality and quantity demands.

Coping with the ever-increasing demand forwater means locating solutions to particularproblems. How to compensate for the naturalvariability of the hydrological cycle so as to provide acontinuously available resource? How to overcome thereduced availability in water quantity or qualityresulting from human and development impacts?Prevention strategies and new technologies thataugment existing natural water resources, reducedemand, and achieve higher efficiency, are part of theresponse to the increasing burden on our availablewater resources. Past solutions have included storingrunoff in reservoirs, diverting flows from water-abundant to water-scarce regions, and extractingaquifer resources - methods that provided ample waterwhere and when it was needed. These methods arelikely to remain part of most water resourcesdevelopment strategies. In order to meet current andfuture water demands, greater attention should begiven to approaches such as innovative uses of naturalsupplies and new technologies. Non-conventional waterresources, such as water re-use and desalination, arebeing increasingly used and new technologies such asartificial re-charge are also becoming more common.Capturing rainwater at the source through harvesting isyet another method used to increase the availability ofnatural water sources.

Water demand reduction and efficiencyapproaches should be an integral part ofmodern water resources management. Most aridclimates suffering from water shortages have long-standing water conservation traditions. These are beingmaintained or supplemented with demand-management practices that target efficiency - oftenreferred to as water demand management (WDM).However, tropical and cold climates with abundantrainfall are accustomed to water supply projects andtend to adopt management practices that areparticularly adapted to those specific settings. Yet, theeconomic benefits of extending the lifespan of watersupply and treatment plants and the operatingefficiency of sewage treatment systems can beconsiderable. On the environmental front, conservationallows for the diversion of unused water to sustainecosystems and also lowers the pollution levels in lakes,rivers and groundwater. While WDM should bepromoted, it requires a distinct change in thebehavioural patterns of institutions, utilities andindividuals - a change that will need education,awareness-raising and political commitment to achieveeffective implementation.

Water resources assessments (WRA), providescientists, engineers and managers as well aspolicy makers and planners a foundation onwhich many decisions can be made. WRA, theprocess of monitoring (measuring, collecting andanalysing) the quantity and quality of water resources,is the basis for the formulation of policies andlegislations striving for sustainability of water resources.Consequently, there are economic, social andenvironmental benefits from periodic water resourcesassessments (WRAs) in all basins and aquifers, and inindividual nations as well as on a regional level,especially where transboundary water resources exist.

SE

CT

ION

2

AboveShanghai, China

RightFood remains in the MekongRiver after the daily marketactivities, Viet Nam.

C H A P T E R 5 | C O A S T A L A N D F R E S H W A T E R E C O S Y S T E M S

The implementation of Integrated Water ResourceManagement (IWRM) schemes on regional and localscales, the increasing use of ecosystem approachesfocusing on river basins, the decommissioning of severalcontroversial dams in North America, and manydifferent river and wetland restoration projects, suggestthat these commitments are at last being takenseriously - albeit not in all parts of the world.

Healthy freshwater ecosystems are essential forthe maintenance of biodiversity and humanwell-being. We depend upon freshwater ecosystemsfor our food security and a wide range of environmentalgoods and services. Freshwater biodiversity is extremelyrich, with high levels of endemic species, but also verysensitive to environmental degradation and over-exploitation. Often also called inland waters, theseecosystems comprise a range of highly productivehabitats containing a significant proportion offreshwater. They include lakes and rivers, wetlands andfloodplains, small streams, ponds, springs and aquifers.The term 'wetland' describes a particular group ofaquatic habitats representing a variety of shallow,vegetated ecosystems - such as bogs, marshes, swamps,floodplains and coastal lagoons - which are oftenbuffers against extreme weather events like hurricanes.The degradation of these wetlands puts coastal areas at risk.

In many areas, freshwater ecosystems andspecies are deteriorating rapidly. Often fasterthan terrestrial and marine ecosystems. This ishaving an immediate impact on the livelihoods of some

of the world's most vulnerable human communities.Effects include reduction in food protein levels, cleanwater and potential income generation; theundermining of poverty reduction strategies; andextinction rates unprecedented in human history.Available data such as the Living Planet Index (LPI) tendto support the hypothesis that freshwater species aremore threatened by human activities than species inother realms. On average, populations fell by about47 percent between 1970 and 2000. This represents amuch sharper decline than those measured in eitherterrestrial or marine ecosystems, with the most seriousdrop being seen in Southeast Asia.

Trends in the status of freshwater biodiversity andpollution measurements - such as biochemical oxygendemand (BOD) and nitrate concentrations in water -indicate the continuing deterioration of many

If the Millennium Development Goals for freshwater, biodiversity and climate change,among others, are to be achieved, management responses must take into accountecosystem concerns. At the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD),in addition to halving the proportion of people lacking access to safe drinking waterand basic sanitation by 2015, countries committed themselves to achieving a significantreduction in the rate of biodiversity loss in aquatic ecosystems by 2010. Reconcilingthese two targets constitutes a major challenge.

15

5CHAPTER 5

Coastal and Freshwater

Ecosystems

By

UNEP(United Nations

EnvironmentProgramme)

AboveGlobal warming has causedthe Vatnajokull glacier(Iceland) to retreat.

16


freshwater ecosystems. The first global study on riverflow status has demonstrated the increasingfragmentation of river basins as a result of dammingand other flow impediments. Waterfalls, rapids, riparianvegetation and wetlands can all disappear when riverflow is altered by damming. Major local and regionalthreats to freshwater ecosystems include habitatalteration, land-use change, especially deforestation andagricultural intensification, river fragmentation and flowregulation, water pollution, invasive species and climatechange. Failure to address these problems will haveimmediate social and economic costs and long-term,potentially irreversible effects on biodiversity.

Freshwater management is experiencing acrisis. Biodiversity and the conservation of species,habitats and ecosystem functions must become anintegral part of all sound water resource managementprogrammes. Practical approaches are urgently requiredfor the sustainable use of aquatic ecosystems. Onemajor impetus in this direction is the WSSD's Plan ofImplementation, through which participatinggovernments agreed to develop IWRM and waterefficiency plans by 2005.

There is now an urgent need to implementIWRM approaches. Although now widely accepted, itshould be noted that IWRM approaches should betailored to local circumstances and needs. This willrequire the development of a series of tools andmethodologies - in some cases adapting those used indifferent habitats and situations. Some governmentsand international development and conservationorganizations use the Integrated River BasinManagement (IRBM) approach. This concept is similar toIWRM and considers the river or lake basin/aquifer asthe ecologically defined management unit. IRBM cantherefore be applied at a variety of scales dependingupon the size of the river basin. This can range fromsmall catchments of a few square kilometres to majornational basins, as well as transboundary basins whereallocation and pollution issues cross internationalborders.

At the same time, partnerships between governments,communities, non-governmental organizations, industryinterests and research groups must move beyondgeneral commitments to specific actions and flexibleand durable working arrangements. Effectiveinstitutional management structures should allow forpublic input, changing basin priorities, and the

SE

CT

ION

2

AboveHeavy rains falling in theprovince of Misiones wash thesoil and carry off significantquantities of ferruginous earthinto the Río Uruguay(Argentina), turning the watersa dark, reddish ochre.

incorporation of new information and monitoringtechnologies. The adaptability of managementstructures should also extend to non-signatory ripariancountries (i.e. those within the same hydrologicalsystem) by incorporating provisions that address theirneeds, rights and potential accession. In the past, someattempts to resolve partnership issues have included theestablishment of freshwater and regional seasagreements at local, basin or regional levels (e.g. in theMekong, the Black Sea and the Danube, theMediterranean and Lake Chad). While such initiativeshave met with some success, they often still lack thepolicy tools necessary to promote long-term IWRM.

Considerable improvements in data quality areurgently needed. This is required, in particular, toevaluate progress towards the 2010 targets for reducingrates of biodiversity loss set by WSSD and theConvention of Biological Diversity. Although data onbiodiversity and water quality exists for some speciesgroups, habitats and regions, there are still large gaps inthe information available on many species, and verylittle information is available on the extent and qualityof aquatic ecosystems. In the end, ecosystem indicatorsare only as good as the data that support them.

17

C H A P T E R 5 | C O A S T A L A N D F R E S H W A T E R E C O S Y S T E M S

SE

CT

ION

2

LeftA scheme to irrigate the deserthas caused the Aral sea toshrink. It is now too saline forfish and too shallow for shipsto navigate.

Franz Joseph Glacier, in TeWahipounamu, New Zealand.

Source: Loh et al., 2004.

18


6CHAPTER 6

Protecting andPromoting HumanHealth

By

WHO(World Health Organization)

UNICEF(United Nations Children's Fund)

Human health cuts across the major sectors inwater resources development and management.A range of different water conditions and parametersdetermine the health of communities. In the domesticsphere, whether in urban or rural areas, the focus is onlack of access to sufficient supplies of safe drinkingwater, adequate sanitation and the promotion of

hygienepractices. Allof these areimportant inarresting thetransmissionof diarrhoealdiseases andother gastro-intestinalinfections.Where wateris needed for

food and energy, thefocus is on theimpact of reservoirconstruction forhydropower andirrigation developmentand the ensuing risksof diseases, such as malaria, schistosomiasis, filariasisand Japanese encephalitis. Health can also be a keyfactor in mobilizing communities to participate innature conservation and environmental management, inparticular, for communities that depend on ecosystemsfor their livelihood or manage health risks related towater-associated diseases. Community health status is,therefore, the ultimate indicator of the success or failure ofintegrated water resources development and management.

Infectious diseases, especially diarrhoea andmalaria, continue to dominate the globalburden of water-related disease. The burden ofwater-related diseases is a good indicator of the stateof access to water and sanitation. Diseases associatedwith lack of access are measured principally usingDisability-Adjusted Life Years (DALY). Data are organizedby age and include information on sex and geographicalregion for diarrhoea, malaria, schistosomiasis, lymphaticfilariasis, onchocerciasis, dengue, Japanese encephalitis,trachoma, intestinal nematode infections, protein-energy malnutrition and drowning. In 2002, diarrhoealdiseases and malaria accounted for 1.8 and 1.3 milliondeaths respectively. These were almost entirely childrenunder 5 years of age. Diarrhoea remains the leadingcause of death from water-related diseases in children.In developing countries it accounts for 21 percent of alldeaths in children under 5. Although diarrhoeamortality is decreasing, the proportion of deaths due topersistent diarrhoea and dysentery is increasing. Malariacauses illness in about 400 million people every year.With its share of the global burden of diseaseincreasing, it is one of the most urgent global healthproblems.

In Africa and Asia, water-related diseasescontinue to impose a particularly large burdenon health. Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia carrythe largest burden: it is estimated that each child under5 years of age in a developing country suffers onaverage three episodes of diarrhoea per year. While theburden of diarrhoea is distributed over both Africa andSouth Asia, malaria largely affects children under 5 inAfrica. Malaria is responsible for approximately30 percent of out-patient clinic visits in Africancountries where the disease is endemic. In many of the

The state of human health is inextricably linked to a range of water-related conditions:safe drinking water, adequate sanitation, minimized burden of water-related disease andhealthy freshwater ecosystems. Urgent improvements in the ways in which water useand sanitation are managed are needed to improve progress towards meeting theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) related to human health.

AboveThis woman's hands bear themarks of arsenic poisoningthrough drinking water.

same regions, the population faces intense year-roundmalaria transmission. This results in a high number ofcases, in particular among children and pregnant women.Since the late 1990s, cholera has also posed a largeproblem in Africa, where between 100,000 and 200,000cases are officially reported each year.

Many water-related diseases could becontrolled by universal access to safe waterand adequate sanitation/hygiene/watermanagement practices. Improvements in watersupply and sanitation will prevent diarrhoea and helpreduce instances of intestinal helminths (parasiticworms) and schistosomiasis. Current evidence showsthat 1.7 million deaths could also be avoided each yearby providing access to safe drinking water, sanitationand hygiene. The single most effective intervention ishand washing with soap, which could cut diarrhoeadeaths in half. Many infectious skin and eye diseasesare also related to poor hygiene and inadequate water

supplies. Soil-transmitted helminths also flourish where poverty, inadequate sanitation and minimalhealthcare prevail.

There is evidence that water resourcesdevelopment has an impact on the incidenceof malaria and other vector-borne diseases.Malaria control is hampered by a number of constraints,including the increasing resistance of mosquitoes andmalaria parasites to insecticides and inexpensive drugs,climate and environmental change, populationmovements and behavioural change. It is widelyrecognized that water resource development projects,especially irrigation systems, can also provide ecologicalconditions conducive to the spread of malaria. Therelationship between malaria andwater resources development is,however, highly situation specific.It depends on the climate, people'sbehaviour and the ecology, biologyand efficiency of vectors. Mosquitobreeding is often associated withfaulty irrigation design andmaintenance or watermanagement practices. At present,environmental managementmethods are prevented fromplaying a more important role in

19

C H A P T E R 6 | P R O T E C T I N G A N D P R O M O T I N G H U M A N H E A L T H

SE

CT

ION

3BelowA woman collecting a supplyof unsafe water, Indonesia.

Source: OMS, 2004.

Source: OMS, 2004.

20


malaria control due to lack of scientific evidence ofeffectiveness as well as uncertainty regarding thefeasibility of implementation. Recent internationalresearch initiatives have focused on possibilities ofreducing malaria as part of an ecosystem approach tohuman health.

Chemical pollution of surface waters, mainly byindustry and agricultural runoff, also posemajor health hazards in some developingcountries. In Bangladesh, over the past twenty years,more than 4 million tubewells have been installed toprovide safe drinking water to 95 percent of thepopulation. However, high concentrations of arsenic

have recently beendiscovered intubewell water. Thescale of the problemand the full impactof arsenic poisoningwill only becomeapparent at a laterstage as the effectson health (e.g.malignant tumors orskin lesions) occuronly after extended

periods of exposure. Moreover, as some chemicals, suchas arsenic and fluoride, occur naturally in groundwater,it can often be difficult to accurately attribute healthproblems to specific factors in the environment. Thissituation (also found in parts of China, India, and EastAfrica) calls for a pragmatic combination of affordableand sustainable water supply programmes aimed atminimizing the combined health risks posed bypathogens, arsenic and other natural and manufacturedchemicals possibly present in the environment.

Progress has been made in increasing safewater and sanitation coverage, butgreater improvements are neededto meet global water andsanitation targets. This is particularlythe case in sub-Saharan Africa.Worldwide, between 1990 and 2002,about 1.1 billion people gained access toimproved water sources (Datasets andinformation on water supply andsanitation coverage are provided by theJoint Monitoring Programme, JMP, aprogramme maintained by the WorldHealth Organization, WHO, and UnitedNations Children's Fund, UNICEF). Globalsanitation coverage rose from 49 percentin 1990 to 58 percent in 2002. Althoughthe world is now globally on-track to

achieve the MDG drinking water target, the sanitationtarget - to halve the proportion of people withoutimproved sanitation - will not be met by 2015 withoutadditional effort. Sanitation coverage in developingcountries (49 percent) is only half that of the developedworld (98 percent). Though major progress was made inSouth Asia between 1990 and 2002, little more thanone-third of South Asians currently have access toimproved sanitation. Over half of those withoutimproved sanitation - nearly 1.5 billion people - live inChina and India. In sub-Saharan Africa, progress reportsindicate that neither the drinking water nor sanitationtargets will be met by 2015. Some 2.6 billion people -half of the developing world - continue to live therewithout improved sanitation. If the 1990-2002 trendcontinues, the world will fall short of its sanitationtarget by more than half a billion people.

Over the long term, many environmentalhealth interventions have proved to be morecost-effective than medical interventions. Assuch, global disease control priorities should clearly bebased not only on the global burden of disease but alsoon the availability of cost-effective interventions. Basedon a study in Burkina Faso, the cost of implementing alarge-scale hygiene promotion programme wasestimated at US $26.9 per case of diarrhoea averted.Cost-effectiveness of a latrine revision programme inKabul, Afghanistan ranged from US $1,800-4,100 perdeath due to diarrhoea averted, depending on age andpayer perspective. Studies show that universal access topiped water and sewerage can reduce the burden ofwater-related disease to nearly zero at an estimatedcost of US $850-7,800 per DALY averted, but this isclearly higher than typical income levels in developingcountries. Low-cost technologies, however, (standpipesand latrines, as opposed to piped water and sewerageconnections to individual homes), would likely improvethe cost-effectiveness to US $280-2,600 per DALYaverted, if disinfection at the point of use is added.

SE

CT

ION

3

AboveA toilet block in Dar es Salaam,Tanzania.

Source: WHO/UNICEF, 2004.

C H A P T E R 7 | W A T E R F O R F O O D , A G R I C U L T U R E A N D R U R A L L I V E L I H O O D S

In developing countries, this outcome was the result ofa targeted effort founded on the conceptual premise ofthe 'green revolution': farming high-yield crop varietiessupported with adequate plant nutrition, water andprotection from pests. The productivity of agriculturalland has doubled, as has the productivity of waterusage in agriculture. As a result, food prices havegradually decreased, leading to a progressive reductionin the share of agriculture in the world's economy.

The demand for food is not negotiable. Whilethe global rate of demographic growth is declining, thenumber of people added every year to the world'spopulation - about 75 million - is still large. As populationsgrow, the available resources per capita shrink and higherproductivity is required to compensate. To satisfy theestimated increase in demand for food between 2000and 2030, production of food crops in developingcountries is projected to increase by 67 percent. At thesame time, a continuing rise in productivity shouldmake it possible to keep the projected increase in waterusage for agriculture down to about 14 percent.

On average, it takes about 3,000 litres ofwater per person to produce our daily intake offood. The water absorbed by plants is used to raisenutrients from the soil, at which point the water isreleased into the air through transpiration. By far, mostof the water used by crops is derived from rainfed soilmoisture. Irrigation provides only about 10 percent ofagricultural water but has a significantly strategic role:it supplements rainfall where soil moisture isinsufficient to reliably satisfy the needs of the crops. Itis especially important in areas vulnerable to excessiveclimatic variability or where multiple cropping requiresthe provision of water outside the rainy season.

By ensuring water supply, irrigation guarantees cropproduction and encourages farmers to invest in moreproductive agriculture. However, although it representsonly a marginal part of the water used in agriculture,irrigation is, by a substantial margin, the largestconsumptive user of the Earth's freshwater resources.

Large-scale, state-supported irrigation schemesthat contributed substantially to increases inagricultural production are now struggling toadapt. These schemes enhanced the livelihood offarmers, while producing food at lower cost for thebenefit of urban and rural populations alike. However,the rapidly changing economic environment has seenrelatively disappointing performances in recent years.These schemes are now at the core of a protracteddebate involving technical, economic and, ultimately,social questions. Many systems are too institutionallyand technically ill-equipped to respond to the

The world's agriculture has responded well to the challenges raised in the second halfof the twentieth century. Per capita food production increased by 25 percent as theglobal population doubled, leading to a progressive improvement in global nutrition.This response has steadily reduced the proportion of malnourished people.

21

7CHAPTER 7

Water for Food,Agriculture and Rural

Livelihoods

By

FAO (Food and Agriculture

Organization of theUnited Nations)

IFAD(International Fund

for AgricultureDevelopment)

AboveWorkers harvest carp raised ina stock pond, India.

22


challenges presented by increased water scarcity, theneed for agricultural diversification and the pressure ofrapid globalization. Modernization of irrigatedagriculture is therefore essential to ensure much-needed gains in water productivity. Irrigationinstitutions must respond to the needs of farmers toensure flexible and reliable delivery of water, increased

transparency in management, and a balance betweenefficiency and equity in access to water. This will notonly require a change in attitudes, but also well-targeted investment in infrastructure modernization,institutional restructuring, and upgrading of thetechnical capacities of farmers and water managers.

SE

CT

ION

3

Source: FAO, 2003.

23

C H A P T E R 7 | W A T E R F O R F O O D , A G R I C U L T U R E A N D R U R A L L I V E L I H O O D S

Agriculture is now coming under increasingscrutiny as water resources shrink andcompetition between sectors intensifies.Pursuing a narrow development goal of increasedagricultural productivity has led to the breakdown ofmany once resilient ecosystems. The amount of wateravailable to agriculture is now being progressivelylimited by degraded land and water systems,competition from other economic sectors, and the needto conserve the integrity of aquatic ecosystems.Agriculture has come under pressure to reduce the levelof its negative impacts, particularly those associatedwith the use of fertilizers and pesticides, as well aswasteful use of water. As competition increases,irrigation needs to be carefully examined to discernwhere society can benefit most effectively from itsapplication. Access to natural resources needs to benegotiated with other users in a transparent fashion inorder to achieve optimal uses under conditions ofgrowing scarcity.

It is now widely acknowledged thatagricultural water management can havepositive impacts far beyond the economics ofcrop production. This multi-functionality ofagriculture has been recognized and is today promotedin many countries. Farmers need to be encouraged andguided, through appropriate policies and incentives, toconserve natural ecosystems and their biodiversity andto minimize agriculture's negative impact. This goal willonly be achieved if the appropriate policies are in place.

Historically, governments have tended to neglectagricultural development in favour of industrial andurban-centred activities. National policies andinternational economic factors often have devastatingconsequences on rural people in developing countries,preventing them from actively contributing to theircountry's economy. However, it is now more generally

acknowledged that agriculture is the main engine ofgrowth in most developing economies. As the globe isprogressively achieving food security, 13 percent of itspopulation (850 million people, living mostly in ruralareas) do not have access to sufficient food to leadhealthy and productive lives. In particular, a group ofthirty countries, most of them in Africa, experiencesdifficulty both in producing enough food for their ownpopulation and in generating sufficient resources forimporting necessary goods unavailable within theirborders. These countries are highly dependent onagriculture. Progress in improving their food securitycapacity depends on, more than any other factor, thedevelopment of local food production. In most cases,they need a substantial increase in investment in ruralareas, where water management plays a central role inraising the productivity of agriculture and related ruralactivities.

The agriculture sector today faces a series ofcomplex challenges.

More food of better quality needs to be producedusing less water per unit of output.

Rural people need to be given the resources andopportunities to live healthy and productive lives.

Clean technologies that ensure environmentalsustainability must be applied.

Agriculture must contribute in a productive way tolocal and national economies.

Ultimately, a 'business as usual' attitude in the food andrural livelihoods sector will seriously hinder theattainment of the Millennium Development Goals offreeing humanity from extreme poverty and hunger andensuring environmental sustainability.

SE

CT

ION

3

LeftSprinkler irrigation on anexperimental field ofasparagus, Brazil.

MiddleCattle drinking from a riverbank, Ethiopia.

BeloveWomen harvesting cereal inRajastan, India.

24


8CHAPTER 8

Water and Industry

By

UNIDO(United Nations Industrial Development Organization)

In the fast-growing East Asia and Pacific region,industry now provides 48 percent of total GDP. Thisproportion is still increasing. In heavily indebted poorcountries, the proportion of GDP provided by industrygrew quickly from 22 percent to 26 percent between1998 and 2002. In rich countries, by contrast, theproportion of GDP coming from the production ofmanufactured goods is declining slowly. It currentlyprovides 29 percent of GDP, with services making up thebulk of the economy.

Industrial pollution and waste is endangeringwater resources by damaging and destroyingecosystems worldwide. This undermines watersecurity for both individual and water-consumingindustries. Municipalities are finding that the quality ofwater they supply is compromised by industrial waste.Meanwhile, pollution also has a direct economic impact

on fisheries. Industries in developed and developingcountries that require clean water are in turn findingthat their water security is increasingly affected bywater shortages and deteriorating water quality.

Limiting industrial pollution means increasinggood environmental governance. It is possible todecouple industrial development from environmentaldegradation, radically reduce natural resource andenergy consumption, and at the same time, have cleanand profitable industries. It is important that thenecessary legal and institutional arrangements be inplace to enable this growth to take place in asustainable fashion. Many such governance initiativesnow exist at international and national levels, as well asat the level of industrial sectors and individualcompanies. Some of the more recent key internationalagreements and multilateral environmental agreementsaffecting industrial water use and pollution impactsinclude:

The Basel Convention on the Control ofTransboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastesand their Disposal. This provides an internationalmechanism for addressing issues of wastegeneration, movement, management and disposal.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent OrganicPollutants (POPs). This governs the production,handling, transport and use of certain highly toxicorganic chemicals that remain intact in theenvironment for long periods, and become widelydistributed geographically.

The EU Water Framework Directive on IntegratedRiver Basin Management for Europe. This

Industry is a large promoter of economic growth, particularly in developing countries.The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg proposed aPlan of Implementation that makes strong links between the related goals of industrialdevelopment, poverty eradication and sustainable management of natural resources.Industrial growth is highly desirable for countries adopting poverty-reduction policies.It is necessary to diversify economies, create jobs, and add value to the products andraw materials being produced.

AboveIndustrial site inGrangemouth, Scotland.

25

C H A P T E R 8 | W A T E R A N D I N D U S T R Y

coordinates the objectives of European water policyin order to protect all waters, including surfacewater and groundwater. It uses a river basinmanagement approach, and incorporates theIntegrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC)Directive that addresses industrial installations witha high pollution potential.

Agreements to curb industrial water pollutionmust be translated into national policies ifthey are to become truly effective. Regulatoryand economic measures are needed for local, regionaland national water management. This is essential tofurther improve industrial water productivity and reduceindustrial water pollution. Measures can take the formof policy instruments and economic incentives.Examples of these include stepped water tariffs forindustry, subsidies for industries implementinginnovative environmental technologies, and financialand advisory support for industries funding newresearch.

Efforts to control industrial pollution areemerging from within the sector. Many industriesare also improving their strategies for water use,influenced by changing consumer attitudes, thepressure for better corporate governance, and cost-cutting measures. There has been an exponentialincrease over the past decade in the numbers ofworldwide industrial companies seeking certificationwith ISO 14001, the international environmental

standard. Companies adhering to thestandard implement environmentalmanagement systems, conductenvironmental audits, and evaluatetheir environmental performance.Their products adhere toenvironmental labelling standards,and waste streams are managedthrough life cycle assessments.Increasingly, companies recognizethat such actions demonstratecommitment to beingenvironmentally responsible as wellas profitable, enhancing both theircorporate image and theircompetitiveness.

Where water quantity is concerned, it isimportant to consider the productivity of thewater used. The industrial value added (or units ofproduct produced) per unit of water used variesenormously by country and industrial sector, dependingon the value of the product and the value placed uponthe water used in the process. However, it is a usefulbenchmarking tool whereby companies can tracksuccessful process modifications that lead to betterenvironmental management. There are variousstrategies available to the management of industries toimprove water productivity. These include waterauditing, matching water quality to use requirements,on-site water recycling and reuse, and using reclaimedwater rather than freshwater where feasible.

SE

CT

ION

3

AbovePlastic bottles thrown into RioPinheiros, Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Source: World Bank, 2002.

26


Where water quality is concerned, Zero EffluentDischarge should be the ultimate goal ofcompanies and municipalities. Zero EffluentDischarge entails water recycling and recovery of allwastes. It also avoids the release of contaminants intothe aquatic environment. However, if avoidingdischarges altogether is not economically or technicallyfeasible, there are many valuable intermediate strategiesthat can be taken at factory level to reduce industry'simpact on water quality. These include:

cleaner production assessments

Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technologies (theTEST strategy promoted by UNIDO)

stream separation (avoiding the mixing ofcontaminants)

raw material and energy recovery from waste

selecting optimal wastewater treatmenttechnologies.

Voluntary measures and self-regulation allowindustries to monitor performance anddemonstrate commitment to improving theenvironment. Adopting Environmental ImpactAssessments (EIAs) and Environmental ManagementSystems (EMS) are two primary ways of achieving this.EIAs investigate the environmental impact of newprojects and significant extensions of existing projects,using scientific evaluation and consultation with publicand environmental authorities. An EMS (such as ISO14001) helps a company achieve its stated environmentalpolicy by setting responsibilities, defining environmentalobjectives and the operational procedures, training needs,monitoring and communication systems to be used. Forcompanies, registration with the environmental standardISO 14001 provides an internationally recognizedframework with which to demonstrate their environmentalcommitment while enhancing profitability andcompetitiveness. Other Best Environmental Practices (BEPs),which promote the sustainable use of water include:

Environmental audits. These assess the effectivenessof the management system in place, its conformitywith the organization's environmental policy andprogramme, and the organization's compliance withrelevant environmental regulatory requirements.Environmental audits often include water andenergy audits.

Best Available Technology (BAT). This is a usefulstandard-setting tool for emissions reduction inmany industrial sectors.

Virtually all manufacturing processes require water to agreater or lesser degree. The water demands of industryare legitimate. At issue is how water used by industry isreturned to the system and the manner in which theindustry sector's demands will be balanced against thedemands of other sectors.

SE

CT

ION

3

AboveWater treated on site at arubber factory, Malaysia.

Source: EC, 2004.

C H A P T E R 9 | W A T E R A N D E N E R G Y

Economic development needs an adequate and steadysupply of energy to be sustainable. Water is a keyresource for energy generation, primarily through theuse of hydroelectric power, but also in nuclear-basedenergy generation, coal slurry technology and small-scale hydroelectric schemes, among others. Energy isequally essential for freshwater supplies, for example, ingroundwater pumping, desalination technology anddelivery and distribution systems. Reducing theinefficiencies that occur in energy production (duringelectricity generation, transmissions, distribution andusage) will reduce electric power requirements leadingto greater water savings. Equally, diminishing theinefficiencies and leaks that occur in water distributionsystems (for agriculture and municipalities in particular,as well as other human activities) makes efficiencygains possible in the electricity sector and offers bigpotential water savings in electricity production.

Many opportunities to promote greater socio-economic development are being lost. Over2 billion people in developing countries do not haveaccess to reliable forms of energy. In Africa alone, anestimated 526 million people lack access to electricity.In many developing countries, access to electricity lagsfar behind access to improved water supplies. Improvingaccess to electricity, although not one of the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs), was one of the targetsadopted at the 2002 World Summit on SustainableDevelopment.

Hydropower can be made even more sustainable.Hydropower contributes 19 percent of global electricpower generation, although its importance varies fromcountry to country. Twenty-four countries generatemore than 90 percent of their electricity throughhydropower, whereas others generate none at all.Europe makes use of 75 percent of its hydropowerpotential, while Africa has developed only 7 percent.This is viewed as a possible cornerstone of Africa'sfuture development, with significant export potentialand plans to establish a continent-wide electricity grid.Hydropower brings flexibility to a national network grid,due to its ability to meet suddendemand. Run-of-river hydropowerstations - from large to small -are clean, affordable andsustainable renewable energyproviders. However, hydropowerprojects involving large reservoirconstruction fall into a differentcategory. There remains considerabledifference of opinion worldwideas to whether they should beclassified as renewable energy and if they should beprioritized by developing countries for investment.

The connection between water and energy is often overlooked. Experience has shownthat the simultaneous analysis of water and energy use at policy level can enable asignificant increase in productivity and sustainability in the use of both resources. Yetthe strong links between water and electrical power usage (termed the water/energynexus) are, at present, not fully taken into account in policy-making, management andthe operation of both water and electricity generation systems.

27

9CHAPTER 9

Water and Energy

By

UNIDO(United Nations

Industrial Development Organization)

AboveThe Ataturk Dam (Turkey) isthe largest in a series of 22dams and 19 hydroelectricstations built on the Euphratesand Tigris rivers.

BelowSolar photovoltaic panel forpumping water, Kabekelvillage, Gambia.

The construction of new dams needs greatertransparency, accountability, stakeholderinvolvement and oversight of the contractualprocess. All of these are essential to promote socialequity and good governance. In many places, large damsare built as much for the purposes of water storage,irrigation, and flow regulation as for the hydropowerbenefits that they may provide. Large hydropowerinvestments can be made more sustainable by:

prioritizing run-of-river projects for new investment

piggybacking alternative energy sources tohydropower, for instance through the coupling ofwind and hydropower

adding hydropower capacity to existinginfrastructure such as water storage dams andbarrages

extending the life and improving the efficiency ofexisting hydropower schemes.

Small hydropower projects (SHP) can provide aviable alternative to their larger counterparts.SHP is especially appropriate for providing off-gridelectrification for isolated rural areas with a sparsepopulation. This is providing there are adequate waterresources available and seasonal variations in poweroutput are taken into account. These smaller-scaleprojects lack the level of controversy associated withlarge hydro, because their impact on the localenvironment is limited. The use of SHP can contribute topoverty alleviation through sustainable socio-economic

development,increasingemploymentopportunities forlocal people,

improving rural living standards,and promoting environmentfriendly development. Investment in SHP plants byprivate firms and individuals can be encouragedthrough preferential policies. Examples include taxreductions, soft loans/grants from government, andpromoting indigenous manufacturing capability forsmall hydropower equipment.

The impact of an energy-intensive waterdelivery system can be dire in areas with scarcewater and energy resources. Energy intensitymeasures the amount of energy used per unit of waterdelivered. Some sources of water supply are moreenergy intensive than others. Thermal desalination, forexample, requires more energy than wastewaterrecycling, while water pumping consumes significantenergy resources worldwide. Implementing energyefficiency in the water and wastewater industriesreduces operations and maintenance costs. It decreasesboth emissions and the capital costs of new supply. Italso improves water quality, service coverage, thesolvency and operations capacity of water utilities and ahost of other related benefits. Reductions in energy usein water and wastewater systems can be encouragedthrough delegation of larger-scale energy and watermanagement to local levels. Involvement of water andwastewater decision-makers, however, is vital forsuccess, with the first step being energy and wateraudits of utilities. Furthermore, their involvementprovides the support needed to implement energyefficiency measures, ensuring that energy andwastewater reduction efforts are sustainable.

Recent environmental concerns demand that agreater investment be made in renewableenergies. Environmental concerns, particularly overclimate change, nuclear waste disposal and safety andsecurity of energy supply, have prompted governmentsto introduce policies aimed at accelerating the use ofrenewable energy and Combined Heat and Power (CHP).Total worldwide investment in renewable energy rosefrom $6 billion in 1995 to approximately $22 billion in2003, and is increasing rapidly. However, the economiesof scale associated with large-scale thermal andhydropower electricity generation, and the existence oftransmission and distribution grids, continue to givethem a significant cost advantage over renewable

alternatives. Subsidies of alltypes have previously beenused in many countries toestablish a 'top down'energy supply system,favouring thermal andlarge hydropowergenerating plants of everincreasing capacity - atrend that now needs to bereversed.

28


SE

CT

ION

3

AboveCoal-fired power station inBergheim, Germany.

RightKut Al Amara dam, Iraq.

29

C H A P T E R 9 | W A T E R A N D E N E R G Y

National strategies to increase the use ofrenewable energies can go further. Governmentsjoining the Kyoto Protocol are bound to reducegreenhouse gas emissions and promote clean energyinvestments. These targets can be achieved through theimplementation of a number of national policy reformsthat would stimulate the use of renewable energy. Theseinclude the provision of subsidies for the developmentand deployment of renewable energy-based mini-grids,the introduction of measures to promote distributedpower generation, the provision of capital resources forsmall-scale rural energy investments (including thesupport of micro finance schemes), and the provision ofstable subsidies such as investment tax credits andaccelerated depreciation in addition to other economicincentives.

New approaches are needed to encourage end-use energy efficiency. Much of the world's futureenergy demand will have to be met by efficiencyimprovements. Whereas manufacturers of energy-consuming equipment have successfully improved theperformance of individual components such as pumps,compressors, fans and steam boilers, these componentsonly provide a service to the user when operating aspart of a system. There is scope to improve energyefficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions acrossthe entire industrial sector by improving the design andoperation of the systems that deliver energy. Energyefficiency can be stimulated by policy measures such as:

introducing requirements to incorporate life-cycleenergy costs into bidding procedures for capitalprojects

encouraging improvements in the design andoperation of pumping systems, for instance throughinnovation awards for energy efficiency

requiring energy efficiency standards and labels forappliances and equipment

increasing the implementation of energy efficiencymeasures in the industrial sector by incorporatingcommitments to energy efficiency into the ISOcertification process (ISO 9001/14001), theinternational environmental standard.

SE

CT

ION

3

Sour

ce: I

nter

natio

nal E

nerg

y As

soci

atio

n, 2

004.

Source: International Energy Agency, 2005.

30


10CHAPTER 10

Managing Risks:Securing the Gains ofDevelopment

By

WMO(World Meteorological Organization)

ISDR(International Strategy for Disaster Reduction)

UNU(United Nations University)

Developing countries are disproportionatelyaffected by disasters. Communities in developingcountries tend to be hit the hardest, with losses risingto about five times higher per unit of Gross DomesticProduct (GDP) than for their more developed

counterparts. Suchlosses set back economicdevelopment and socialgrowth, sometimes bydecades. Better riskmanagement is one ofthe key areas that needsto be addressed in orderto break the viciouscycle of poverty.

The Johannesburg Planof Implementation andthe Millennium

Development Goals have stressed the interactionbetween disaster risk reduction and sustainabledevelopment. Both have shown how hunger and diseasesignificantly reduce people's ability to cope with naturaldisasters. They also emphasize the link between povertyand access to safer land areas or adequate means oftransportation in emergency situations. Thus, disasterrisk reduction efforts need to encompass a componentenabling communities not only to recover fromdisasters, but also to rise above the poverty line. Thisunquestionably makes risk management a matter ofsocial policy, aligned with ongoing global processesrelated to sustainable development.

There are two main challenge areas in riskassessment: scientific measurement andmethods and social and political issues. Theseareas were identified in a recent 2004 WMO studyfocussing on risk management approaches andpractices. The study was based on a survey involving61 case studies across 5 continents. Scientificmeasurement and methods involve the need for:

data to map hazards and assess impacts

easy-to-use Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

improvement in the accuracy of weather and floodforecasting

improved knowledge on effects of climate change

improved vulnerability assessment methods

development of environmental strategies and, withthe utmost urgency, the relevant data andinformation to improve early warning andforecasting services.

Social and political issues include the need for:

an integrated approach to risk managementincluding stronger integration of risk-related publicpolicies and improved cooperation of decision-makers, risk managers and water managers

In the last decade, 90 percent of natural disasters have been water-related events.Tsunamis, floods, droughts, pollution and storm surges are just a few examples ofhazards that can constitute a risk for societies and communities. These are likely toincrease in the changing environmental context. Hazards like these become disasterswhen risks are not managed with the objective of reducing human vulnerability. Floodsand droughts are the most deadly freshwater disasters, disrupting socio-economicdevelopment in particular in developing countries. Efforts to reduce disaster risks mustbe systematically integrated into policies, plans and programmes for sustainabledevelopment and poverty reduction.

AboveRefuges at Korem camp,Ethiopia.

31

C H A P T E R 10 | M A N A G I N G R I S K S : S E C U R I N G T H E G A I N S O F D E V E L O P M E N T

the development of transboundary agreements

participation of the public in risk managementprogrammes

promotion of national disaster prevention forums tohelp strengthen risk management frameworks andinstitutional coordination and managementmechanisms.

Risk management is increasingly being consideredin terms of prevention. Risk management hasprogressively undergone a shift from relief and emergency-oriented responses to risk assessment, prevention andmitigation strategies. A critical element is the developmentof new multi-hazard approaches to early warning,forecasting, preparedness and response. These approachesare the ideal method for saving lives and protectinginfrastructure - notably through the use of existingobservational and telecommunication systems. However, inorder to be effective, integrated risk management requiresstrong links with the water resource managementcommunity. It needs to address the related issues from theperspectives of all affected sectors. New risk preventionstrategies thus need to be considered as an integral part ofwider socio-economic development and planning.

Understanding of water-related disaster riskshas improved, but more flexible and adaptiverisk management strategies are needed. Riskmanagement analysis has evolved thanks to modellingand forecasting advances. Whereas, risk managementpreviously focussed on technical control of hazards,assessments increasingly incorporate environmental andsocial factors, for example, the impact of climatevariability and change on extreme weather events. Othercritical components of risk management include publicawareness, the coping capacity of communities,effective linkage between national and local authoritiesand issues related to risk perception. Disaster riskmanagement policies must also anticipate present andfuture social patterns of exposure and vulnerability towater-related hazards. But more flexibility in the

decision-making process is needed to adapt quickly tochanging environments. Examples of adaptive strategiesinclude the ability to devise new legislation when riskchanges, better access to and circulation of informationupon need, and development of a more comprehensivesystem of indicators.

Indicators are needed to assess the efficiencyof current risk management practices anddesign strategies for disaster risk reduction.Indicators are essential for the identification andmonitoring of underlying trends in disasters, hazards,vulnerability and risk. Risk factors include environmentaldegradation, population growth, the increasing value ofassets in flood-prone areas and risk perception. Sincethe development of indicators is a relatively new field,water-related risk-based indicators remain scarce. Theyalso suffer from limitations in terms of conceptualdesign and lack of data. Quantifiable indicators inparticular are important when decisions involve trade-offs between development options with varying degreesof risk. Additional resources and research are alsoneeded to develop and demonstrate the effectiveness ofrisk indicators in line with other water-related indices.

The poor availability of water and risk-relateddata represents a serious hurdle to improvingrisk management strategies. Water- and risk-related data are essential for designing multi-hazardapproaches and risk-related indicators, operatingefficient warning systems, developing awareness-raisingprogrammes, and enabling institutions to adapt toenvironmental and social changes. Availability of andaccess to data are therefore essential for hazardanalysis and vulnerability assessment. However, risk-related knowledge and information is often unavailableor missing. Difficulties include a loss of institutionalmemory and limited access to data or information. Riskknowledge and experience can be lost over time forvarious reasons: lack of funding for databasemaintenance, lack of information-sharing amongadministrations, and loss of institutional memory whenstaff leaves. Knowledge and experience frequently lostinclude: overviews of natural processes in river basins,the location of storeddata, station maintenance,the operation of models,and checking forecastsfor consistency. Thus, poormanagement of knowledgeprevents the developmentof sound risk monitoringpolicies and efficientimplementation ofpreventative or protectivestrategies.

SE

CT

ION

4LeftCoastal destruction in wake ofthe 26 December 2004tsunami in Indonesia.

BelowThe Piazzetta under water,Venice, Italy.

32


Six core priority objectives have been identifiedfor disaster risk reduction over the next tenyears. Reviewing progress made in implementing theYokohama Strategy for a Safer World, UN/ISDR (UnitedNations / International Strategy for Disaster Reduction)identified the following objectives:

1. Ensure that disaster risk reduction is established as anational policy with a strong organizational basis

2. Identify and monitor risks

3. Use information and education to build a culture ofprevention

4. Reduce underlying risk factors

5. Strengthen disaster preparedness and contingencyplanning

6. Sustain international support for disaster reductionefforts at national and local levels. Several gaps andchallenges are analysed in the Report on the WorldConference on Disaster Reduction held in Kobe,Hyogo, Japan in January 2005.

SE

CT

ION

4

Source: UNDP, 2004.

Source: UNDP, 2004.

C H A P T E R 11 | S H A R I N G W A T E R

Access to adequate supplies of freshwater is ahighly contested issue in interstate waterrelations. However, cooperation rather than conflict isbecoming the norm. Conflicts occur, in particular,between users sharing the same resource - a situationoften exacerbated by traditional values, customs andpractices, historical factors and geographical vagaries.However, in an increasing number of cases, treaties,agreements and the principles of international water laware helping to crystallize mechanisms for resolving disputes.As decision-making processes in water governance andmanagement become more complicated, legislative andinstitutional developments and guidelines for capacitybuilding have become increasingly critical for ensuringequitable and efficient water sharing.

The strengthening of institutional mechanisms and legalframeworks for Integrated Water Resources Management(IWRM) is of central importance both for facilitating thisprocess, and ensuring that the burden of associatedtransaction costs is equitably shared. IWRM must takeplace within institutional environments conducive to itsdevelopment. This means capacity-building structures,regulatory principles and organizational mechanisms forpromoting cooperation and conflict management. Treaties,conventions, agreements, as well as internationalconferences that mobilize politicians, administrators,NGOs and knowledge communities are also criticalelements in the creation of such a nurturing environment.

Despite considerable progress, basic problemsstill remain. These include:

how to get parties to the table to cooperate on jointwater management issues where no agreementexists.

how to hold countries that have agreements,treaties or other coordinating mechanismsaccountable for implementing those agreements.

the types of enforcement mechanisms that can beused to promote compliance.

Involving disadvantaged or disenfranchised groups earlyon in the process, especially at local levels, may preventgrievances from becoming hostilities.

Measuring performance in water sharing isdifficult due to the generally poor availabilityof good data and information. Appropriatedata and information are required for balanced,informed decision-making. The development ofmeasurable indicators could help to track watersharing trends. Indicators can concentrate thedebate on concrete points of contention.

The focus of the emerging water culture is water sharing: Integrated Water ResourcesManagement (IWRM) looks for more effective and equitable management of water throughincreased cooperation. Bringing together institutions dealing with surface water andaquifer resources, calling for new legislative agreements worldwide, raising public participation,and exploring alternative solutions to resolving disputes, are all part of the process.

33

11CHAPTER 11

Sharing Water

By

UNESCO(United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization)

AboveFeluccas on the Nile River nearPhilae, Egypt. 14 states shareits basin.

BelowThe Danube basin is sharedbetween the highest numberof nations, with 18 riparianstates.

34


Proposed indicators emphasize relevance, validity,reliability and comparability over time and space:

a water interdependency indicator, exemplified bythe amount of water inflow from other river basins

a cooperation indicator, measured on the basis ofthe number of significant joint projects, treaties orother formal agreements

a vulnerability indicator, resulting from the ratio ofwater demand and supply

a fragility indicator, measured in terms of environmentaldeterioration and social unrest (especially povertyand rivalries), within and between countries

a development indicator, summarized bycompetence/commitment for dealing with andmanaging water-related conflicts.

IWRM favours long-termand contingency planning,building resilience intovulnerable systems, andincreasing diversity andflexibility. New managementapproaches will be based onregional cooperation principles,focusing on river basins and aquifersystems, with an emphasis on

social needs and environmental sustainability. They willfocus on interrelated natural resources problems, reducepotential points of friction and stress, and eliminateconflicting demands through risk management andvulnerability assessment. Classical legal tools and moreinformal approaches both have important roles to play indefusing conflict and developing cooperation. This point ismade repeatedly in security studies, management schemes,administrative guidelines, conventions and bilateral agreements.

Techniques or approaches for calculatingequitable water sharing force us to considerand coordinate water demands and needsacross all sectors. The transition to IWRM will,further, require institutional structures for cooperationand integration, as well as for knowledge sharing,experience and responsibility. Above all, political will andcommitment are important preconditions for successfulcooperation in all aspects of water sharing.

In the future, particularly contentious issuesmay involve aspects of transboundary watersharing and environmental security. Sharing,which can imply increased interdependency, may beperceived by some as a threat to sovereignty. However,in a world that is progressively more globalized andlinked ever more closely (by both information andcommunications technology and trade and politicalcollaboration), new policies and programmes thatpromote increasing interdependence and globalapproaches to meeting environmental challenges (suchas virtual water trade) may become more and morecommon.

New water-sharing models should not implythat only optimal solutions are acceptable.Reasonable approximations would be part of necessarytrade-offs, balancing the 'ideal', or desired, future andthe 'real', or pragmatic and practical, solution. Thus,shared water management will become a realistic andthoughtful instrument for a balanced approach and auseful tool for managing long-standing confrontations- if not outright conflict - over water resources. Inconclusion, in examining shared water experiences atlocal, national and international levels, there have beensuccesses as well as failures. Water increasingly appearsto be the catalyst for cooperation and, thus, not onlydivides, but also unites peoples and societies.

SE

CT

ION

4

AboveItaipu dam and hydro-electricpower station, on the riverParana, Brazil / Paraguay.

Source: Chapagain and Hoekstra, 2004.

C H A P T E R 1 2 | V A L U I N G A N D C H A R G I N G F O R W A T E R

The distinction between 'valuing' and 'valuation'of water is revealed in how society perceivesthe 'worth' of water in all its different uses.Valuing water means recognizing the cultural, aesthetic,social and environmental values of water and waterservices. With increasing appreciation of the non-market values associated with water, society isdemanding water policy reforms that reflect theseconsiderations. In attempting to estimate in financialterms the benefits that society derives from water, thetechnique of economic valuation aids our understandingof the larger concept of the value of water.

Economic valuation allows a rational andsystematic means of assessing practices relatedto the allocation and management of waterresources. Economic valuation is a process by which amonetary value is attached to the benefits and costsassociated with a real or projected improvement inwater services. This can assist stakeholders, planners andpolicymakers both to understand the trade-offsassociated with different governance options, and toselect among these so as to optimize social,environmental and economic outcomes in line withgoals such as the MDGs.

Economists have devised alternative techniquesfor valuing and comparing the projectedoutcomes associated with different governancestrategies. The broad spectrum of social, cultural andenvironmental values associated with water are notalways recognized in market transactions. Thesetechniques, though still imperfect in reflecting the trueextent to which society values water and water services,aid our understanding of the trade-offs betweendifferent development options and contribute toincreasing accountability and transparency in watergovernance and management. The objective ofemploying benefit-cost analysis is to improve theefficiency of water use - for instance, in agriculture theamount of 'crop per drop' produced - so that all thediverse demands for water resources may be betterserved. Improving water use efficiency becomesincreasingly significant in a world where competitionfor resources has intensified. Economic evaluation is a

The availability and affordability of water is of growing political and economic concern.Growing populations and rising incomes stimulate the demand for improved watersupply and sanitation services, both directly and indirectly through demand for food,manufactured products, energy and environmental services. Given its unique life-sustaining properties and innumerable roles, water incorporates many values - social,cultural and environmental, as well as economic. All of these must be considered indesigning water-related policies and programmes if equitable, efficient andenvironmentally sustainable management of water resources is to be achieved.

35

12CHAPTER 12

Valuing and Charging for Water

By

UNDESA(United Nations

Department of Economic and Social Affairs)

LeftWater shop in Aboemey City,Benin.

36


tool to aid in assessing benefits and costs of alternativegovernance strategies.

Benefit-cost analysis can assess both the potentialnet benefits of proposed public-policy initiativesand the realized benefits of previous policies.Research in Asia, over the past three decades,demonstrates that economic returns on publicinvestments in irrigation have been modest comparedwith those from alternative investments (research, ruralroads and education) - or even with the cost of capital.Additional research has revealed very high benefit-costratios for investments in water supply and sanitation inareas where facilities are lacking. Such findings wouldindicate that a reallocation of resources towardsinvestment in domestic water supply and sanitationwould result in a net improvement in social welfare.

Charging for water services (household,commercial, industrial and agriculture) requiresconsensus on the underlying principles andobjectives. These include full-cost recovery andprotection of the needs of the poor and themarginalized. Moreover, it requires a thorough,systematic analysis of all costs and perceived benefits.Finally, tariff structures must attempt tobalance society's multiple, often competing,objectives. Worldwide, the 'user pays'principle is becoming an increasinglyimportant guide to tariff-setting.

Water charges are too low in many areas ofthe municipal and agricultural sectors. Currentlevels of charges often fail to recover costs. As a result,subsidies and under-investment (inadequatemaintenance, rehabilitation and expansion of waterservices) are rife. Historically, charges have been setbelow costs. One central reason is the generalperception of water and sanitation as public goods.Social outcry and political pressures have mitigated

against raising rates. Full-cost charging puts cleanwater and adequate sanitation facilities beyond themeans of the majority of the underprivileged. As aresult, subsidies from other water users, governmentsand donor agencies continue to be needed to achievewater supply and sanitation goals.

Reform of charging policies is critical toimproving the performance of water servicesand the productivity of water in all sectors.Updated charging structures need to be more widelyimplemented to improve cost recovery, to facilitateadequate maintenance and expansion of water supplysystems, and to provide incentives for conservation andreuse. Reform is also necessary to ensure that watersupply and sanitation services remain available andaffordable to low-income populations. The politicalunpopularity of increased charges will eventually haveto be overcome. This can be accomplished through bothphased-in reforms and educational programmesdesigned to help customers understand the full cost andvalue of reliable clean water and sanitation services. It isimportant to recognize that users' willingness to pay -and even the success of economic valuation - dependsin large part on the quality and availability of relevantdata and information.

Despite its usefulness, economic valuation maynot always provide the guidance fordetermining best governance policy or themost appropriate level of tariff. Over the yearsmany different techniques have been proposed forassessing the socio-cultural and environmentalconcerns related to water resources supply andmanagement. Still none has yet been found to reflectfully all public concerns and values associated withwater. As a consequence, decision-making regarding themanagement and allocation of water resources amongcompeting uses is often accomplished through political

SE

CT

ION

4

LeftPublic water pump inAmboseli Reserve, Kenya.

RightSlums by the Mekong River,Viet Nam.

37

C H A P T E R 1 2 | V A L U I N G A N D C H A R G I N G F O R W A T E R

processes, or third party assisted negotiations with theparticipation of multiple stakeholders (water users,various levels of government and the scientificcommunity, among others).

Governments must be open to innovativeinitiatives for augmenting water supplies andservices. These include small-scale private suppliers,public-private partnerships at different scales,community participation, markets for tradable accessrights, transfer payments for environmental services,and trade and development policies attuned to 'virtualwater' flows. Given the unique characteristics and roleof water with regards to public health, environmentalsecurity and development at large, the regulatory role ofgovernment will remain an important element in watergovernance. Private sector participation, though notsuitable in all cases, can nevertheless play a significantrole in assisting in the development of cost efficientwater supply and service systems in many areas, thushelping to realize the objectives of sustainable andIntegrated Water Resources Management (IWRM).

'Virtual water', a concept recognizing 'embedded' waterin various goods and services, focuses on optimizingreturns to water as a factor of production - and thus,more efficient use of water. Similarly, payment forenvironmental services (PES) acknowledges the linkbetween land and water resources and therefore thevalue of managing terrestrial resources to preserveecosystem functions. Benefits capture analysis focuseson the 'who' as well as the 'how much' in the economicevaluation of alternative paths for water resourcesdevelopment, selected to bring us further towardsmeeting MDG targets.

It is critical to reach a better understanding ofboth the multi-faceted nature of the value ofwater and of the related economic tools.Planners and policy-makers need to understand thestrengths and limitations of valuation techniques andthe potential role they play in informing discussions anddecisions regarding water resources management andallocation. There is also a need for technicians who canclearly express these economic concepts, utilizeavailable tools, and assist stakeholders in expressingtheir values and preferences. This would enable thesetechniques to contribute fully to information sharingand transparency in water governance. The realchallenge in valuing water, however, lies not inmastering the econometric techniques needed toconduct such tasks as economic valuation. Instead, itrests in reflecting in governance and managementdecisions the diverse values of water recognized by itsmany users.

SE

CT

ION

4BelowMen and women bathing inthe Ganges, India.

The worldwide situation with regards to the hydrometeorological information exchange is unbalanced anddeteriorating. There is increasing uncertainty andcomplexity regarding the monitoring of effects ofincreasing climate variability and population growth. Itis now urgent that measures be undertaken to improvethe state of water-related knowledge throughstrengthening and making more effective the globalhydrological network.

Local knowledge must be the starting point forall development projects. Local or indigenousknowledge is internationally recognized as vital tosustainable development and environmentalmanagement. Many of the activities affecting, andaffected by, water management and use are performedby local people who may have little formal educationbut maintain a strong understanding of the watersystems on which they rely.

Education is a key tool which helps to betterprepare people to address local water issues.Education plays an important role in equipping peopleto solve problems of direct concern to them, whether inthe areas of poverty, health, environment or water. Witha basic education, people can not only access a broaderrange of knowledge on good water practice, efficientwater use and safe hygiene, but are empowered withthe necessary skills to consider alternatives, makechoices, and enjoy a better life. Widespread educationalso helps empower the voices of vulnerable groups inwater resourcemanagement. Women,for example, are centralto providing, managingand safeguarding water,yet they often remainon the periphery ofmanagement decisionsand planning for waterresources. Increasededucation can provide

38


13CHAPTER 13

Enhancing Knowledgeand Capacity

By

UNESCO(United NationsEducational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)

The information and communication technologies (ICTs) revolution helped to bringabout many improvements in how data and information are globally collected, storedand shared. These advances have helped to improve both our understanding of globalhydrological systems and measurement of river hydraulic data from space. However,uncertainty regarding global and regional water balance estimates remains due toconsiderable deficiencies in the land-based hydrological station networks over largeparts of the globe.

AboveLiteracy programme inButerere, Burundi.

RightOn-going research at a water-quality research centre inDelft, Netherlands.

women and other groupswith tools and theconfidence to articulatetheir needs and participatein planning and decision-making processesregarding water resourcesdevelopment.

Water resource managers need to assess theircapacity needs. Self-assessments are urgently neededto set priorities, identify capacity gaps, and improve theeffectiveness with which a nation can respond to

external uncertainties. Many efforts to developcapacities at all levels are often being performedwithout the necessary assessments to formulate clearunderstanding of the issues. Nations should be encouragedto perform self-assessments of their knowledge base,existing capacity and capacity needs. These can strengthena nation's abilities to prioritize organizational goals andimprove self-evaluation methods. This increasesawareness and develops a culture of performancemonitoring. The evaluation thereby becomes a capacitydevelopment process in itself. The data and informationgained from the self-assessments process should then beshared with the international community to allow forfurther indicator development in this field.

39

C H A P T E R 1 3 | E N H A N C I N G K N O W L E D G E A N D C A P A C I T Y

SE

CT

ION

4

LeftAnalysis of water samples fortrace elements in Athens,Greece.

Capacity development: Levels, activities, outputs and goals

Source: van Hofwegen, 2004.

INDIVIDUAL LEVEL

INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL

ENABLING

ENVIRONMENT

EducationFormal – informal

Basic, vocational, professional experience

Development of policies, legislation, organ-izations, regulations and procedures

Defining mission, responsibilities andexternal accountability mechanisms

Defining structure, tasks and internalaccountability mechanisms

Human resource development

Skills

Attitude

Incentive structure

Coaching

BEHAVIOUR

SERVICE DELIVERYPERFORMANCE

SECTOR PERFORMANCE

TrainingCompetency – task oriented

Vocational, on the job, seminars, workshop,short courses, exposure, coaching

Knowledge

Greater investment in hydrological datanetworks is required. There has been a severedecrease in the data collected, especially in developingcountries, owing to political and institutional instability,economic problems, budget constraints, emphasis onnew infrastructure, and lack of professional education.Like insurance, knowledge is a commodity that should beacquired for protection against an uncertain, long-termfuture. Increased investment in the basic hydrologicaldata collection network is needed to provide informationto prevent gross errors in water resources decision-making in an unanticipated future. Investments inground-based monitoring networks are particularlyneeded to complement recent advances made in remote

sensing and geographic informationsystems. Additionally, popularizinginformation by translating it into a varietyof media products adapted to the needs ofspecific stakeholders at different levels, canbe effective in generating broad awarenessof and commitment to IWRM objectives.

At the institutional level, there are threeimportant capacity development needs.Institutional capacity should be increased to ensure thatinstitutions have:

clear and strong mandates to promote andenhance the institutionalization of good watermanagement and water use throughout all levels ofsociety

an organizational system conducive to effective andefficient management decisions

improved decision support mechanisms establishedthrough research on lessons learned and indigenousknowledge.

The statistics community must work withwater experts and regional stakeholders toadapt existing sustainabledevelopment/environmental monitoringsurveys. This is important to take into account morewater-sector specific information at a global level.Sector-based capacity assessments can contributemuch-needed information to statistical databases onexisting capacity and associated initiatives. In addition,these assessments can promote awareness of capacitygaps and be themselves a capacity-enhancing processto those involved. The increased data can then be usedto identify generic indicators that would allow a globalassessment of nations' capacities to address theirwater-related problems.

Indicators must be informative for localstakeholders as well as national policymakers.The development of robust and reliable indicators canbe of great help to decision-makers at all levels,providing information on progress toward goal-attainment while locating the gaps in knowledge. Theycan also assist in identifying and focusing developmentresources in the neediest of areas. In this context,capacity development can be a powerful tool forimproving effective governance in nations. Whilecapacity development is dependent on the existinggovernment's political will to implement reforms, it isalso required to introduce new governance systems andfamiliarize decision-makers and implementers withdifferent ways of managing water.

Research is an important tool for developingknowledge on global water issues. But to beeffective, it must reach a wider audience. While therehas been an increase in the number of water researchcentres set up in developed countries, such institutesremain rare in developing countries. There is thus aneed for greater research on water issues specific to thesocial and environmental contexts of developingcountries. Enhanced horizontal cooperation (North-south and South-south) can help increase the amountof applied research geared at solving practical, region-specific water resource problems. The development ofcountry-specific indexes on water-related knowledgeand capacity would greatly facilitate this exchange.Lastly, multilingual translation tools, which wouldpermit information to be more easily transmitted fromcountry to country, would also help to promote theexchange of valuable knowledge and best practices.

40


SE

CT

ION

4

AboveMid-career professionalsreceive on-the-job training bylocal experts in Indonesia.

RightMadhukari Ganokendra(People's Centre), in Rajapurvillage, western Bangladesh,holds monthly meetings todiscuss primary schoolattendance and otherimportant issues for thecommunity to take action on.

14CHAPTER 14

Case Studies: Moving Towards an Integrated Approach

C H A P T E R 1 4 | C A S E S T U D I E S : M O V I N G T O W A R D S A N I N T E G R A T E D A P P R O A C H

1. The Autonomous Community of theBasque Country: The Basque Community facesthe challenges of ensuring the sustainability ofecosystems in a densely populated and highlydeveloped setting.

2. The Danube River Basin: The second largestwater basin in Europe extends through theterritories of 18 countries, each with varying social,economic and topographic features. Consequently,implementing the EU-Water Framework Directiveuniformly throughout the basin is a major challenge.

3. Ethiopia: Ethiopia ranks as one of the poorestcountries in the world. Limited funds restrict theability to use water resources to alleviate the heavyburdens of disease, extreme poverty and hunger.Therefore, external financial aid is crucial to meeteven very basic water and sanitation needs.

4. France: As a developed country, France's mainnational challenge is meeting the water needs ofdifferent sectors while implementing the EU WaterFramework Directive.

5. Japan: Unfavorable topographic conditionscombined with variability in rainfall patterns rendera great portion of the population of Japansusceptible to water-related disasters. Updatedlegislation sets forth the necessary precautions tomitigate this risk. Advanced technology andstringent regulations also ensure the sustainabilityof ecosystems and precious water resources.

6. Kenya: Severe droughts aggravate the precariouseconomic circumstances of rising poverty in Kenya,affecting the food security of millions of people ina country where chronic undernourishment isalready a problem. Unfortunately inadequatefunding prevents development efforts in all sectors.

7. The Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe-Pskovskoe Basin:Socio-economic improvement in the region isbringing positive change. Estonia, an EU memberbound by the Water Framework Directive, and theRussian Federation are working together towardsdeveloping a joint management of the programmefor the lake's resources. Institutional changestaking place in both countries are likely to improvethe water sector's response to current challenges.

8. The Lake Titicaca Basin: Poverty remains theunderlying cause of many social problems in thisregion. While the battle against poverty is ongoingin Peru and Bolivia, efforts to break this viciouscircle have not yet managed to create significantchange.

9. Mali: Access to abundant water resources remainsa problem which hampers national economicdevelopment and the livelihoods of Malians. Poorwater and sanitation infrastructure and povertyleave a significant percentage of the populationsuffering from malnutrition and water-bornediseases. Lack of data and the limited technicalcapacity of institutions are major issues impedingthe planning and development of programmes andstrategies for the better utilization of waterresources and controlling increasing levels ofpollution.

10. State of Mexico: The wise management ofwater resources is crucial for a countrycharacterized by industrial centres, a wide range ofeconomic activities, and densely populated urbansettlements. In order to meet the water needs of itsvarious sectors, schemes for transporting waterfrom basins throughout Mexico have been put inplace. Curbing the unsustainable uses ofgroundwater resources and pollution is high on theagenda of decision-makers.

The first edition of the World Water Development Report (WWDR1) illustrated variouswater-related issues in 7 case studies involving 12 countries. In the second edition (WWDR2),the number of pilot case studies has grown to 17 comprising 41 countries. As in WWDR1,these case studies highlight a number of scenarios in different geographic regions whereconditions of water-related stress and socio-economic circumstances are different.

41

42


11. Mongolia (with special reference to theTuul River Basin): As a country in transitiontrying to adapt to a new economic and politicalorder, Mongolia faces many challenges, such aspoverty, limited access to safe water andsanitation, diseases and decaying environmentalquality. Both the implementation of reforms andthe enforcement of existing laws and regulationsare necessary to improve the current situation.However, limited funds and scarcity of water andland resources remain the main obstacles.

12. The La Plata River Basin: Although, developmentefforts aim to improve the livelihoods of over100 million inhabitants living in the fifth-largest basinin the world, increasing poverty and social inequalitycontinue to be the main problems facing the five basincountries. The common vision of sustainable utilizationof water resources brings all riparian countries togetherunder the framework of the IntergovernmentalCoordinating Committee and provides the basis forbilateral and multilateral cooperation.

13. The Senegal River Basin: The Senegal RiverBasin is mainly characterized by water scarcity andsubsistence economies. Thanks to the constructionof two main dams providing energy, irrigatedagriculture and year-round navigation - and to amanagement approach promoting optimal distributionof water resources - the area is gradually developing.

14. South Africa: As a country that has recentlyemerged from a system of racial segregation, SouthAfrica is trying to alleviate poverty through socialprogrammes aimed at the poor and marginalizedand promote economic development, while ensuringthe sustainability of water resources and ecosystems.

Capacity-building is considered as a main goal forthe successful implementation of programmes andstrategies.

15. Sri Lanka: Recently struck by the tsunamidisaster, Sri Lanka suffered great social andeconomic losses that have laid a heavy burden onthe fragile island economy. Although on track toachieve hunger-related MDGs, hundreds ofthousands of children are still suffering frommalnutrition. The multiplicity of institutions withboth unclear responsibilities and legislation hindersbetter management and protection of the Island’swater resources and ecosystems.

16. Thailand: The tsunami disaster in December 2004caused heavy socio-economic damages and particularlyaffected the tourism sector - a major contributorto the economy. While recovery efforts are stillunderway, the country faces other challenges suchas overexploitation of forests and heavy pollutionby industry and urban settlements. In addition,reforms in the management of natural resourceshave not been effectively implemented due to a lackof synergy and coordination between ministries.

17. Uganda: Rapid population growth coupled withuncontrolled environmental degradation stemmingfrom increased urbanization and industrializationputs considerable stress on the sustainability ofnatural resources. Debt relief under the IMF HeavilyIndebted Poor Countries Initiative removed a largeportion of external debts and enabled the countryto allocate its financial resources to fight againstpoverty. However, the water sector in Uganda is stillheavily dependant on external donors for itsdevelopment.

SE

CT

ION

5

Source: AFDEC, 2006.

Approximately 1 billion people worldwide,one-sixth of the total world population, livein extreme poverty, sickness, hunger, thirst,destitution and marginalization. The lifestyleof the extreme poor is based on subsistenceliving. Many poor families occupy land overwhich they have no formal legal rights - ina squatter community or slum, or farmingon marginal lands owned by others withlimited access to reliable water. Women andgirls in particular often have the leastentitlement to household or family assets.Very poor households are rarely connectedto infrastructure, such as piped water,sanitation and electricity supply. Thepayment structure for many utility services(water, electricity), with their up-frontconnection and monthly consumptioncharges, are often too expensive for thepoor.

All of this creates an ideal environment for diseasetransmission, vulnerability to loss of housing andpossessions and, overall, a low quality of life. Poorfamilies face difficulties accumulating surpluses - foodand financial - and find it difficult to maintainconsumption when their incomes are interrupted ortheir crops fail. In addition, limited or non- enforcementof laws, regulations and procedures concerning legaland political rights, environmental health andprotection, occupational health and safety, crimeprevention and safeguarding from exploitation anddiscrimination, are common. Unbridled competitionfrom richer farmers and industrial concerns for water,productive land and fisheries, often put the poor at aserious disadvantage. It is also often very difficult forthe poor to assert their rights and needs so as to receivea fair entitlement to public goods and services.

Water is central to alleviating poverty. Some13 percent of the world's population - over 800 millionpeople - do not have enough food and water to livehealthy and productive lives. Providing the waterneeded to feed a growing population and balancing thiswith all the other demands on water, is one of the greatchallenges of this century. Providing water forenvironmental flows and industry will tax waterresources even more. Extending water services to the1.1 billion un-served with improved water supply andthe 2.6 billion lacking improved sanitation will enlargethe challenge even further. Confronting water-relateddisease --including malaria, which causes 300 to500 million episodes of sickness and 1.6 to 2.5 milliondeaths each year - must be done. In many parts of theworld, available water quantity is decreasing and qualityis worsening.

C H A P T E R 1 5 | C O N C L U S I O N S A N D R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S F O R A C T I O N

43

AboveStream in the Andes, Peru.

15CHAPTER 15

Conclusions andRecommendations for

Action

44


Water insufficiency is primarily caused byinefficient supply rather than by watershortages. Water insufficiency is often due tomismanagement, corruption, lack of appropriateinstitutions, bureaucratic inertia and a shortage ofinvestment in both human capacity and physicalinfrastructure. Water shortages and increasing pollutionare socially and politically induced challenges. These canbe addressed by modifying water demand and usagethrough increased awareness, education and waterpolicy reforms. The water crisis is thus increasinglyabout how we govern access to and control over waterresources and their benefits.

Many of the solutions to water problems lie inbetter governance. Water is central to promotingsocio-economic development, protecting theenvironment, and achieving the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs). Yet, few lower-incomecountries include water as a key feature of theirnational planning and budgets. Mismanagement ofwater is widespread, characterized by lack ofintegration, sectoral approaches, and institutionalresistance to change by large public agencies in acontext of increasing competition. Only a minority oflocal authorities and water associations have theresources needed to carry out the responsibilitiesdelegated from central governments.

Social and economic resilience is the key tosustaining development and meeting societalgoals. The UN Millennium Project has stated that long-term success in meeting the MDGs depends onenvironmental sustainability. Without it, any gains willbe short-lived and inequitable. Part of the problem isthe very modest political effort devoted to sustainabledevelopment, compared with global economic growth.

Water problems and challenges are connectedand should be addressed in a holistic manner.The various water issues are interdependent and greaterwisdom is required in the allocation and management

of water resources. A flexible approach is essential atboth strategic and local levels. The answer to this,including meeting the MDGs, lies in a holistic,ecosystem-based approach known as Integrated WaterResources Management (IWRM). IWRM has to betailored to prevailing socio-economic conditions. Localcircumstances, however, can put obstacles in its way:

lack of proper coordination of managementactivities

lack of appropriate management tools

inability to integrate water resources policies

institutional fragmentation

insufficiently trained or qualified manpower

shortfalls in funding

inadequate public awareness

limited involvement by communities, NGOs and theprivate sector.

Because of these obstacles and other difficulties, veryfew countries have met the Johannesburg Plan ofImplementation (JPOI) target stating that IWRM shouldbe incorporated into national water resources plans bythe end of 2005.

Reliable data is essential for IWRM. A holisticapproach to water management requires knowledge ofthe different systems involved: not just hydrological,but socio-economic, political, institutional and financial.However, data on almost every subject relevant to waterissues is often lacking and may be inconsistent,unreliable or incomplete. Collection of data in itself isinsufficient. It must be synthesized, analysed andcompared to other sources.

Strong indicators are needed to monitorprogress. To facilitate understanding, advocacy andaccess to needed resources, trends must be discernedand progress monitored. We therefore need to developindicators. However, the development of indicators isproving difficult for a variety of reasons, including thegeneral lack of reliable and consistent data.

The water sector needs greater investment. Lackof reliable information and indicators has contributed toserious under-investment and inadequate donor aid tothe sector. Private investors are discouraged becausethey perceive the sector as presenting higher risks, and

SE

CT

ION

5

AboveWomen’s group for micro-finance, Andra Pradesh, India.

45

C H A P T E R 1 5 | C O N C L U S I O N S A N D R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S F O R A C T I O N

longer and lower returns on investment than othersectors. Both public and private sector investors are alsodeterred by inadequate governance. Recent information,however, shows that investments in the water sectorhave become increasingly cost-effective. Rapidlydeployable interventions targeted at the poor includingimproved household water treatment and storage areone example. For the irrigation sector, drip irrigationand treadle pumps, are two cost-effective ways inwhich access to small-scale water technology can beprovided to poor farmers.

Greater transparency, accountability andstakeholder involvement is needed.One of the biggest roadblocks to achieving the MDGs islack of investment by external donors. However, lack ofgood governance is often a constraint to suchfinancing. This can be addressed by encouragingtransparency and accountability. This necessitatesgreater stakeholder involvement at all levels ofgovernment and the involvement of major groups andthe private sector.

International and national cooperation isrequired to meet the MDGs related to povertyalleviation and water. While it is imperative that asmuch action as possible to meet the MDGs must beinitiated within countries themselves, there is also amoral obligation that the richer countries be preparedto share their wealth to meet the goals. The lower-income countries are tasked with delivering promisedpolicy changes and improvements to governance; theindustrialized countries must follow through with theirlong-standing commitments to increase ODA andtechnical assistance. It should be noted, however, thateven if the MDGs are achieved there will still be asignificant segment of society remaining unserved - andthese will probably be the poorest of the poor.

There are many instances of improvement. Thefirst step to better governance is awareness, followed bycommitment and stakeholder involvement. Indicatordevelopment and case study work both show thatprogress is being made. Economic development can anddoes work in many parts of the world. The scale ofextreme poverty is lessening, both in terms of the totalnumbers affected and as a proportion of the total worldpopulation. The rapidly growing lower-income countries- Brazil, China and India - have set up a wide range ofinitiatives for improved water governance and waterservice delivery challenges, which could be adapted byother countries. The growth in microfinance has thepotential to provide essential capital for the extensionof water service provision, through a much-enhancedavailability of funds to the very poor, and to contribute

also to lessening their insecurity. However,funding for microfinance houses must gobeyond its traditional sources such asgovernments, aid agencies and charities. The costof operations must also be decreased, becausemicrofinance as presently organized is verylabour-intensive.

Without access to secure water supplies,development will stall and the MDGtargets will fall short. The MillenniumProject has made clear that the world today hasthe wealth and tools to do what is needed. Withdetermination and political will, the levels ofinternational cooperation agreed in the MillenniumDeclaration, and re-confirmed at the 2005 UN WorldSummit, water sector reform and the MDGs can beachieved.

RECOMMENDATIONS

To appreciate the context within which water issuesmust be approached.

To recognize that the various issues of water areinterrelated - and with growing demand and, ingeneral, decreasing supply, competition betweenuses and users is increasing, requiring greaterwisdom in allocation of the resource.

To appreciate the variety of circumstance - solutionshave to be tailored to situation.

To understand that water moves within naturallimits - but that these do not usually correspond tothe administrative units within which societiesorganize themselves.

To improve basic data through research. Greaterknowledge and understanding are prerequisites forbetter management of all the systems involved.

To focus on governance.

To anticipate and adapt to changing circumstance.

To all assume responsibility for action: There is aneed for responsible action and involvement at alllevels of society. Individuals at community levelshould be encouraged and given the means to takeresponsibility for their own problems. Likewise, atlocal and national levels, governments must taketheir share of responsibility. At international levels,responsibility must be taken to set goals and targetstowards which the world should strive, and toassess the global situations with a view to sharingknowledge.

SE

CT

ION

5

AboveFlooded slum on the edge ofPasig River, Manila, Philippines.

46


CR

ÉD

ITS

PH

OTO

S

COVER© SAOPID Mexico© UNESCO - Andes / CZAP / ASA© UNESCO - I. Forbes © Sven Torfinn / Panos© UNESCO - J. W. Thorsell© Yann Arthus-Bertrand/La Terre

vue du Ciel© Surapol Pattanee© Chris Stowers / Panos© Australian Water Partnership

CHAPTER 1p. 3© UNHCR/D. Shresthap.6© UN-HABITAT© Thomas Cluzel

CHAPTER 2p. 7© Yann Arthus-Bertrand/La Terre

vue du Ciel© Richard Franceysp. 9© UNESCO / O. Brendan

CHAPTER 3p. 10© UN-HABITATp. 11© UNESCO - Dominique Roger© UN-HABITAT

CHAPTER 4p. 12© Ron Giling / Still Picturesp. 13© Mitchell Rogers/UNEP / Still

Picturesp. 14© UNESCO - Roni Amelan© Thomas Cluzel

CHAPTER 5p. 13© Christopher Uglow / UNEP /

Still Picturesp. 16© Yann Arthus-Bertrand/La Terre

vue du Cielp. 17© UNESCO - I Forbes© F. Ardito/UNEP / Still Pictures

CHAPTER 6p. 18© Jorgen Schytte / Still Pictures© Andras Szöllösi-Nagy p. 19© UNESCO - Dominique Rogerp. 20© UN-HABITAT

CHAPTER 7p. 21© FAO/13504/I. de Borhegyip. 22© FAO/15157/ A. Conti© FAO/17086/M. Marzotp. 23© Yann Arthus-Bertrand/La Terre

vue du Ciel

CHAPTER 8p. 24© UNESCO - I. Forbes p. 25© Marcia Zoet / UNEP / Still

Picturesp. 26© Mark Edwards / Still Pictures

CHAPTER 9p. 27© GAP-BKI© Sean Sprague / Still Picturesp. 28© Hartmut Schwarzbach / Still

Pictures© UNESCO

CHAPTER 10p. 30© UNESCO - B. Bissonp. 31© UNESCO - E. Schneider© UNESCO - Alexis N. Vorontzoff

CHAPTER 11p. 33© UNESCO - Dominique Roger© UNESCO - Bruno Cottacordap.34© Julio Etchart / Still Pictures

CHAPTER 12p. 35© Jorgen Schytte / Still Picturesp.36© Deanna Donovan© Thomas Cluzelp. 37© Thomas Cluzel

CHAPTER 13p. 38© UNESCO - Michel Ravassard© UNESCO - Niamh Burkep. 39© UNESCO - Niamh Burkep. 40© UNESCO-IHE© UNESCO - O. Brendan

CHAPTER 15p. 43© Thomas Cluzelp. 44© Sean Sprague / Still Picturesp. 45© A. Appelbe/UNEP / Still

Pictures

BACK

© UNESCO-IHE© AFSAD / Doganay Sevindik© Christopher Uglow / UNEP /

Still Pictures© AFSAD / Selim Aytac

The World Water Assessment Programme would like to thank the Ankara FotografSanatcilari Dernegi, Yann Artus-Bertrand, the Australian Water Partnership, ThomasCluzel, Deanna Donovan, FAO, Richard Franceys, the GAP Bolge Kalkinma IdaresiBaskanligi Arsivi, Surapol Pattanee, the Secretariat of Water, Public Works andInfrastructure for Development of the Government of the State of Mexico, AndrasSzöllösi-Nagy, UNESCO, UNESCO-IHE, UN-HABITAT, and UNHCR for generouslyproviding photographs.

Yann Artus-Bertrand's photographs of the Earth from Above are meant to show that, nowmore than ever, levels and modes of consumption and exploitation of natural resources arenot sustainable in the long term. Whereas world production of goods and services hasmultiplied by 7 since 1950, 20% of the world population has no access to drinking water,25% has no electricity, and 40% has no sanitary installation. In other words, a fifth of theworld's population lives in industrialized countries, consuming and producing in excess andgenerating massive pollution. The remaining four-fifths live in developing countries and, forthe most part, in poverty. To provide for their needs, they make heavy demands upon theEarth's natural resources, causing a constant degradation of our planet's ecosystem andlimited supplies of fresh water, ocean water, forests, air, arable land, and open spaces.At this critical stage, the alternative offered by a sustainable development policy should helpin bringing about the necessary changes in order to 'meet the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.'* Inseparable fromthe accompanying text commentaries, Earth from Above images invite each one of us toreflect upon the planet's evolution and the future of its inhabitants.We can and must act individually on a daily basis for the future of our children.

Earth from Above team

* Quoted from the Brundtland report, The World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future, Oxford University Press 1987.

CoverCENTRE-PIVOT IRRIGATION, Ma'an, Jordan (N 29°43' E 35°33'). This self-propelled, centre-pivot irrigation machine,invented by the American Frank Zybach in 1948 and patented in 1952, drills for water in the deep strata 30 to 400 m belowthe surface. A pivoting pipeline with sprinklers, extending about 500 m is mounted on tractor wheels, and irrigates78 hectares of land. The countries of the Middle East and North Africa experienced the world's most rapid increase in grainimports in the 1990s. Production of 1 ton of grain requires about 1,000 tons of water, and these countries prefer to importgrain to meet their growing needs rather than produce it domestically because of the scarcity of water. In fact, at thecurrent rate of use in Jordan, subterranean water reserves could dry up before 2010. Underground water is alreadyoverexploited in the United States, India, and China. Watering technologies, however, waste less and respond better to plantneeds, saving 20 to 50% of the water used in agriculture.

Chapter 2HYDRAULIC DRILLING STATION IN A VILLAGE NEAR DOROPO, Republic of Côte d'Ivoire (9°47' N, 3°19' W).Throughout Africa the task of collecting water is assigned to women, as seen here near the regions of Doropo and Bouna, innorthern Côte d'Ivoire. Hydraulic drilling stations, equipped with pumps that are usually manual, are gradually replacing thetraditional village wells, and containers of plastic, enamelled metal, or aluminium are supplanting canaris (large terra-cottajugs) and gourds for transporting the precious resource. The water of these pits is more sanitary than that of traditionalwells, 70% of which is unfit for drinking. Today 20% of the world population is without drinkable water. In Africa this is truefor two out of five people, but more than half of the population in rural areas has no access to clean water. Illnesses fromunhealthy water are the major cause of infant mortality in developing nations: diarrhoea kills 2.2 million children below theage of 5. In Africa and Asia improved access to clean drinking water will be one of the major challenges of the comingdecades, as their populations grow.

Chapter 5CONFLUENCE OF THE RIO URUGUAY AND A TRIBUTARY, Misiones, Argentina (S 27°15' W 54°03'). Drastically clearedto make way for farming, the Argentine tropical forest is today a less effective defence against erosion than it was in thepast. Heavy rains falling in the province of Misiones (2,000 mm per year) wash the soil and carry off significant quantities offerruginous earth into the Río Uruguay, turning the waters a dark, reddish ochre. Swollen by tributaries bearing vegetaldebris, the Río Uruguay (1,612 km long) empties into the Atlantic Ocean in the area of the Río de la Plata-forming theearth's largest estuary (200 km wide)-where the river dumps the sediment it has carried. The sediment accumulates in theaccess channels to the port of Buenos Aires, which must be dredged regularly to remain navigable. Deposits built up at themouths of rivers can change landscapes by forming deltas or extending land into the sea.

Chapter 7WORKING THE FIELDS NORTH OF JODHPUR, Rajasthan, India (N 26°22' E 73°02'). Rajasthan, the second-largest statein India in terms of area (342,240 km2), lies in the northwest region of the country. Sixty-five percent of the state is coveredby sandy desert formations, and the scarcity of surface water is largely responsible for the low productivity of its soil.However, the construction of irrigation systems, which benefit 27 percent of arable lands in India, has aided in thedevelopment of agriculture. Millet, sorghum, wheat, and barley are cultivated here. The harvesting of these grains at the endof the dry season is a task that normally falls to women, who, even while working in the fields, wear the traditional orhni, along, brightly coloured shawl that is typical of the region. More than half of India's territory is devoted to farming, whichproduces one-fourth of the domestic national product. Each year the country harvests about 220 million tons of grains,more than one-tenth of world production, and it ranks second in the world in wheat and rice. But the old conflict betweenproduction increase and demographic growth is now also affected by declining subterranean water reserves; a severedrought in April 2000 affected 20 million people in Rajasthan.

Photos credits

Please send a pro forma invoice (this invoice will need to be paid before the Reports are dispatched).

UNESCO coupons (Sold in national currency for use in UNESCO purchases. Go to www.unesco.org/general/eng/about/coupon/coupons.shtml for more information and distribution points.)

Payment enclosed: Visa Eurocard Mastercard Cheque (Except Eurocheques, payable to DL Services sprl, in euros. Must be drawn on a French or Belgian bank)

Card number: Expiry date: 3-digit verification code: (Found on the back of your credit card)

Date: Signature:

Please write in block capitals.

Billing information

Last name:

First name:

Address:

City: Postcode:

Country:

Please write in block capitals.

Shipping information (If different from billing information)

Last name:

First name:

Address:

City: Postcode:

Country:

Secure online payment: http://www.unesco.org/publishing

Mail: WWAP – UNESCO Division of Water Sciences

1, rue Miollis, 75732 Paris Cedex 15, FRANCE

Telephone: Information on the book: +33 (0) 1 45 68 39 28 (WWAP)

Direct ordering: +32 25 38 43 08 (DL Services)

Fax: +33 (0) 1 45 68 58 29 (WWAP)

E-mail: [email protected] (DL Services)

National distributors: Find a location near you in the list of worldwide

distribution partners at www.unesco.org/publishing

O R D E R F O R M

UN World Water Development Report 2006 - Water: A Shared Responsibility 92-3-104006-5 €56.00 x ________ = _________________

Includes interactive CD-ROM

UN World Water Development Report 2006 - Water: A Shared Responsibility 92-3-104007-3 €36.00 x ________ = _________________

CD-ROM only

UN World Water Development Report 2003 - Water for People, Water for Life 92-3-103881-8 €36.00 x ________ = _________________

Includes interactive CD-ROM

UN World Water Development Report 2003 - Water for People, Water for Life €70.00 x ________ = _________________

+ UN World Water Development Report 2006 - Water: A Shared Responsibility+ both interactive CD-ROMs

Amount due _________________

+ fixed postage rate: Europe = €5.50 _________________

Rest of the world = €10.00 _________________

TOTAL €_________________

Watera shared responsibilityThe United Nations World Water Development Report 2

Ordering your copy of

Order on World Water Day (22 March)

and get a 20% discount

47

http://www.unesco.org/publishing

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.unesco.org/publishing

http://www.unesco.org/general/eng/about/coupon/coupons.shtml

Survey: A call to readers worldwideIn order to better orient our production of WWDR3, we welcome and urge you to take a few minutes to respond to our

survey. Your comments on all aspects of the Report will be especially helpful to us. Please detach the questionnaire and

mail or fax (see over), whether or not you are ordering.

Name: .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Organization: .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Address: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Telephone: ............................................................................Email: ..................................................................................................................................................

Age group < 18 18-30 30-60 > 60 Gender Female Male

What is the highest level of schooling you have completed?

What is your principal professional sector/activity? (Please tick all relevant)

Which of the following best describes your work setting?

Which edition of the World Water Development Report (WWDR) do you have access to or have read?

WWDR 1: Water for People, Water for Life (2003) Have access to Read Web version Print version

WWDR 2: Water, a Shared Responsibility (2006) Have access to Read Web version Print version

Which challenge areas of the World Water Development Report are you most interested in? (Please tick all relevant)

Please comment freely on the Report as a whole. Do you have any suggestions for future Reports?

..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

How did you first learn about the World Water Development Report? (Please tick all relevant)

How did you get a copy of the World Water Development Report? Gift Library Loan Professional reference copy Purchase Web version

Which language edition of the Report would be most useful to you? Arabic Chinese English French Spanish Russian Other ...............................................................................

Which format of the Report is the most useful for you? Book CD-ROM Online version (PDF)

How many people share or will share your copies of the Report? 1-3 4-6 7-10 >10

Which related websites have you visited? UNESCO – www.unesco.org UNESCO Water Portal – www.unesco.org/water WWAP – www.unesco.org/water/wwapAnother UN organization (please specify) ....................................................................................................................................................................... None of the above

THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME.

InstituteInter-governmental organizationLibraryLocal government

National governmentNon-governmental organizationNon-profitPrivate company

UniversityOther (please specify)

Water and governanceWater and human settlementsThe state of resourceWater and ecosystems

Water and healthWater and foodWater and industryWater and energy

Managing risksSharing waterValuing waterCase studies

Bookshop Forum/expo (please specify)

......................................................................................

Internet search engine Literature referencePersonal referral

Press article (please specify)

......................................................................................

Press release Research Workshop/conference (please specify)

......................................................................................

WWAP BrochureWWAP newsletter WWAP WebsiteWWDR Brochure Other (please specify)

......................................................................................

Primary schoolHigh school Technical degree

Undergraduate degreeProfessional degreeMaster’s degree

Doctoral degree

Agriculture/foodCommunication Construction/engineeringConsultancyEducation/teachingEnergy Environmental Fishing & aquaculture Financial/banking/economics

Healthcare/pharmaceutical InsuranceLand & maritime transport Legal affairs Management Media/publishing MilitaryNatural science/research Social science

Research/academicStudentTourism/coastal managementTrade/distribution Urban & rural developmentWater resource management/sanitationOther (please specify)

48

http://www.unesco.org

http://www.unesco.org/water


SECTION 3: CHALLENGES FOR HUMAN WELL-BEING AND DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 6: Protecting and Promoting HumanHealth – WHO & UNICEF

The state of human health is inextricably linked to a rangeof water-related conditions: safe drinking water, adequatesanitation, minimized burden of water-related disease andhealthy freshwater ecosystems. Urgent improvements in theway in which water use and sanitation are managed arenecessary for improving progress towards meeting theMDGs related to human health.

CHAPTER 7: Water for Food, Agriculture and RuralLivelihoods – FAO & IFAD

The daily demand for food is not negotiable. As the largestconsumer of freshwater, the agriculture sector faces acritical challenge: producing more food of better qualitywhile using less water per unit of output, in order to helpprotect the complex aquatic ecosystems on which oursurvival depends. This chapter examines the challenges offeeding a growing population and balancing its water needswith other uses in a sustainable way. Water opens thepathways and empowers the livelihoods approach topoverty reduction.

CHAPTER 8: Water and Industry – UNIDO

Despite industry’s need for clean water, industrial pollutionis damaging and destroying freshwater ecosystems in manyareas, compromising water security for both individualconsumers and industries. This chapter focuses on industry’simpact on the water environment through its routine waterwithdrawal and wastewater discharge, analysing a broadrange of regulatory instruments and voluntary initiativesthat could improve water productivity, industrialprofitability and environmental protection.

CHAPTER 9: Water and Energy – UNIDO

To be sustainable, economic development needs anadequate and steady supply of energy. Today’s changingcontexts require the consideration of a range of strategiesto incorporate hydropower generation and other renewableforms of energy production to improve energy securitywhile minimizing climate-changing emissions. This chapterstresses the need for the cooperative management of theenergy and water sectors to ensure sustainable andsufficient supply of both energy and water.

SECTION 4: MANAGEMENT RESPONSES AND STEWARDSHIP

CHAPTER 10: Managing Risks: Securing the Gainsof Development – WMO, ISDR & UNU

The climate is changing, thus increasing the occurrence and intensity of water-related natural disasters andcreating greater burdens on human and environmentaldevelopment. Employing an integrated approach, thischapter explores some of the ways of better reducinghuman vulnerabilities and examines the recentdevelopments in risk reduction strategies.

CHAPTER 11: Sharing Water – UNESCO

Increasing competition for water resources can havepotentially divisive effects. Mechanisms for cooperation andshared governance among users must be further developedin order to ensure that the resource become a catalyst forcooperation and a medium for deterring political tensions,while encouraging equitable and sustainable development.

CHAPTER 12: Valuing and Charging for WaterUN-DESA

Water has a range of values that must be recognized inselecting governance strategies. Valuation techniquesinform decision-making for water allocation, whichpromote not only sustainable social, environmental andeconomic development but also transparency andaccountability in governance. This chapter reviewstechniques of economic valuation and the use of thesetools in water policy development and charging for waterservices.

CHAPTER 13: Enhancing Knowledge and CapacityUNESCO

The collection, dissemination and exchange of water-related data, information and know-how are imbalancedand, in many cases, deteriorating. It is now more urgentthan ever to improve the state of knowledge concerningwater-related issues through an effective global network ofresearch, training and data collection and by implementingmore adaptive, informed, and participatory approaches atall levels.

SECTION 5: SHARING RESPONSIBILITIES

CHAPTER 14: Case Studies: Moving Towards anIntegrated Approach

These 17 Case Studies from around the world examinetypical water resource challenges and provide valuable on-the-ground insights into the facets of the water crisis anddifferent management responses: The AutonomousCommunity of the Basque Country (Spain), China (HeiheBasin), Danube River Basin (Albania, Austria, Bosnia-Herzogovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic,Germany, Hungary, the Former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia andMontenegro, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Switzerland,Ukraine), Ethiopia, France, Japan, Kenya, Lake Peipsi(Estonia, Russian Federation), Lake Titicaca (Bolivia, Peru),Mali, the State of Mexico, Mongolia (Tuul Basin), La PlataBasin (Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay), SouthAfrica, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Uganda.

CHAPTER 15: Conclusions and Recommendationsfor ActionDrawing on the essential points and key messagespresented throughout the Report, this chapter weavestogether a set of conclusions and recommendations toguide future action and enhance the sustainable use,productivity and management of the world's increasinglyscarce freshwater resources.

CD-ROM – The accompanying interactive, searchable and hyperlinked CD-ROM includes all of the WWDR2 data tables, graphs, charts and

maps, as well as detailed sections on indicator and case study developments, among other valuable materials, all of which are available as

of 22 March 2006 (World Water Day) at www.unesco.org/water/wwap

WATER, A SHARED RESPONSIBILITY

Foreword: Kofi Annan, UN Secretary GeneralPrologue: Koïchiro Matsuura, UNESCO Director GeneralPreface: Gordon Young, WWAP Coordinator

SECTION 1: CHANGING CONTEXTS

CHAPTER 1: Living in a Changing World

Emphasizing the central role of water use and allocation inpoverty alleviation and socio-economic development, thischapter discusses some of the many ways in whichdemographic and technological change, globalization andtrade, climate variability, HIV/AIDS, warfare, etc., affect andare impacted by water. Key concepts of water management,sustainability and equity are introduced, as is the pivotal role ofthe many activities of the UN system in the water sector.

CHAPTER 2: The Challenges of Governance UNDP, with IFAD

Recognizing that the water crisis is largely a crisis ofgovernance, this chapter outlines many of the leadingobstacles to sound and sustainable water management:sector fragmentation, poverty, corruption, stagnatedbudgets, declining levels of development assistance andinvestment in the water sector, inadequate institutions andlimited stakeholder participation. While the progresstowards reforming water governance remains slow, thischapter provides recommendations for balancing the social,economic, political and environmental dimensions of water.

CHAPTER 3: Water and Human Settlements in anUrbanizing World – UN-HABITAT

Increasing population growth is creating major problemsworldwide. Growing urban water supply and sanitation needs,particularly in lower- and middle-income countries, faceincreasing competition with other sectors. Rising incomesin other portions of the world population fuel demand formanufactured goods and environmental services andamenities, all of which require water. This chapter emphasizesthe scale of the growing urban water challenges, pointing outthat nearly one-third of urban dwellers worldwide live in slums.

SECTION 2: CHANGING NATURAL SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 4: The State of the ResourceUNESCO & WMO, with IAEA

This chapter reviews the main components of the water cycleand provides an overview of the geographical distribution ofthe world’s total water resources, their variability, the impactsof climate change and the challenges associated with assessingthe resource.

CHAPTER 5: Coastal and Freshwater Ecosystems – UNEP

Natural ecosystems, rich in biodiversity, play a critical rolein the water cycle and must be preserved. In many areas, avariety of pressures on freshwater ecosystems are leadingto their rapid deterioration, affecting livelihoods, humanwell-being and development. To reverse this trend,protecting ecosystems and biodiversity must become afundamental component of Integrated Water ResourcesManagement (IWRM).



March 2006, ca 600 pages, ills., bibliog, index

Paperback (incl. CD-ROM) ISBN 92-3-104006-5 €56.00, CD-ROM (only) ISBN 92-3-104007-3 €36.00

A joint undertaking of the 24 UN agencies comprising UN-Water, and in partnership with governmentsand other entities concerned with freshwater issues, this volume, covering all regions and most countries ofthe world, provides an up-to-date global overview of the state and uses of freshwater, critical water-related

problems and societies’ coping mechanisms. Drawing on an extensive database, expert analysis, case studies, andhundreds of graphic elements, it is the most comprehensive undertaking to date of freshwater assessment, provid-

ing a mechanism for monitoring changes in the resource and its management and progress towards achieving devel-opment targets, particularly the Millennium Development Goals.

Building on the conclusions of the first World Water Development Report, Water for People, Water for Life (2003), the2006 Report confirms the ongoing, serious and growing water crisis – to a large extent a crisis of governance – andpoints to a prevalent lack of capacity and knowledge base as today’s primary obstacles to achieving the necessary

levels of water governance. This volume proposes a more integrated vision of water resources management torespond to changing environmental and socio-economic conditions.

The accompanying interactive, searchable and hyperlinked CD-ROM includes all of the WWDR2 data tables,graphs, charts and maps, as well as detailed sections on indicator and case study developments, among

other valuable materials, all of which are available on the WWAP website as of 22 March 2006 atwww.unesco.org/water/wwap.

WWDR2 is aimed at a wide audience, including all those interested or directly involved inthe formulation and implementation of water-related policies, as well as managers,

researchers, teachers, students and, of course, water users themselves.

UN HABITAT

UNITED NATIONS

WMO

WHO

WORLD BANK

IAEA

Including UNDESA, UNECE, UNESCAP, UNECA, UNECLAC, UNESCWA

BERGHAHN BOOKS


water executive summary - unescounesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001444/144409e.pdf · water a shared...

Documents